Wind Tunnel Techniques 3003

Presentation Outline
➢ Objective and Outcome
➢ Syllabus, text books, references, examination details etc.
➢ Introduction
➢ Principles of Model testing: Buckingham P theorem
➢ Application of Buckingham P theorem to drag of a sphere
➢ Buckingham theorem: Direct Rationalization of dimensionless groups
➢ Application of Buckingham P theorem to power required to rotate a propeller
➢ Types of forces encountered in fluid phenomenon
➢ Non-dimensional numbers based on the fluid flow forces and their
significance
➢ Dimensional analysis, similarity and model testing

1
 Wind Tunnel Techniques 3003
Wind tunnel techniques course depicts the types, working and characteristics of wind tunnels in
the laboratory. The flow characteristics and flow visualization in the tunnel are recorded for
further observations.
Objectives
The course should enable the students to:
1) Understand the non-dimensional number by Buckingham theorem
2) Differentiate the wind tunnels on the basis of circuit, air flow and working..
3) Know the calibration of a wind tunnel.
4) Understand the pressure and force measurements in wind tunnel
5) Deduce the flow visualization techniques used in the wind tunnel testing
Outcome
The students should be able to:
1) Solve the Buckingham theorem to find the SI unit of a parameter
2) Clearly understand the working of blow down, in draft tunnels and their specifications
3) Know about horizontal buoyancy, flow angularities are checked while calibration
4) Know about component axis balance and internal balances are read and understood for the
measurements in wind tunnel
5) Get a clear idea about the smoke and tuft flow visualization procedures in WT testing
2
 Syllabus
Unit Topic No. of
Lectures
I Principles of Model Testing 6
Buckingham theorem, Non-dimensional numbers, Scale effects, Types of
similarities
II Wind Tunnels 10
Classification, Special problems of testing in subsonic, transonic, supersonic
and hypersonic speed regions, Layouts, Sizing and design considerations
III Calibration of Wind Tunnels 6
Test section speed, Horizontal buoyancy, Flow angularities, Turbulence
measurements, Associated instrumentation, Calibration of supersonic tunnels
IV Wind Tunnel Measurements 14
Pressure and velocity measurements, Force measurements, Three and six
component balances, Internal balances

3
 Syllabus
Unit Topic No. of
Lectures
V Flow Visualization Techniques 9
Surface and tuft flow visualization techniques, Dye injection techniques,
Optical methods of flow visualization
Text Books
1 E. Rathakrishnan, “Instrumentation, Measurements, and Experiments in Fluids”, 2nd Edition, CRC Press,
2016 (1st Edition is available from Amazon at Rs. 700/-).
2 Barlow, Jewel B. Rae, William H. and Pope, Alan “Low speed wind tunnel testing”, III Ed.,
ISBN 13: 9780471557746, ISBN 10: 0471557749, 1999 (Wiley India Edition, 2010, About Rs. 1,000).
Instructor: Dr. N. Sitaram E_mail: [email protected]
Test First Unit Test Second Unit Test Third Unit Test Assignment Attendance
Weightage 20% 20% 30% 20% 10%
Duration 2 periods 2 periods 3 periods 5 sets of -
Unit 1 & Half Half of Unit 2 & assignments
Syllabus of Unit 2 Unit 3 Units 4 and 5 -
based on each
Date (Tent.) Feb. 12 March 11 April 10 unit (5x4=20) -
4
 References
(The following references are provided for your future reference only)
1. Stefano Discetti and Andrea Ianiro (Eds.), “Experimental Aerodynamics”, CRC Press, ISBN: 978-1-4987-0401-4, 2017. Excellent
book, covers recent advances in wind tunnel techniques.
2. Alan Pope and Kenneth L. Goin, “High-Speed Wind Tunnel Testing”, 1st Edition, Wiley, 1965. (Reprint edition: Robert E. Krieger
Publishing Company, Malabar, Florida, 1978). Very comprehensive book on high speed wind tunnel testing. This book is out of
print. Although it is available at IIT Madras Library, I could not locate it. A pdf copy of poor quality is available in SCRID. Some of
the material is available in Rathakrishnan.
3. B. Goethert, “Transonic Wind Tunnel Testing”, Pergamon Press, 1961. Dover reprint 2007, ISBN 978-0486458816. Classic book.
Available with Amazon at about Rs. 1280/-.
4. Giuseppe P. Russo, “Aerodynamic measurements: From physical principles to turnkey instrumentation”, Woodhead Publishing,
ISBN: 978–1–84569–992–5, 2011. As the title suggests, the book presents comprehensively all types of aerodynamics
measurements including balances (limited).
5. Stavros Tavoularis, “Measurement in Fluid Mechanics”, Cambridge University Press, ISBN-13: 978-0521138390, 2005. Excellent
book on all types of fluid flow measurements.
6. R. J. Goldstein (Ed.), “Fluid Mechanics Measurements”, 2nd ed., Taylor & Francis, 1996. Excellent book on all types of fluid flow
measurements.
7. Lot of information is available on internet, NASA web site, Manufacturers web site and other resources). Some of the information
is given below:
8. http://atfi.dlis.du.ac.in/search_src.php?org=IISc (for details of wind tunnels). You may also visit Websites of Aerospace
Engineering Departments of IITs, NITs, BIT Ranchi etc. for details of their wind tunnels.
9. Massachusetts Institute of Technology Wright Brothers Wind Tunnel: Information for Use by Industry, 4th Edition, 2002.
10.TAMU Nicks Wind Tunnel Handbook (http://lswt.tamu.edu/)
11.http://www.nal.res.in/pdf/Facilities%20a5-finalo.pdf (for details of NAL Wind Tunnels)
12.Lockheed Martin Corporation, “High speed wind tunnel and test systems design handbook”, Publication No. AER-EIR-13552-E, 2002.
13.https://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/pdf-files/Western_Hemisphere_Wind_Tunnels.pdf
14.Louis Cattafesta, Chris Bahr, and Jose Mathew, “Fundamentals of Wind-Tunnel Design”, in Encyclopedia of Aerospace
Engineering, Edited by Richard Blockley and Wei Shyy, 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN: 978-0-470-68665-2.

5
 References
(The following references are provided for your future reference only)
See also other chapters in this Encyclopedia:
i. The Role of Wind Tunnel Experiments in CFD Validation
ii. Flow Visualization by Direct Injection Technique
iii.Optical Flow Visualization
iv.Measurement of Aerodynamic Forces and Moments in Wind Tunnels
15.NPTEL Course: http://nptel.ac.in/courses/101103004/: Principles of Fluid Dynamics by Drs. V. Kulkarni and N. Sahoo, See Units
on Dimensional Analysis, Measurements in Fluid Mechanics and Aerodynamic Test Facilities.
16.NPTEL Course: http://nptel.ac.in/syllabus/101106040/: Experimental Gas/Aerodynamics by Dr. Job Kurian.
17.Visit NASA Web site: https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/shortt.html. This site presents directory of other sites, which
present details on wind tunnels, measurement techniques, flow visualization techniques, force balances etc.
18.Also visit NASA Technical Report Server. You can download NASA technical documents of all types. You would be interested in
NASA Wind Tunnels and Tests carried out in these wind tunnels.
19.Mehta R.D. and Bradshaw P., Design rules for small low speed wind tunnels, The Aeronautical Journal of the Royal Aeronautical
Society, 1979, 443-449.
20.R. D. Mehta, “The aerodynamic design of blower tunnels with wide-angle diffusers”, Prog. Aerospace Sci., Vol. 18, pp. 59–120, 1977.
21.P. Bradshaw and R. C. Pankhurst, “The design of low-speed wind tunnels”, Prog. Aerospace Sci., Vol. 5, pp. 1-69, 1977.
22.Guru Johl, “The design and performance of a 1.9 m x 1.3 m indraft wind tunnel”, Ph. D. Thesis, Loughborough University, 2004,
https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/2134/7194.
23.Bj¨orn Lindgren and Arne V. Johansson, “Evaluation of the Flow Quality in the MTL Wind-Tunnel”, Universitetsservice US AB,
Stockholm, 2002.
24.Mahesh K. Panda and Amiya K. Samanta, “Design of Low Cost Open Circuit Wind Tunnel – A Case Study”, Indian Journal of
Science and Technology, Vol. 9 (30), pp. 1-7, DOI:10.17485/ ijst/2016/v9i30/99195, August 2016. ISSN (Print): 0974-6846 ISSN
(Online): 0974-5645.
25.R. Ramkissoon and K. Manohar, “Design and Calibration of a Low Speed Wind Tunnel”, British Journal of Applied Science &
Technology, 4(20): 2878-2890, 2014.
26.J. E. Sargison, G. J. Walker and R. Rossi, “Design and calibration of a wind tunnel with a two dimensional contraction”, 15th
Australasian Fluid Mechanics Conference, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia, 13-17 December 2004.

6
 Unit I: Principles of Model Testing: 6
Presentation Outline
➢ Introduction
➢ Principles of Model testing: Buckingham P theorem
➢ Application of Buckingham P theorem to drag of a sphere
➢ Buckingham theorem: Direct Rationalization of dimensionless groups
➢ Application of Buckingham P theorem to power required to rotate
a propeller
➢ Types of forces encountered in fluid phenomenon
➢ Non-dimensional numbers based on the fluid flow forces and their
significance
➢ Dimensional analysis, similarity and model testing

7
 Principles of Model Testing
Introduction: CFD vs. EFD
Computational Fluid Dynamics Experimental Fluid Dynamics
Requirements High end computer, software, printers, Experimental facility (Wind tunnel),
plotters etc. Instrumentation etc.
Manpower One or two for small CFD work, Usually requires moderate number of
A small team for large CFD work, each people for small EFD for preparing and
member specializing in grid developing, installation of model, for measurements etc.
solver, post processing etc. Requires large number of people with
different skills for large experiments.
Initial Cost Moderate High
Time required Moderate for computation, but large for Large for preparation, small for data
post processing acquisition and post processing
Information Hugh Limited
acquired
CFD and EFD are complimentary. Both require careful working. Needs verification and
validation, Extensive CFD can be carried out followed by limited comparison with EFD

8
 Principles of Model Testing: Why Model Testing?
Boeing 787 Dreamliner Specifications
Boeing 787 9
Dimensions
Fuselage
Fuselage Length 62.8 Meters (206 Feet)
Fuselage height 5.97 Meters (19 Feet 7 Inches)
Fuselage width 5.77 Meters (18 Feet, 11 Inches)
Maximum cabin width 5.49 Meters (18 Feet)
Wing
Wing span 60.1 Meters (197 Feet, 3 Inches)
Mean chord ≈6m
Wing area 325 Square Meters (3,501 Square Feet)
Wing sweep back 32.2 Degrees
Weights
Maximum takeoff weight 251,000 kg (553,000 lb)
Maximum landing weight 193,000 kg (425,000 lb)
Maximum zero weight 181,000 kg (400,000 lb)
Operating empty weight 118,000 kg (259,500 lb)
Cruise conditions 35,000 Feet (10,700 Meters) r=0.41 kgm/m3 V=250 m/s (M=0.85) Cm =6 m Re No.=4.1x107
9
 Principles of Model Testing: Why Model Testing?
MAVs, UAVs and Micro gas turbines
Typical Dimensions
Wing span~15 cm; Wing chord~1 cm; Weight~10 g; Power~10 W
Testing of full scale is very difficult. Difficult to get accurate measurements.
Hence the model has to be increased scale of the prototype (5 to 10 times)
On the other hand full scale testing of large scale aircraft is not
possible. The model tested is to be scaled down (1/10 to 1/100).
However in both cases, geometric similarity, kinematic similarity and dynamic
similarity are to be satisfied to translate the model test results to prototype.

A simulation screenshot of a
"bumblebee-sized" MAV proposed
by the U.S. Air Force in 008 [1]

A H2 demo engine with conduction-cooled turbine constructed from six silicon wafers

10
 Principles of Model Testing
Buckingham theorem
“Dimension” is characteristic of the object, condition, or event and is described
quantitatively in terms of defined “units”.
A physical quantity is equal to the product of two elements:
A quality or dimension
A quantity expressed in terms of “units”
Dimensions
Physical things are measurable in terms of three primitive qualities (Maxwell 1871)
Mass (M) Length (L) Time (T)

Note: Temperature, electrical charge, chemical quantity, and luminosity were

added as “primitives” some years later.)

11
 Principles of Model Testing
Buckingham theorem
Examples
Length (L)
Velocity (L/T)
Force (ML/T2)
Units:
Measurements systems: CGS, MKS, SI
SI units are now the international standard (although many engineers continue
to use Imperial or U.S.)

12
 Principles of Model Testing
Buckingham theorem
SI Primitive Units SI Derived Units
Dimension Symbol Unit Symbol Description Derived Symbol Dimensions
Length L meter m unit
Mass M kilogram kg Force Newton N kg m/s2
Time T second s Energy Joule J kg m2/s2
Temperature T Kelvin K Pressure Pascal Pa kg/(ms2)
Electric I Ampere A
Current Power Watt W kg m2/s3
Luminous C Candela cd
intensity
Amount of N Mole mol
substance

13
 Principles of Model Testing
Buckingham theorem
Fundamental rules:
All terms in an equation must reduce to identical primitive dimensions
Dimensions can be algebraically manipulated.

Uses:
Check consistency of equations
Deduce expression for physical phenomenon

14
 Principles of Model Testing
Buckingham theorem
Simple Example: Drag on a Sphere
✓ Drag depends on FOUR parameters:
sphere size (D); velocity (V); fluid density ( r); fluid viscosity (m)
✓ Difficult to know how to set up experiments to determine dependencies
✓ Difficult to know how to present results (four graphs?)

✓ Only one dependent and one independent variable

✓ Easy to set up experiments to determine dependency
✓ Easy to present results (one graph)

15
 Principles of Model Testing
Buckingham theorem
Simple Example: Drag on a Sphere

Experimentally derived relation between the dependent and independent variables

16
 Principles of Model Testing
Buckingham theorem
Step 1:
List all the parameters involved
Let n be the number of parameters
Example: For drag on a sphere, F, V, D, r, m Hence n=5
Step 2:
Select a set of primary dimensions
For example M (kg), L (m), T (s).
Example: For drag on a sphere, choose MLT
Step 3
List the dimensions of all parameters
Let r be the number of primary dimensions
Example: For drag on a sphere r=3
Parameter: F
2
V D r3 m
Unit: ML/T L/T L M/L M/LT
17
 Principles of Model Testing
Buckingham theorem
Step 4
Select a set of m dimensional parameters that includes all the primary dimensions
Example: For drag on a sphere (m=r=3) select ϱ, V, D
Π1 = Fϱa Vb Dc
Step 5
Set up dimensionless groups Ps
There will be (n–m)=2 equations
Example: For drag on a sphere
Exponents to be determined to satisfy dimensional homogeneity
Equating exponents of M, L and T on left and right sides
For M: 0=1+a Hence a=-1
For T: 0=-2-b Hence b=-2
For L: 0=1-3a+b+c 0=1+3-2+c Hence c=-2
Hence the first dimensionless number can be written as
18
 Principles of Model Testing
Buckingham theorem
Step 6
Check to see that each group obtained is dimensionless
Example: For drag on a sphere

19
 Principles of Model Testing
Buckingham theorem
Direct Rationalization of Dimensionless Groups
Obtain the Π terms by simple reasoning:
1 Determine their number from Buckingham theorem.
Make sure the appropriate number of groups is obtained.
2 Identify variables (r, m, g etc.) that contain force quantities and formulate
the corresponding force.
For example, Fr=rV L and Fm=mVL. Then take ratios of these forces
2 2

(Fr/Fm=rVL/m) to get dimensionless groups.

3 If the force groups do not comprise the number of dimensionless groups
sought, then look for length type terms, velocity type terms, and/ or time
type variables which can be divided to give dimensionless groups.

20
 Principles of Model Testing
Elaborate Example: Power required to rotate a propeller
The power, P required to rotate a propeller depends on the fluid density, r,
the propeller diameter, D, the rotational speed, w, the velocity, V, of the
fluid approaching the propeller, the speed of the sound, C, and the angle,
a, of a propeller blade.
P = f (r, D, w, V, C, a)
Seven variables (n=7) give four dimensionless groups (m=n-r=4).
Two force like terms yield one dimensionless group.
The dynamic pressure, can be used to non-dimensionalized forces.

As power is F V,

21
 Principles of Model Testing
Elaborate Example: Power required to rotate a propeller
For a rotating propeller, L=D and V=wD to obtain

There are three velocity variables: w, V and C, which give two dimensionless numbers.

Need one more dimensionless group, but have not yet considered the angle, a.
An angle can be defined in terms of its tangent which is the ratio of two lengths
and is dimensionless: P 4=a: That is a is a P term.
P V V
Cp = 1 =f , ,α or Π1 = 𝑓 Π2 , Π3 , Π4
ρω3 D5 ωD C
2

22
 Principles of Model Testing
Buckingham theorem
Direct Rationalization of Dimensionless Groups
➢ There may be more than one length in the problem, i. e. L and D which give
the dimensionless group, L/D.
➢ Length type variables can also include area and volume, so that A/L2 and
V/L3 are dimensionless groups.
➢ Velocity type terms include velocity, V, angular velocity, w, and volume flow
rate, Q, which yield dimensionless groups, wr/V and Q/VL2.
➢ Time type terms consist of period, t, of the motion and convective time scale,
L/V, which give the dimensionless group, tV/L

23
 Principles of Model Testing
Types of forces encountered in fluid phenomenon
Inertia Force, Fi: mass X acceleration in the flowing fluid.
Viscous Force, Fv: shear stress due to viscosity X surface area of flow.
Gravity Force, Fg: mass X acceleration due to gravity.
Pressure Force, Fp: pressure intensity X C.S. area of flowing fluid.

24
 Principles of Model Testing
Significant Dimensionless Groups in Fluid Mechanics
These are numbers which are obtained by dividing the inertia force by viscous
force or gravity force or pressure force or surface tension force or elastic force.
As this is ratio of once force to other, it will be a dimensionless number. These
are also called nondimensional parameters.
The following are most important dimensionless numbers.
Reynolds Number
Froude Number
Euler Number
Mach Number
These numbers are named after Fluid Mechanics Scientists who had
established their significance.

25
 Principles of Model Testing
Significant Dimensionless Groups in Fluid Mechanics
Reynolds Number, Re:It is the ratio of inertia force to the viscous force of flowing fluid.

Euler Number, Eu: It is the ratio of inertia force to the pressure force of flowing fluid.

26
 Principles of Model Testing
Significant Dimensionless Groups in Fluid Mechanics
Froude Number, Fr:It is the ratio of inertia force to the gravity force of flowing fluid.

Mach Number, M: It is the ratio of inertia force to the elastic force of flowing fluid.

27
 Principles of Model Testing
Dimensionless numbers for force quantities
Force intensities, pressure and shear stresses, are non-
dimensionalized with the dynamic pressure
p−𝑝∞
Pressure coefficient: Cp = 1
ρ∞ V2∞
2
𝜏𝑤
Local shear stress coefficient: Cf = 1 = Skin friction coefficient
ρ∞ V2∞
2
Resultant forces, such as lift and drag, are non-dimensionalized with the
1 2
dynamic pressure force, ρ∞V∞ A, where A is some characteristic area.
2
FL FD
Lift coefficient,CL = 1 and Drag coefficient, CD = 1
ρ∞ V2∞ A ρ∞ V2∞ A
2 2

28
 Principles of Model Testing
Dimensionless numbers for force quantities
Torque, T, is force F times a moment arm, L, which is non
dimensionalized by multiplying the dynamic pressure force by L to
give torque coefficient.

Torque coefficient:

Power is the rate of doing work, FL/T or FV, which requires the
dynamic pressure force be multiplied by V to give power coefficient.

Power coefficient:

29
 Principles of Model Testing
Dimensional Analysis
Definition: Dimensional analysis is a process of formulating fluid mechanics
problems in terms of non-dimensional variables and parameters.
Why is it used :
• Reduction in variables [If F(A1, A2, … , An) = 0, then f(P1, P2, … Pr < n)=0,
where, F = functional form, Ai = dimensional variables, Pj = non-
dimensional parameters, m = number of important dimensions, n
=number of dimensional variables, (r=n–m).
• Thereby the number of experiments required to determine f vs. F is reduced.
• Helps in understanding physics
• Useful in data analysis and modeling
• Enables scaling of different physical dimensions and fluid properties
30
 Principles of Model Testing
Dimensional Analysis: Example

Drag = f (V, L, r, m, C, t, e, T, etc.)

From dimensional analysis,

Vortex shedding behind cylinder

31
 Principles of Model Testing
Similarity and Model Testing
Definition: Flow conditions for
a model test are completely
similar if all relevant dimensionless
parameters have the same
corresponding values for model
and prototype.
• P i model = P i prototype for i=1 to n
• Enables extrapolation from
model to full scale
• However, complete similarity
usually not possible.
•Therefore, often it is necessary to use Re, or Fr, or Ma scaling, i.e., select
most important parameter and accommodate others as best possible.
32
 Principles of Model Testing
Dimensional Analysis and Similarity
Geometric Similarity: The model must be the same shape as the prototype.
Each dimension must be scaled by the same factor.
Kinematic Similarity: Velocity as any point in the model must be proportional
Dynamic Similarity: All forces in the model flow scale by a constant factor to
corresponding forces in the prototype flow.
Complete Similarity: is achieved only if all above three conditions are met.
Complete similarity is ensured if all independent P groups are the same
between model and prototype. Consider automobile experiment

What is P? Drag force is F= f (V, r, m, L)

We let uppercase Greek letter P Through dimensional
denote a nondimensional parameter, analysis, we can reduce the
e.g., Reynolds number Re, Froude problem to
number Fr, Drag coefficient, CD, etc. P1=f (P 1) CD=f (Re)

33
 Principles of Model Testing
Similitude-Type of Similarities
Geometric Similarity: is the similarity of shape.

Lp Bp Dp
= = = Lr
Lm Bm Dm

◼ Where: Lp, Bp and Dp are Length, Breadth, and Diameter of Prototype and L m,
Bm, Dm are Length, Breadth, and Diameter of Model.
◼ Lr= Scale ratio

34
 Principles of Model Testing
Similitude-Type of Similarities
Kinematic Similarity: is the similarity of motion.
V p1 Vp 2 a p1 ap2
= = Vr ; = = ar
Vm1 Vm 2 am1 am 2
◼ Where: vp1 & vp2 and ap1 & ap2 are velocity and accelerations at point 1 & 2 in
prototype and vm1 & vm2 and am1 & am2 are velocity and accelerations at point
1 & 2 in model.
◼ Vr and ar are the velocity ratio and acceleration ratio

35
 Principles of Model Testing
Similitude:Type of Similarities
Dynamic Similarity: is the similarity of forces.
( Fi ) p ( Fv ) p ( Fg ) p
= = = Fr
( Fi )m ( Fv )m ( Fg )m
◼ Where: (Fi)p, (Fv)p and (Fg)p are Inertia, Viscous and Gravitational Forces in
Prototype and (Fi)m, (Fv)m And (Fg) m are Inertia, Viscous and Gravitational
Forces in Model.
◼ Fr is The Force Ratio

36
 Principles of Model Testing
Flow Similarity and Model Studies
Example: Drag on a Sphere
F=f (D, V, r, m) or F/rV2D2=f (rDV/m)

For dynamic similarity …

Then

37
 Principles of Model Testing
Scaling with Multiple Dependent Parameters
Example: Centrifugal Pump

Pump head: h=g1(Q, r, w, D, m)

Pump power: P=g2(Q, r, w, D, m)

38
 Principles of Model Testing
Scaling with Multiple Dependent Parameters
Example: Centrifugal Pump

Head coefficient:

Power coefficient: 𝛾 = 𝑓(𝜙, 𝑅𝑒)

39
 Principles of Model Testing
Scaling with Multiple Dependent Parameters
Example: Centrifugal Pump (Negligible viscous effects)

If then neglecting Reynolds number (viscous effects)

then and

40