1.

Introduction

The subject of fluid mechanics is filled with abstract concepts, mathematical methods, and results.
Historically, it has been a challenging subject for students, undergraduate and graduate. In most
institutions, the introductory course in fluid mechanics is accompanied by a laboratory course. While
institutional philosophy and orientation vary around the world, the goal of that laboratory is to
strengthen students’ understanding of fluid mechanics using a variety of laboratory exercises (Feisel &
Rosa, 2005). The literature has identified six basic functions of experimental work. Indeed, the report of
the Laboratory Development Committee of the Commission on Engineering Education identified six key
functions and objectives of the instructional laboratory (Ernest, 1983): a. Familiarization b. Model
identification c. Validation of assumptions d. Prediction of the performance of complex systems e.
Testing for compliance with specifications f. And exploration for new fundamental information. The
report states that “The role of the undergraduate instructional laboratory is to teach student engineers
to perform these six functions. Hence the primary goal of undergraduate laboratories is to inculcate into
the student the theory and practice of experimentation. This includes instrumentation and
measurement theory.” (Ernst, 1983). The wind tunnel is one such instrument. This chapter focuses on
the measurement theory on which the wind tunnel is based and presents examples of its use in the
undergraduate fluid mechanics laboratory at Indiana University-Purdue University Fort Wayne, Fort
Wayne, Indiana, USA. The remainder of the chapter is organized in the following manner: 1. Basic
concepts discuss definitions, classifications, and various uses of wind tunnels. 2. Fundamental Equations
present the equations that are used as foundations for the theory and application of wind tunnels. 3.
Applications of wind tunnels in teaching fluid mechanics present nine different examples that are used
in our laboratory to teach various aspects of fluid mechanics and its uses in design, testing, model
verification, and research. 4. References list all cited works in alphabetical order.

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2. Basic concepts

2.1 Definition of a wind tunnel A wind tunnel is a specially designed and protected space into which air is
drawn, or blown, by mechanical means in order to achieve a specified speed and predetermined flow
pattern at a given instant. The flow so achieved can be observed from outside the wind tunnel through
transparent windows that enclose the test section and flow characteristics are measurable using
specialized instruments. An object, such as a model, or some full-scale engineering structure, typically a
vehicle, or part of it, can be immersed into the established flow, thereby disturbing it. The objectives of
the immersion include being able to simulate, visualize, observe, and/or measure how the flow around
the immersed object affects the immersed object.

2.2 Classifications of wind tunnels Wind tunnels can be classified using four different criteria. Four such
criteria are presented.

2.2.1 Type 1 classification – The criterion for classification is the path followed by the drawn air: Open-
vs. closed-circuit wind tunnels Open-circuit (open-return) wind tunnel. If the air is drawn directly from
the surroundings into the wind tunnel and rejected back into the surroundings, the wind tunnel is said
to have an open-air circuit. A diagram of such a wind tunnel is shown in Figure 1.
Fig. 1. Diagram of an open-circuit, also known as open-return, wind tunnel (from NASA)

An open-circuit wind tunnel is also called an open-return wind tunnel. Closed-circuit, or closed-return,
wind tunnel. If the same air is being circulated in such a way that the wind tunnel does neither draw
new air from the surrounding, nor return it into

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Wind Tunnels in Engineering Education 237

the surroundings, the wind tunnel is said to have a closed-air circuit. It is conventional to call that a
closed-circuit (closed-return ) wind tunnel. Figure 2 illustrates this configuration.

Fig. 2. Top view of a closed-circuit, also known as closed-return, wind tunnel ( NASA)

2.2.2 Type 2 classification The criterion for classification is the maximum speed achieved by the wind
tunnel: subsonic vs. supersonic wind tunnels. It is traditional to use the ratio of the speed of the fluid, or
of any other object, and the speed of sound. That ratio is called the Mach number, named after Ernst
Mach, the 19th century physicist. The classification is summarized in Table 1. Schematic designs of
subsonic and supersonic wind tunnels are compared in Figure 3. Subsonic wind tunnels. If the maximum
speed achieved by the wind tunnel is less than the speed of sound in air, it is called a subsonic wind
tunnel. The speed of sound in air at room temperature is approximately 343 m/s, or 1235 km/hr, or 767
mile/hr. The Mach number, M <1. Supersonic wind tunnels. If the maximum speed achieved by the wind
tunnel is equal to or greater than the speed of sound in air, it is called a supersonic wind tunnel.

Range of the Mach number , M Name of flow , or conditions M<1 Subsonic M=1, or near 1 Transonic
1<M<3 Supersonic 3<M<5 High supersonic M>5 Hypersonic M>> 5 High Hypersonic

Table 1. Classification of flows based upon their Mach numbers.

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Wind Tunnels and Experimental Fluid Dynamics Research 238

Fig. 3. Schematic designs of subsonic and supersonic wind tunnels (NASA).

2.2.3 Type 3 classification The criterion for classification is the purpose for which the wind tunnel is
designed: research or education. If the wind tunnel is for research it is called a research wind tunnel. If
however, it is designed to be used for education, then, it is called an educational wind tunnel.

2.2.4 Type 4 classification The criterion for classification is the nature of the flow: laminar vs. turbulent
flow. Boundary- layer wind tunnels are used to simulate turbulent flow near and around engineering
and manmade structures.

2.3 Uses of wind tunnels There are many uses of wind tunnels. They vary from ordinary to special: these
include uses for Subsonic, supersonic and hypersonic studies of flight; for propulsion and icing research;
for the testing of models and full-scale structures, etc. Some common uses are presented below. Wind
tunnels are used for the following:
2.3.1 To determine aerodynamic loads Wind tunnels are used to determine aerodynamic loads on the
immersed structure. The loads could be static forces and moments or dynamic forces and moments.
Examples are

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Wind Tunnels in Engineering Education 239

forces and moments on airplane wings, airfoils, and tall buildings. A close-up view of a model of an F-5
fighter plane mounted in the test section of a wind tunnel is shown in Figure 4.

2.3.2 To study how to improve energy consumption by automobiles They can also be used on
automobiles to measure drag forces with a view to reducing the power required to move the vehicle on
roads and highways.

2.3.3 To study flow patterns To understand and visualize flow patterns near, and around, engineering
structures. For example, how the wind affects flow around tall structures such as sky scrapers, factory
chimneys, bridges, fences, groups of buildings, etc. How exhaust gases ejected by factories, laboratories,
and hospitals get dispersed in their environments.

2.3.4 Other uses include To teach applied fluid mechanics, demonstrate how mathematical models
compare to experimental results, demonstrate flow patterns, and learn and practice the use of
instruments in measuring flow characteristics such as velocity, pressures, and torques.

Fig. 4. Close-up of a tufted model of an F-5 fighter plane in the test section of a wind tunnel (NASA)

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3. Fundamental equation for flow measurement

Velocity from pressure measurements.

One very important use of wind tunnels is to visualize flow patterns and measure the pressure at a
selected point in the flow field and compute the corresponding speed of air. The major equation used
for this purpose is Eq.(1). It relates the speed of the fluid at a point to both the mass density of the fluid
and the pressures at the same point in the flow field. For steady flow of an incompressible fluid for
which viscosity can be neglected, the fundamental equation has the form

( ) 02 p p

r - = (1)

Where V is the speed of the fluid, P0 is the total, also called the stagnation, pressure at that point of
measurement, and p is the static pressure at the same point. This equation comes from the application
of Bernoulli’s equation for the steady flow of an incompressible and inviscid fluid along a streamline.
Bernoulli’s equation is typically obtained by integrating Euler’s equations along a streamline. It will be
recalled that Euler’s equations are a special case of the Navier -Stokes equations, when the viscosity of
the fluid has been neglected. The Navier-Stokes’ equations, in turn, are obtained from Newton’s second
law when it is applied to a fluid for which the shear deformation follows Newton’s law of viscosity.
Accordingly, in order to establish the theoretical validity of this equation for use in educational wind
tunnels, it is important to review some basic results from the theory of viscous and inviscid flows. For
the interested reader, these are available in all introductory textbooks of fluid mechanics (e,g. Pritchard,
2011). For this reason, the rest of this chapter will emphasize applications of the results of fluid
mechanics theory as they pertain to the use of wind tunnels for instructional purposes.

4. Applications of wind tunnels in teaching fluid mechanics

This section discusses nine different laboratory exercises in which the wind tunnel is used to measure
fluid flow parameters. They are: 1) measurement of air speed; 2) verification of the existence of the
boundary layer over a flat plate; 3) determination and characterization of the boundary layer over a flat
plate; 4) searching for evidence of turbulence in boundary layer flow; 5) measurement of pressure
distributions around a circular cylinder in cross flow; 6) determination of the viscous wake behind a
circular cylinder in cross flow; 7) determination of lift and drag forces around airfoils; 8) reduction of
drag by the introduction of turbulence in the boundary layer; and 9) determination of the Richardson’s
annular effect in flow through a duct.