� Machine Design 1 2nd Sem 2021-2022 BASAEN, RV �

𝑳𝑳
• Slenderness Ratio, 𝒆𝒆
7. COLUMNS 𝒌𝒌
This represents the ratio between the equivalent or
effective length of the column to the radius of gyration of
its cross-sectional area.
Column – a member under compression that has a
possibility to fail due to instability or “buckling” – For structural steels,
bending sideways when compressed axially. - the column is “long” if the slenderness ratio
exceeds about 120.
The longer and slenderer the column is, the lower the 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒
> 120
safe stress that it can withstand. 𝑘𝑘
- the column is “short” if the slenderness ratio is
The slenderness of a column is measured by its between 30 to 120, or
slenderness ratio, Le/k: 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒
30 < < 120
𝑘𝑘
where:
Le = effective length  Radius of Gyration, k:
k = least radius of gyration of its cross section. From Mechanics,
F 𝐼𝐼
𝐼𝐼 𝑘𝑘 = �
𝑘𝑘 = � 𝐴𝐴
𝐴𝐴
Le where
I = rectangular 𝐼𝐼 = rectangular moment of inertia of the
moment of inertia cross section of column, with respect to
F A = cross sectional its neutral axis
area 𝐴𝐴 = cross sectional area of the column

General Classifications of Column For a solid circular section of diameter D:

A. Long Column 𝜋𝜋 4 𝜋𝜋 𝑫𝑫
This is a column in which only the modulus of 𝐼𝐼 = 𝐷𝐷 : 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐷𝐷2 : 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢, 𝒌𝒌 =
64 4 𝟒𝟒
elasticity of the material becomes a significant
property in resisting the applied load. • Equivalent or Effective Length of Column, 𝑳𝑳𝒆𝒆 :
The equivalent length of columns is usually based on
The Euler formula predicts the failure of this the following models:
column. For structural steels, the slenderness ratio
of this column is: F F
𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒
> 120
𝑘𝑘 (a) (b)
L=Le L Le=0.707L
B. Short Column
This is a column in which both the modulus of
elasticity E and the yield strength of the material F F
determine the capacity of the column in handling a Rounded or pinned ends One end rounded, other end fixed
compressive load.
F F
The J.B.Johnson’s formula predicts the failure of
this column. For structural steels, the slenderness ratio
L
of this column is between: (c) L Le=0.5L (d)
Le= 2L
𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒 F
30 < < 120
𝑘𝑘 F
Note:
Fixed ends One end fixed, other end free
Members under compression with slenderness
ratio less than 30 are regarded as “short compression In general, the equivalent length can be expressed in
members” only. They have no possibility to fail by terms of a coefficient
buckling. 𝑳𝑳
𝑳𝑳𝒆𝒆 =
√𝒏𝒏
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where 3. Straight Line Formula

L = column’s actual length between supports - An alternative for the J.B Johnson’s formula
Le = equivalent length of column (also for short column)
n = end fixity coefficient 𝑳𝑳𝒆𝒆
𝑭𝑭𝒄𝒄 = 𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭 = 𝑺𝑺𝒚𝒚 𝑨𝑨 �𝟏𝟏 − 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 � ��
For hinged ends, n = 1 𝒌𝒌
For two ends fixed, n =4
For one end fixed, another end free, n = ¼ This is more conservative than the J.B.J equation
but simpler and more recommended to use in
Note: designing members, if more complex terms are
A column may be described to have an end fixity involved.
coefficient from 0.25 to 4.
As presented by DME Faires:
𝑭𝑭 𝑳𝑳𝒆𝒆
= 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 �𝟏𝟏 − 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 � ��
𝑨𝑨 𝒌𝒌
COLUMN FORMULAS (Structural steels: 30 < Le/k < 120)
1. Euler’s formula
- Applicable to Long columns only Note:
𝝅𝝅𝟐𝟐 𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 Above formula is also applicable to cast iron
𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭 = = 𝑭𝑭𝒄𝒄 columns, but change 16,000 psi to 9,000psi only, and
𝑳𝑳𝒆𝒆 𝟐𝟐
� � the slenderness ratio should be only 30 < Le/k < 70.
𝒌𝒌
( 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒/𝑘𝑘 > 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 120: structural steels )

where Example 1:
Fc = critical load of column; load at which The piston rod of an air-operated press is to exert a
buckling starts to occur maximum force of 20 kN. During the application of this
F = actual load of column force, the air pressure in the cylinder is maintained at 700
N = factor of safety (typically 2 to 3.5 for kPa. Assume the piston rod length to be 760 mm, with its
column design using structural steels) right-hand end pin connected to the operating lever and the
piston end of the rod fix ended. The piston rod is to be made
2. J. B. Johnson’s formula: of steel whose Sy = 250 MPa and E = 200 GPa. Determine
- Applicable to short columns the following:
𝑳𝑳 𝟐𝟐 a) Piston rod diameter d necessary if the factor of
𝑺𝑺𝒚𝒚 � 𝒌𝒌𝒆𝒆 � safety is N=2.5.
𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭 = 𝑺𝑺𝒚𝒚 𝑨𝑨 �𝟏𝟏 − � = 𝑭𝑭𝒄𝒄 b) Piston diameter Dp required if friction losses
𝟒𝟒𝝅𝝅𝟐𝟐 𝑬𝑬
account for 10 % of the operating force F.
c) The same as a), but use the straight-line formula,
𝑆𝑆𝑦𝑦 = yield strength of column material if applicable.
d) If the piston rod is to be made longer with a length
Transition Point Slenderness Ratio: of 1meter, what rod diameter is necessary?
e) The same as d), except that both ends of the rod
𝑳𝑳𝒆𝒆 𝟐𝟐𝝅𝝅𝟐𝟐 𝑬𝑬 are fixed.
� � =�
𝒌𝒌 𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 𝑺𝑺𝒚𝒚
• For structural steels, Solution:
E = 30x106 psi a) Piston rod diameter required; d = ?
Sy = 42,000 psi
𝐿𝐿
� 𝑒𝑒 � ≈ 120 760 mm
𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
Thus, if Le/k > 120, the column is fixed
long; and if 30<Le/k<120, the column d F = 20 kN
is short. Dp p

• For other materials with different E and Sy,

the transition point value should be computed pinned
before an appropriate column formula ca be p = 700 kPa
used. material being
Piston Rod:
pressed
Steel with
E = 200 GPa
Sy = 250 MPa
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Solution:
20m
50m
20m 50m

F F

𝑳𝑳 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝑳𝑳𝒆𝒆 𝑳𝑳𝒆𝒆 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓

F F
Case A Case B

Example 2:
An aluminum strut, 2 meters long has a rectangular
cross section 20mm x 50mm. A bolt attached through each
end secures the strut so that it acts as a hinged column about
an axis perpendicular to 20 mm dimension and as a column
with fixed ends about an axis perpendicular to the 50mm
dimension. Determine the safe central loading ‘F’ for a
factor of safety of 2.5. Use E = 70 GPa, and Sy = 40 ksi
for aluminum.

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 � Machine Design 1 2nd Sem 2021-2022 BASAEN, RV �

Example 3:
The given operating conditions for a steel column are
as follows: F = 10 kips, Sy = 50 ksi (structural steel), L=4
ft (hinged ends), d = 2in. (solid circular section).
(a) Determine the equivalent compressive stress (Se)
of this column using the appropriate column
formula.
(b) Determine the critical load of the column based
on JBJ equation and the SL Formula.

Solution:

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 � Machine Design 1 2nd Sem 2021-2022 BASAEN, RV �

OTHER COLUMN FORMULAS 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

= 0.25
𝑘𝑘 2
A. Secant Formula – used when an eccentricity “𝑒𝑒” Also, sometimes recommended by Textbooks for
exists in the column while applying the load. e is
𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒
𝑒𝑒 = , 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
400
F

B. Crooked Column Formula

This is a column formula used when an initial
crookedness “𝑎𝑎” exists before applying the central
loads.

crooked axis (exaggerated)

e F
Pa a P
a
F line of action of F F
axis of column e ideal axis of column
c

From MED by Mott:

Secant Formulas
𝑷𝑷𝒂𝒂 𝟐𝟐 + 𝑪𝑪𝟏𝟏 𝑷𝑷𝒂𝒂 + 𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐 = 𝟎𝟎
Reference: Machine Elements Design by Mott
where
• Maximum Stress of the Column, 𝑺𝑺𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 = safe axial compressive load of
column
𝑭𝑭 𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 𝑳𝑳𝒆𝒆 𝑭𝑭 𝑎𝑎 = initial crookedness
𝑺𝑺𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 = �𝟏𝟏 + 𝟐𝟐 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 � �
𝑨𝑨 𝒌𝒌 𝟐𝟐 𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬
𝐶𝐶1 , 𝐶𝐶2 = coefficients depending upon N,
Sy, E, etc.
• Maximum Deflection of the Column, 𝒚𝒚𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
Also,
𝑳𝑳𝒆𝒆 𝑭𝑭 𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂
𝒚𝒚𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 = 𝒆𝒆 �𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 � − 𝟏𝟏� 𝑪𝑪𝟏𝟏 = − �𝑺𝑺𝒚𝒚 𝑨𝑨 + �𝟏𝟏 + 𝟐𝟐 � 𝑷𝑷𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 �
𝟐𝟐 𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 𝑵𝑵 𝒌𝒌
𝑺𝑺𝒚𝒚 𝑨𝑨
𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐 = 𝟐𝟐 (𝑷𝑷𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 )
𝑵𝑵
Note:
The above 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 & 𝑦𝑦𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 occur at the where
𝐿𝐿
midspan of column, i.e at 2. 𝝅𝝅𝟐𝟐 𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬
𝑷𝑷𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 =
𝑳𝑳 𝟐𝟐
� 𝒆𝒆 �
• Required 𝑺𝑺𝒚𝒚 of the Column Material 𝒌𝒌
(critical load from the Euler equation)
𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭 𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 𝑳𝑳𝒆𝒆 𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭
𝑺𝑺𝒚𝒚 = �𝟏𝟏 + 𝟐𝟐 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 � � 𝒅𝒅
𝑨𝑨 𝒌𝒌 𝟐𝟐 𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 𝒄𝒄 =
𝟐𝟐
where (for solid circular cross- section)
N = factor of safety, typically from
2 to 3.5 ( for structural steels)
𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
= eccentricity ratio C. Rankine-Gordon Formula
𝑘𝑘 2
This formula is also applicable to short columns,
Note:
as described in handbooks. It can also be used in the
If “𝑒𝑒” is not clear from the loading analysis of columns with eccentricity ‘e’.
conditions, the following recommendations are
used for structural steel.. From the Machinery’s Handbook:
Eccentricity Ratio,
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𝑺𝑺𝒚𝒚 𝑨𝑨
𝑭𝑭𝒄𝒄 = 𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭 = : (For steel)
𝟏𝟏 𝑳𝑳 𝟐𝟐
�𝟏𝟏 + � 𝒆𝒆 � �
𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝒌𝒌

For other materials, change:

6250 by 1250 (for cast iron)
6250 by 8750 (for wrought iron)
6250 by 750 (for timber)

Note:
For Columns with eccentricity ‘e’, the
denominator is modified with the addition of the
eccentricity ratio ec/k2 . Thus, for an eccentric
steel column, use:

𝑺𝑺𝒚𝒚 𝑨𝑨
𝑭𝑭𝒄𝒄 = 𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭 =
𝟏𝟏 𝑳𝑳 𝟐𝟐 𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆
�𝟏𝟏 + � 𝒆𝒆 � + 𝟐𝟐 �
𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝒌𝒌 𝒌𝒌

Again, the constant 6250 should be corrected for

other materials as mentioned above.

Example 4:
A steel column is loaded with a compressive axial
load of 1075 lb. Other data for the column are:

e = 0.75”
d = 0.75” (solid circular section)
Sy = 42 ksi
E = 30 x 106 psi
L = 32 in. (with pinned ends)

Calculate the following:

(a) Maximum Stress, 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ;
(b) Maximum Deflection, 𝑦𝑦𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 , and
(c) Factor of Safety 𝑁𝑁.

Solution:
Example 5:
d The column in the previous Example 4 is loaded
F e F with no eccentricity, but the column has an initial
crookedness of a = 1/8”. Consider the same material and
equal dimensions and compute the maximum safe load of
the column for a factor of safety of N = 3.

Solution:

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Example 6:
Using the data in Example 4, compute the factor
of safety of the column if the Rankine Gordon formula is
used. Also change ‘L’ to 20” only. Consider the following
cases:
a) e = 0, N = ?
b) e =0.75”, N= ?

Solution:

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