Strength of Materials

5. Columns and struts

Introduction:
Column or strut is defined as a member of a structure, which is subjected to axial compressive
load. If the member of the structure is vertical and both of its ends are fixed rigidly while
subjected to axial compressive load, the member is known as column, for example a vertical
pillar between the roof and floor. If the member of the structure is not vertical and one or
both of its ends are hinged or pin joined, the bar is known as strut i.e. connecting rods, piston
rods etc. A strut may be horizontal, inclined or vertical.

Failure of a column:
The failure of a column takes place due to anyone of the following stresses set up in the
columns:

a) Direct compressive stresses.

b) Buckling stresses.

c) Combined of direct compressive and buckling stresses.

Failure of a Short Column: A short column of uniform cross-sectional area A, subjected to an

axial compressive load P, as shown in Fig. The compressive stress induced is given by; σ=P/A

If the compressive load on the short column is gradually increased, a stage will reach when
the column will be on the point of failure by crushing. The stress induced in the column
corresponding to this load is known as crushing stress and the load is called crushing load.

Let, Pc = Crushing load, σc= Crushing stress, and A = Area of cross-section σc=Pc/A

AII short columns fail due to crushing.

Failure of a Long Column: A long column of uniform cross-sectional area A and of length l,
subjected to an axial compressive load P, is shown in Fig. A column is known as long column,
if the length of the column in comparison to its lateral dimensions, is very large Such columns

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do not fail by crushing alone, but also by bending (also known buckling) as shown in figure.
The buckling load at which the column just buckles, is known as buckling or crippling load. The
buckling load is less than the crushing Ioad for a long column. Actually the value of buckling
load for long columns is low whereas for short columns the value of buckling load is relatively
high.

Let L = Length of a long column

P = Load (compressive) at which the column has just buckled

A = Cross-sectional area of the column

e = Maximum bending of the column at the centre

σo = Stress due to direct load = P/A

σb = Stress due to bending at the centre of the column = (P x e) /Z

Where, Z = Section modulus about the axis of bending.

The extreme stresses on the mid-section are given by:

Maximum stress = σo + σb and Minimum stress = σo – σb

The column will fail when maximum stress (i.e., σo + σb) is more than the crushing stress σc.
But in case of long columns, the direct compressive stresses are negligible as compared to
buckling stresses. Hence very long columns are subjected to buckling stresses only.

Assumptions made in the Euler’s Column theory: The following assumptions are made in
the Euler's column theory:

1. The column is initially perfectly straight and the load is applied axially.

2. The cross-section of the column is uniform throughout its length.

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3. The column material is perfectly elastic, homogeneous and isotropic and obeys Hooke's
law.

4. The length of the column is very large as compared to its lateral dimensions.

5. The direct stress is very small as compared to the bending stress.

6. The column will fail by buckling alone.

7. The self-weight of column is negligible.

End conditions for Long Columns:

In case of long columns, the stress due to direct load is very small in comparison with the
stress due to buckling. Hence the failure of long columns takes place entirely due to buckling
(or bending).

The following four types of end conditions of the columns are important:

1. Both the ends of the column are hinged (or pinned).

2. One end is fixed and the other end is free.

3. Both the ends of the column are fixed.

4. One end is fixed and the other is pinned.

Note: For a hinged end, the deflection is zero. For a fixed end the deflection and slope are
zero. For a free end the deflection is not zero.

Effective length (or equivalent length) of a column:

The effective length of a given column with given end conditions is the length of an equivalent
column of the same material and cross-section with hinged ends and having the value of the
crippling load equal to that of the given column. Effective length is also called equivalent
length.

Let Le = Effective length of a column

L = Actual length of the column and

E = Young’s modulus

I = moment of inertia of the column

PE = Crippling load for the column/ Euler’s failure load/ buckling load / critical load

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Then the crippling load for any type of end condition is given by

The crippling load (PE) in terms of actual length and effective length and also the relation
between effective length and actual length are given in Table below.

There are two values of moment of inertia i.e., Ixx and Iyy. The value of I (moment of inertia)
in the above expressions should be taken as the least value of the two moments of inertia as
the column will tend to bend in the direction of least moment of inertia.

Crippling stress in Terms of Effective Length and Radius of Gyration:

The moment of inertia (I) can be expressed in terms of radius of gyration (k) as,
I= A x k2
Where A = cross sectional area of the column
I
Or, k=√
A
As I = Imin, least value of moment of inertia, then least radius of gyration is
I
kmin = √ min
A
Now crippling load PE in terms of effective length is given by
2 EI 2 E A k2
PE = =
Le 2 Le 2
2 E A 2 E A
= Le 2
= L 2
( ke )
k2

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 Strength of Materials

The stress corresponding to crippling load is given by

crippling load PE 2 E A
Crippling stress =
Area
=
A
= = L 2
A( ke )
2 E
Crippling stress = L 2
( ke )
Slenderness Ratio ():

The ratio of the effective length of the column to the least radius of gyration of the column
is known as slenderness ratio.

Le
=
Kmin

Limitations of the Euler’s Formula:

If the slenderness ratio i.e. (l/k) is small the crippling stress (or the stress at failure) will be
high. But for the column material the crippling-stress cannot be greater than the crushing
stress. Hence when the slenderness ratio is less than a certain limit Euler's formula gives a
value of crippling stress greater than the crushing stress. In the limiting case we can find the
value of l/k, for which the crippling stress is equal to crushing stress.

For example, for a mild steel column with both ends hinged.

Crushing stress = 330 N/mm2

Young's modulus, E = 2.1 x 105 N/mm2

Equating the crippling stress to the crushing stress corresponding to the minimum value of
slenderness ratio, we get

Hence if the slenderness ratio is less than 80 for mild steel column with both ends hinged,
the Euler’s formula will not hold good.

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 Strength of Materials

P-1 A hollow mild steel tube 6 m long 4 cm internal diameter and 6 mm thick is used as a
strut with both ends hinged. Find the crippling load and safe load taking factor of safety as
3. Take E = 2 x 105 N / mm2.

P-2 A simply supported beam of length 4 m is subjected to a uniformly distributed load of 30

KN/m over the whole span and deflects 15 mm at the centre. Determine the crippling load
the beam is used as a column with the following conditions:
(i) One end fixed and another end hinged
(ii) Both the ends pin jointed.

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Rankine’s Formula:

We have learnt that Euler's formula gives correct results only for very long columns. But what
happens when the column is a short or the column is not very long. On the basis of results of
experiments performed by Rankine, he established an empirical formula which is applicable
to all columns whether they are short or long. The empirical formula given by Rankine is
known as Rankine’s formula, which is given as-

1 1 1
= + (Eqn. 1)
P Pc PE
PR=Crippling load by Rankine’s formula
PC= Crushing Load = c x A
c = Crushing stress
A = Area of cross-section
PE=Crippling load by Euler’s formula

For a given column material the crushing stress σc is a constant. Hence the crushing load Pc
(which is equal to σc x A) will also be constant for a given cross-sectional area of the column.

In equation (i), Pc is constant and hence value of PR depends upon the value of PE. But for a
given column material and given cross-sectional area, the value of PE depends upon the
effective length of the column.

(i) If the column is a short, which means the value of Le is small, then the value of PE
will be large. Hence the value of 1/PE will be small enough and is negligible as
compared to the value of 1/PC. Neglecting the value of 1/PE in equation (i), we get,
1 1
→ or PR → Pc
PR Pc

(ii) If the column is long, which means the value of Le is large. Then the value of PE will
be small and the value of 1/PE will be large enough compared with 1/PC. Hence the
value of 1/PC may be neglected in equation (i).
1 1
= or PR → PE
PR PE

(iii) Hence the crippling load by Rankine's formula for long columns is approximately
equal to crippling load given by Euler's formula.

1 1 1
Hence the Rakine’s formula = + gives satisfactory results for all lengths of
PR Pc PE
columns, ranging from short to long columns.

1 1 1 PE + Pc
Now the Rakine’s formula is = + ==
PR Pc PE Pc .PE

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Taking reciprocals on both sides, we have

Pc .PE Pc
= = P
PE + Pc 1+ P c
E

Dividing numerator and denominator by PE, we get

c . A
P R=  xA
1+ c2
 EI
( )
Le 2
But I = Ak2 where k is least radius of gyration.
The above equation becomes,
c . A c . A
P R=  . A . Le 2
=  . L 2
1+ c 2 1+ c2 e 2
 E . Ak2  E. k

c . A
=  . L 2
1+ c2 e 2
 E. k
c . A
= L 2
1+a( e )
k
c
Where a = and is known as Rankine’s constant.
2 E
Rankine’s formula is empirical formula, the value of ‘a’ is taken from the results of the
experiments and is not calculated from the values of c and E.
The values of c and a for different columns material are given below in table.

Differences between Long and short columns:

Long Column Short column
Failure is due to buckling Failure is due to crushing

Slenderness ratio is more than 50 Slenderness ratio is less than 50

Bending stress is more predominant Direct compressive stress is more predominant

Euler’s equation is used to obtain failure load Rakine’s equation is used to obtain failure load.

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P-3
A hollow cylindrical cast iron column is 4 m long with both ends fixed. Determine the minimum
diameter of the column if it has to carry a safe load of 250 KN with a factor of safety of 5. Take
the internal diameter as 0.8 times the external diameter. Take σC = 550 N /mm2 and a =
1/1600 in Rankine's formula.

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