MILLIOHMMETER

As you are probably aware, measuring small resistance values is

difficult, if not impossible, with conventlonal digital and analogue
multimeters. While only a few of these instruments have a 1-f.! range
with limited practical use, the meter presented here allows very
small resistances in the range from 10 mf.! to 5 f.! to be measured
reliably.

A. Rigby

That most multimeters have a IOWE'st resis- themselves. A connection formed by Cl ba-
tance range of 100 n or 1 kQ is not surpris- nana plug and a mating socket, both in new MAIN FEATURES
ing. The rneasurement of small resistances condition, represents a typical resistance
poses a number of special probrems that da srnaller thnn 1 mO. This resistance rises to
Ranges: 100 mn, 200 mo, 500 mn,
not occur in the kQ ranges. Take, for in- several milliohms as the contact surfaces 10.,20.,50
stance, the measurement system, which in start to oxidize. Although a few mO may not
Resolution: 2% of f.s.d. value
many cases has to be changed [ust for the seem much to start worryiug-nbout. such
sake of the lowest range. There is. however, values are significant stnce the Instrument Principle: a-potnt measurement
a more serious problem in the range up to discussed here has a resclution of 2 mO. The with pulsed constant
"10Q: the contact resistance of the test lead reststance of the test leeds is also a facror of current
plugs and the sockets on the instrument, some tmportance. A test lead with a length of Measurement current: Ip ;;; 1 A
and, of course, the resistance of the test Ieads 1 m and a cross-sectional nrea of 1 mm' has a Irms;;; 10 mA
typical resistance of 17 mQ. For n sirnilar pulse length approx. 1 ms
lead with a cross-sectional area of 2.5 111m2, repeat rate approx. 10Hz.
this value becomes 7 mO. Relanng these val- error detection: too low test current
ues to 1 0, the error factors are 1.7o/c and
current consumption: max. 70 mA
O.7'7c respectively. In other words, our mea-
1-
surement starts to becorne unreliable when
1+ +Rx - Rx
these parasttk resistances are not raken into same functions. this method allows us to
account. Fortunately, therc exists a measure- eliminate the effects of parasitic resistances.
ment principle that eliminates the effects of The principle is illustrated in Fig. 1. The un-
these unwanted resistances. This principle is known resistor, R, is connected with four
Rx called four-point resistence measurement. wires. The outer two cause a current flow
through R. The present meter sends a con-
stallt current through R via terminals 1+ and
910004·14 Two terminals, lour wires?
1-. The advantage of using a constant-cur-
Using four wires to connect a resistor with reut source is that it ts not affected by the parM
only two terminals to a meter system may asitic resistance. Hence. we know exactly
Fig. 1. Four-pomt reaistance measure- seem strenge nt first. However, stnce these how much current flows through R. To de-
ment principle. wires may be divided into two pairs with thc termine the value of R, all we have to do is

ELEKTOR ELECTRONICS ))ECEMHER 1990 ELEKTOI~ ELECTRüNICS USA DECEMßER 1990

 TEST AND MEASUREMENT

measure the voltage across it as a result of of a putsed constant-eurrent source (see the cuit tl-at measures the voltage between the 1-
the constant current. This voltage is fed to block diagram in Fig. 2). The resistor undcr terminal and ground is all that is required to
the instrument via wires +Rx and -Rx. These test 1S fed with an effective eurrent of only signal over-range conditions. When tbese
wires are connected as elose as possible to 10 mA since the l-A current source is pulsed occur. the detector causes the ERRORLED to
the resistor body, or to the termirrals to at a duty factor of 0.01 (1 11"IS on, 100 ms off). light.
whieh a resistor is to be connected later. In Even a 0.25-watt resistor will not rnind such
this way, only the voltage drop across the re- a low effective current. Unfortunately, the
Circuit description
sistor is measured, without the additional use of a pulsed test current has one disad-
voltage across all kinds of parasitic resist- vantege in rhat resistors with a relatively Having explained the principle of operation
ances. The system also eliminates the resis- high reactive component (stray ind uctance of the milliohmrueter. we can statt to look at
tance of the test leads, and the contact or capacitance) can not be measured reliably. the way the circuit is realized in pracnce. Fig-
resistance at the plugs and sockets. The test current through the resistor is ure 3 shows the circuit diagram of the instru-
Since the current flow into the voltage pulse-shaped because the constaut-curreut rnent. The pulse generatot is built areund
meter is negligible with respect to the C011- souree is swirched on and off by Cl pulse gen- opal11p IC2a. Resistars Rl, R2 and RJ cause
staut current sent through the resistor under erator. The same generator eontrols a sam- the opnmp to funetion as a Schmitt-trigger
test, itmay beconcluded at this point that the ple-and-hold circuit that stores the inverter. whileeomponents Rol,Rs, 01 and Cl
four-point reslstance measurement offers Cl measured voltege during the 'off period of provide the function of an oscillating pulse
reliable ruethod of determining the value of the current. This meaus that the outpu t of the generarer. The operation of the generator is
small resistors at an accuracy that is not nor- sample-and-hold supplies a constant voltage as follows: when the outpur of TCla is high,
mally achievable with a rnultimeter. whose value is in direct proportion to the capacitor Cl is charged via diode 01 and re-
measured resistence. Depending on the se- sistor Rt, until the voltage across it reaches
lected range, this voltage is amplified or at- the upper swttchu-g threshold of the
1 A, and no heat? tenuated before it is fed to (I moving-coil Sclurutt-trigger.Thts takes about 1 ms. Next,
Good as the four-point rneasurement system meter provided with an ohrn scale. the outpur of IC2a goes low, so that C2 is dis-
may be as a basis for the design of a The circuit helps you avoid measurement charged to the lower switching threshold.
milliohmmeter, there are more aspects to errors by signalling over-range conditions. This takes about 'IOD ms. The outpur of the
such an instrument that need to be given This is achieved by monitoring the outpur opamp goes high again, and the cycle is re-
thought. Al110ng these factors is the heat dis- eurrent of the current source. When (I roo peated. Transistor Tl inverts the outpur sig-
sipated by the resistor. To make sure that a large resisror is conuected. or when the cur- nal of the pulse generator.
low-value resistor produces a voltage drop reut wires. 1+ and 1-, a re broken. the current The eurrent source in the instrument is
that is readily measured, it must pass a rela- source will no langer be able to supply 1 A, built areund opamp TC-t. This provides a
tively high current. We can not make the cur- so that the voltage measured ac ross the resis- drive signal to transistor T2 that results in a
rent es high CIS we wish, however, since the tor is no longer a d irect measure for the resis- voltage across emitter resistor R2."i equal to
maximum permissible dissipation of the re- tance value. However. the meter will still the voltage nt the +input of the opamp.
sistor must be taken into nccount. A 1-.0. re- indicate 'something' because the measure- When this voltage is constant, the enutter
sistor with a power ranng of 0.25 W, for ment circuit and the resistor supply are sep- current is constant too. Since there is CI fixed
instance, will not survive the constant cur- arate circuits. The fault condifion is simple to relation between the emitter current and the
rent of 1 A supplied by the instrument. The recogntze because the eurrent source then collector eurrent of T2, it follows that the col-
solution to this problem is found in the use pulls terminal 1- to ground. A detector cir- lector eurrent is also constant. The magni-
tude of the collector current "·"hieh is the test
current through tlle unknown resistor) de-
pends on the value of R25 and the voltage at
the +input ofIC-t. That voltage is supplied by
preset P-t, and is stabilized by aprecision
zener diode, 02. The zener diode is powered
pulse
by the pulse generator. As a result, the volt-
generator age set by P4 at the +input of IC4 will vary
between nought and the set peak value.
+
Hellce, the test current will also vary be-
Jl 1f t\·veen nought and the set peak value of 1 A.
The current sent through the resistor
under test can not be d rawn direct fram volt-
age regulator [Cs because the peClk value
range (1 A) is abou t equal to the maximum cu rrent
sam pIe &
selector the 7810 is capable of supplying. However,
hold
since tlle peak current has a relatively short
o measurement 'on' time, the necessary energy may be ob-
amplifier tained fram a leHge electrolytic capacitor, i.n
this ca se, Cs. It will be c1ear that the voltage
ClCroSSthis capacitor is far from constant.
This is of Iittle conseguence, however, sinee
these variations are compensated by thecur-
1A! f---ll+----' error
detector
rent source. Resistor RJo between Cs and the
voltage regulator keeps the charge current
current source within limits. The relatively long 'off' timeof
.... ... 910004 ·12
the current pulses ensures sufficient time for
the capacitor to be charged via this resistor.
The test eurrent sent through the un-
known resistor via terminal 1- gives rise to a
Fig. 2. Block diagram of the milliohmmeter. The resistor to be measured, Rx, is connected voltage which is fed to the sample-and-hold
into a four-point network that supplies constant current pulses, and feeds Ihe voltage eircuit via the Rx terminals. The sample-and-
developed ac ross Rx 10 a sample-and-hold meter circuit. hold stores the meClsured voltage during the

ELEKTOR ELECTRONICS USA DECEMIlER 1990 ELEKTOR ELECTHONICS DECEMIlER 1990

 MII,LlüHMMETER

R'
~O~
J!5V

0'
{1(ikJHI4--+ 1N4148

IC1b
a R8

a~'~------~-U'k~~~~O~~--~---,~-of
w-r-rL~~r---

R"
b"~------__ .r,ikk-".!!'°!l--" C>-J!'-l--O---....,'I-<~ O-t''------i
b
03 IC1c IC1d
51: 1 = 100mO
IR26
I
R27
010V 2 = 200mO
3 = 500mO
1N4148 4 = 1U
5 =20
6=50

ur
10V

IC3
IC1 IC2 IC4

cpcycy
910004-11~

Fig. 3. Circuit diagram of the milliohmmeter. The instrument is powered by an externat mains adapter with a 15 VDC, 100 mA output.

'off" time of the test current. In addition, it Rx Is broken. Next, the voltage across C3 is The over-range detector is formed by
converts this voltage from floating into one fed to C-I. This capaeuer ensures that the comparator lC2b. Resistors R27 and R.z8 de-
that can be measured with respeet to ground. measurement amplifier, IC3, is provided fine the switehing threshold of this compara-
Four CMOS bilateral switches are used to with an input voltage during the time C3 is tor at about 3.3 V. The comparator compares
achieve this. When the currcnt source is on, connected to Rx. this reference level to the voltage across C3-
switches ICli! and IC1c are closed. while lOb Switch Srb selects between an amplifica- pacitcr CI, which is charged vif! R26 end can
and ICld are open. Capaetter C3 is connected tion of Olle, and an amplificatiöu of 10, for only be discharged when the current source
in parallel with Rx via resistors Rs aud R9, opamp IC3. These amplification factors are is off. Then, the minimum voltage across Ci
and will be eharged until the voltage across used for the ranges 1 0,2 Q and 50 (xl ), and is about 0.6 V higher than the eollector volt-
it equals that across Rx. The resistors and C3 100 mQ, 200 I1lQ and 500 mQ (xl 0). The off- age of T2. When this volta ge drops below
form a lew-pass filter to suppress interfer- set of IC3 is compensated by adjusting P2. 2.7 V as a result of a too high reststance be-
ence. The moment the eurrent source is The attenuator circuit that follows lC3 eon- tween the 1+ and the I- terminals, thevoltage
switched off, switehes lC1,1 and lele are sists of a nurnber of switchable potential di- ncross Cl drops below the swttclung thresh-
opened, while IClb and ICld are closed. This viders rhat drive n-oving-cotl meter M 1. The old of the comparator. Consequently. this
results in C3 being connected to ground via use of 1% resistors in the attenuator obviates toggles. so that LED D-I lights. Calculating
IC1d. The switching cau be done without the any adjustments. The attenuator is followed the resistance value at which this happens,
risk of a short-circuit occurriug. because the by the movtng-co!l meter with its sertes resis- we find a value of about 7 0 between the 1
connection with the floating voltage across tors R21-P:1. terrninals.

ELEKTOR ELECTRONICS DECEMIlER 1990 ELEKTOR ELECTRONICS USA DECEMBER [990

 TEST AND iVIEASURF.MENT

COMPONENTS LIST
Resistors:
2 39kn Rl;R2
1 27kn R3
5 10kn R4;R6;R7;
R15;R16
3 1Mn R5;R10;R26
3 1kn R8;R9;R12
1 Bk02 Rll
2 12kn R13;R14
4 10kn1% R17-R20
2 6knB R21 ;R27
2 3kn3 R22;R28
1 150kn R23
1 100n R24
1 onss R25
1 470n R29
1 60B R30
1 22Mn R31
2 2kn5 preset H Pl ;P3
1 1kn preset H P2
1 100kn preset H P4

Capacitors:
3 100nF C1;C2;C7
1 220nF C3
1 27nF C4
1 2200MF 35V radial C5
1 1OOMF35V radiaJ C6
1 470~lF 35 V radial C8

Serniconductors:
2 1N4148 01;03
1 LM336-2.5V 02
Fig. 4. Single-sided printed-circuit board for the milliohmmeter. Note that the range 1 LEO 04
switches are fitted direct onto the PCS. 1 BC547B Tl
1 B0139 T2
sertes (see the list at the end of this (HUde), 1 4066 ICl
Construction 1 TLC272 IC2
the milliohmmeter is powered by a mains
When the PCS shown in Fig. 4 is to be fitted adapter. In this case, an adapter with a rattng 2 TLC271 IC3;IC4
into the enclosure n-entioned in the parts list. of 15 VDC at about 100 mA is recom- 1 7810 IC5

the corner near ICl will have to be cut off. mended.

Next, fit the parts on to the Pr.B. starting The prototype of the milliohmmeter is Miscellaneous:
1 1OO~lAmoving-coi1 meter M1
with the three wire links. Zener diode 02 shown in Hg. 7. The cornpleted PCS is fitted
vertically at a suitable distance belund the 1 2-pole 6-way rotary switch S1
cornes in two different enclosures: a meta!
for PCS mounting
type and a plastic type. If you have a metal front partel. Use short pieces of solid wire to
metal enclosure, e.g., Telet LCaSO
version. pay attention to the correct polariza- connect the banann sockets to the relevant
(supplier: C-l Electronics). Approx.
tion (see Fig. 6). The plastic version presents points on the pes. The range selection dimensions: aOx200x1aO mm
110 problems since its orientation is printed switch is a type for PCS-mounting that obvi- printed-circuit board 910004
on the component overlay. ates any wiring. The front pane! is not fitted front-panel foil 910004-F
As with previous test instruments in this as yet. ."....

LM336 ·2.5
TO·92 TO·46

&1
adj.'----:-""-"",-:-.-',,

Fig. 5. Completed circuit board, ready for fitting tnto the enclosure. Note that the left-hand Fig. 6. The LM336-2V5 prectston zener
botturn corner of the PCS ls cut off diagonally. diode comes in two different enclosures.

ELEKTOR ELECTRONICS USA DECEMßER 1~90 ELEKTOR ELECTRONICS OECEMBER t990

 MILLlOHI\lII\'IETER

that C-I is cbarged by the input off-set cur-

rcnt. This effect disappears es soon as a resis-
tor is conuected to the Rx terrninals.
Next, P-I must be adjusted. If you do not
have access to an oscilloscope. set the preset
to the centre of its trnvel (this does not affeet
the accuracy of the Instrument). lf you do
have an oscilloseope, connect the l-Q resistor
between the I termirrals of the Instrument.
00 not connect the resistor to the Rx termi-
nals as yet. Connect the osciiloscope as elose
as possible to the resistor body, or, when you
use resistance wire, at the distauce you have
prevtously calculated to prod uce a reslstance
of 1 Q. Adjust P-I until the peak value of the
measured voltage is 1 V. This sets CI peak cur-
rcnt of 1 A. Rcmove the scope connections,
and eonnect the 1-0 resistor to the Rx termi-
uals. Switch to the l-Q range, end adjust P3
for full-scale deflecfion of the meter.
Finallv, eonneet the O.5-Q resistor, and
switch the instrument to the O.5-Q range. Ad-
just PI uutil thc mcter indicates 0.5 Q.
This concludes the adjustment of the
milliohnuuetcr. At this point, you may fit the
front panel. and apply the read y-made two-
Fig. 7. Internal view of the instrument. eolour seif-ad hesi ve foil tha t gtves the instru-
ment a professionallook. •
Adjustment +Rx and -Rx terrainals. This mcans that the
wires must be made slightly Ionger rhan 2m Other lest instruments in this series are:
To adjust the instrument YOll require two l 'Ir. or 1 m to allow the ends to bc connecred to
resistors: one of 1 Q and one of 0.5 Q (pre- termirrals 1+ and 1-. Having prepared the RF inductance meter. Elektor Etcctnnuc-:
ferred value) or smaller. Where these resis- calibratiou rcsistors. put them aside for the Oetober 1989.
tors (Ire not available, t\VQ pteces of O.5-Q(m moment. LF/HF signal tr acer. Elektor Eivctronic«
resistance wire rnay also be used with good First. null the moving-cotl meter mechau- December 1989.
results. The l-Q resistor then has a length of tcally by adjusting the screw on the hont. Simple AC millivoltmeter. Elektor Etcc-
2 m. and the O.5-Q resistor Cl length of 1 m. In Switeh on the instrument, and turn the range lronic:, january 1990.
the first case, an error of 1 crn eorresponds to switch to select the 100-mQ range. Connect Q meter. Elek!ur Eirctronice April 1990.
a reststance error of 0.5% - in the secend the +Rx and -Rx terminals, and adjust P2 für Budget sweep/function generator. Elek-
case, to a resistance errcr of 1%. Resistar-ce maxiruurn meter deflection. Next, re-adjust tor Elertfollies Ma y 1990.
wire with a different specification mey alsc P:2unti! the meter just indicates zero. Da not High-current hFE tester. Elektor Electron-
be used. although the required values of 1 Q turn P2 any further. since this may cause an Jc's September 1990.
and 0.5 Q will be a Iittle more difficult to cal- unwanted, negative, off-set. Remove the 400-W laboratory power supply. Elektor
culate. connection between the test terminals. The Elee/rullies Ocrober ·1990 and November
The indicated length of the resisrance meter may starr to deflect slowly. This is no ]990.
wire a pplies to where it is connected to the cause for alarrn. howevcr. stuce it tndtcares

MILLI - OHM - METER

o o

EB

910004'F

Fig. 8. Front-panel designed for the milliohmmeter. For technical reasons, the meter scale is reproduced in black here, although it is really
white. The scale can be cut out of the self-adheaive toll, to replace the one that comes with the moving-coil meter.

ELEKTOR ELECTRONICS DECEMHER 1990 ELEKTOR ELECTRONICS USA DECEMIlER 1990

 TEST AND MEASUREMENT

COMPONENTS LIST

Resistors:
2 39kn R1;R2
1 27kn R3
S 10kn R4;R6;R7;
R1S;R16
3 lMn RS;Rl0;R26
3 1kn R8;R9;R12
1 8kn2 Rl1
2 12kn R13;R14
4 iosn 1% R17 - R20
2 6kn8 R21;R27
2 3kn3 R22;R28
1 lS0kn R23
1 100n R24
1 OnS6 R25
1 470n R29
1 6n8 R30
1 22Mn R31
2 2knS preset H Pl;P3
1 1kn preset H P2
1 100kn preset H P4

Capacitors:
3 100nF C1;C2;C7
1 220nF C3
1 27nF C4
1 2200llF 3SV radial CS
1 1OOiJ.F 3SV radial C6
1 470llF 3S V radial C8

Semiconductors:
2 1N4148 01;03
1 LM336-2.5V 02
Fig. 4. Single-sided printed-circuit board for the milliohmmeter. Note that the range 1 LEO 04
switches are fitted direct onto the PCB. 1 BC547B Tl
1 B0139 T2
series (see the list at the end of this article), 1 4066 ICl
Construction 1 TLC272 IC2
the milliohmmeter is powered by a mains
When the PCB shown in Fig. 4 is to be fitted adapter. In this case, an adapter with a rating 2 TLC271 IC3;IC4
into the enclosure mentioned in the parts list, of 15 VDC at about 100 mA is recorn- 1 7810 IC5
the corner near JC1 will have to be cut off. mended.
Next, fit the parts on to the PCB, starting The prototype of the milliohmrneter is Miscellaneous:
with the three wire links. Zener diode D2 shown in Fig. 7. The completed PCB is fitted 1 100J.lAmoving-coil meter Ml
comes in two different enclosures: a metal vertically at a suitable distance behind the 1 2-pole 6-way rotary switch 81
for PCB mounting
type and a plastic type. If you have a metal front panel. Use short pieces of solid wire to
metal enclosure, e.g., Telet LC850
version, pay attention to the correct polariza- connect the banana sockets to the relevant
(supplier: C-I Electronics). Approx.
tion (see Fig. 6). The plastic version presents points on the PCB. The range selection dimensions: 80x200x180 mm
no problems since its orientation is printed switch is a type for PCB-mounting that obvi- printed-circuit board 910004
on the component overlay, ates any wiring. The front panel is not fitted front-panel foil 910004-F
As with previous test Instruments in this as yet. ...... "....),

LM336 ·2.5
TO·92 TO·46

Fig. 5. Completed circuit board, ready for fitting into the enclosure. Note that the left-hand Fig. 6. The LM336-2V5 precrsron zener
bottom corner of the PCB is cut off diagonally. diode comes in two different enclosures.

ELEKTOR ELECTRONICS USA DECEMBER 1990 ELEKTOR ELECTRONICS DECEMBER 1990