Chap10 Sinusoidal Steady-

State Analysis

金國生 教授
長庚大學電子系
 10.1 Introduction
• Nodal analysis, mesh analysis, Thevenin’s theorem, Norton’s
theorem, superposition and source transformations can be
applied in analyzing ac circuits.
• Three steps to analyze AC circuits:
1. Transform the circuit to the phasor or frequency
domain.
2. Solve the problem using circuit techniques (nodal
analysis, mesh analysis, superposition, etc.).
3. Transform the resulting phasor to the time domain.
• Two practical ac circuits: oscillators and ac transistor circuits

2
 10.2 Nodal Analysis
The basis of nodal analysis is KCL. Since KCL is valid for
phasors, we can analyze ac circuits by nodal analysis.
• Ex 10.1: Find ix in the circuit of Fig. 10.1 using nodal analysis.
Sol:
Fig. 10.1
We first convert the circuit
to the frequency domain:

20 cos 4t  200,   4 rad/s

1H  jL  j 4
0.5 H  jL  j 2
1
0.1 F    j 2.5
jC

3
 Ex. 10.1 (Cont.)
At node 1,
20  V1 V1 V  V2
  1
10  j 2.5 j4
or (1  j1.5)V1  j 2.5V2  20 (1)

At node 2, V1  18.9718.43 V
V1  V2 V2 V2  13.91198 .3 V
2I x  
j4 j2
 I x  V1 /  j 2.5 V1 18.97 18.43
Ix  
2V1 V1  V2 V2  j 2.5 2.5  90
  
 j 2.5 j4 j2  7.59108 .4 A
 11V1  15V2  0 (2)
ix  7.59 cos( 4t  108.4) A
4
 Ex. 10.2
Compute V1 and V2 in the circuit of Fig. 10.4.

Sol:
Fig. 10.4
Nodes 1 and 2 form a
supernode. Applying KCL
at the supernode gives

V1 V2 V2
3  
 j 3 j 6 12
or 36  j 4V1  (1  j 2)V2

5
 Ex. 10.2 (Cont.)
But a voltage source is connected
between nodes 1 and 2, so that

V1  V2  1045
Substituti ng,
36  40135   (1  j 2)V2
 V2  31.41  87.18 V
So,
V1  V2  1045  25.87   70.48 V

6
 10.3 Mesh Analysis
The basis of mesh analysis is KVL. Since KVL is valid for phasors,
we can analyze ac circuits by mesh analysis.
Ex 10.3: Determine current Io in the
circuit of Fig. 10.7 using mesh
analysis.
Sol:
• Applying KVL to mesh 1,
(8  j10  j 2)I1  ( j 2)I 2  j10I 3  0
• For mesh 2,
(4  j 2  j 2)I 2  ( j 2)I1  ( j 2)I3  2090  0
• For mesh 3, I3 = 5

I 2  6.12  35.22 V I o  I 2  6.12144.78 A

7
 Ex. 10.4
Solve for Vo in the circuit of Fig. 10.9 using mesh analysis.
Sol:

For mesh 1, KVL gives  10  (8  j 2)I1  ( j 2)I 2  8I 3  0

For mesh 2, I 2  3
For the supermesh, (8  j 4)I 3  8I1  (6  j 5)I 4  j 5I 2  0

8
 Ex. 10.4 (Cont.)
Due to the current source between
meshes 3 and 4, at node A,
I 4  I3  4
 (8  j 2)I1  8I 3  10  j 6

 8I1  (14  j )I 3  24  j 35
1  58  j186
8  j 2  8   I1   10  j 6  I1  
  8 14  j  I    24  j 35  50  j 20
  3     3.618274 .5 A
8  j2 8
  50  j 20 Vo   j 2(I1  I 2 )
 8 14  j
  j 2(3.618 274 .5  3)
10  j 6 8
1   58  j186  7.2134  j 6.568
 24  j 35 14  j
 9.756 222 .32 V
9
 10.4 Superposition Theorem
• Since ac circuits are linear, the superposition theorem applies
to ac circuits the same way it applies to dc circuits.
• The theorem becomes important is the circuit has sources
operating at different frequencies.
• Since the impedances depend on frequency, we must have a
different frequency domain circuit for each frequency.
• The total response must be obtained by adding the individual
responses in the time domain. It is incorrect to add the
responses in the phasor or frequency domain. Because the
exponential factor ejt would change for every angular
frequency.

10
 Ex. 10.5
Use the superposition theorem to find Io in the circuit in Fig. 10.7.

Fig. 10.7 Sol: Let I o  Io  Io

11
 Ex. 10.5 (Cont.)
 j 2(8  j10)
Z  0.25  j 2.25
 2 j  8  j10
j 20 j 20
Io  
4  j 2  Z 4.25  j 4.25
 2.353  j 2.353

• For mesh 1,
(8  j8)I1  j10I3  j 2I 2  0

• For mesh 2, (4  j 4)I 2  j 2I1  j 2I3  0

• For mesh 3, I3  5

12
 Ex. 10.5 (Cont.)

(8  j8)[( 2  j 2)I 2  5]  j 50  j 2I 2  0
90  j 40
I2   2.647  j1.176
34
Io  I 2  2.647  j1.176

Finally,
I o  Io  Io  5  j3.529  6.12144 .78 A
13
 Ex. 10.6
Find vo of the circuit of Fig. 10.13 using the superposition theorem.

Fig. 10.13

AC DC
Sol:
vo  v1  v2  v3

14
 Ex. 10.6 (Cont.)
1
 v1  (5)  1 V
1 4 v1
v1  1 V

10 cos 2t  100,   2 rad/s

2H  jL  j 4 
1
0.1 F    j5 
jC

 j5  4
Z   j5 4   2.439  j1.951
4  j5
1 10
V2  (100)   2.498  30.79
v2 1 j4  Z 3.439  j 2.049
v2  2.498 cos(2t  30.79)
15
 Ex. 10.6 (Cont.)
2 sin 5t  2  90,   5 rad/s
2 H  jL  j10 
1
0.1 F    j2 
jC

 j2  4
Z1   j 2 4   0.8  j1.6 
4  j2
j10
I1  (2  90) A
j10  1  Z1
v3
j10
V3  I1  1  ( j 2)  2.328   80 V
1 . 8  j 8. 4
v3  2.33 cos(5t  80)  2.33 sin( 5t  10) V

16
 Ex. 10.6 (Cont.)

vo  v1  v2  v3
v1  1 V
v2  2.498 cos(2t  30.79) V

v3  2.33 cos(5t  80)  2.33 sin( 5t  10) V

v0 (t )  1  2.498 cos(2t  30.79)  2.33 sin( 5t  10)V

17
 10.5 Source Transformation
Source transformation in the frequency domain involves
transforming a voltage source in series with an impedance
to a current source in parallel with an impedance.

Vs
Vs  Z s I s  Is 
Zs

18
 Ex. 10.7
Calculus Vx in the circuit of Fig. 10.17 using the method of
source transformation.

Sol:

20  90
Is   4  90 
5
  j4 A

5(3  j 4)
Z1 
8  j4
 2.5  j1.25 

19
 Ex. 10.7 (Cont.)
Vs  I s Z1
  j 4(2.5  j1.25)
 5  j10 V
By voltage division,
10
Vx  (5  j10 )
10  2.5  j1.25  4  j13
 5.519   28 V

20
 10.6 Thevenin and Norton Equivalent
Circuits
The Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems are applied to ac circuits
in the same way as they are to dc circuits. The only additional
effort arises from the need to manipulate complex numbers.

VT h  Z N I N

ZTh  Z N

VTh is the open-circuit

voltage while IN is the
short-circuit current.

21
 Ex. 10.8
Obtain the Thevenin equivalent at terminals a-b of the circuit in
Fig. 10.22.
Sol:
Fig. 10.22
 j6  8
Z1   j 6 8   2.88  j 3.84 
8  j6
j12  4
Z 2  4 j12   3.6  j1.2 
4  j12
Z T h  Z1  Z 2  6.48  j 2.64 

22
 Ex. 10.8 (Cont.)

120 75 120 75

I1  A, I 2  A
8  j6 4  j12
VT h  4I 2  ( j 6)I1  0

480 75 720 (75  90)

VT h  4I 2  j 6I1  
4  j12 8  j6
 37.953.43  72201 .87
 28.936  j 24.55
 37.95220 .31 V

23
 Ex. 10.9
Find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit in Fig. 10.25 as seen
from terminals a-b.
Sol:
Fig. 10.25 From KCL at node 1,
15  I o  0.5I o  I o  10 A
Applying KVL to the right mesh,
 I o (2  j 4)  0.5I o (4  j 3)  VT h  0
or VT h  10( 2  j 4)  5(4  j 3)   j 55
Thus, VT h  55  90 V

24
 Ex. 10.9 (Cont.)
To obtain ZTh, we remove the independent source. Due to the
presence of the dependent current source, we connect a 3-A
current source (3 is an arbitrary value chosen for convenience
here).

At node A, 3  I o  0.5I o  Io  2 A
Applying KVL to the left mesh, Vs  I o (4  j 3  2  j 4)  2(6  j )
Vs 2(6  j )
ZTh    4  j 0.6667 
Is 3
25
 Ex. 10.10
Obtain current Io in Fig. 10.28 using Norton’s theorem.
Fig. 10.28

Sol: Finding ZN
Set the sources to zero.
Short
ZN  5 

26
 Ex. 10.10 (Cont.)

Finding IN
We short-circuit terminals a-b and apply mesh analysis.
For mesh 1,  j 40  (18  j 2)I1  (8  j 2)I 2  (10  j 4)I3  0
For the supermesh, (13  j 2)I 2  (10  j 4)I3  (18  j 2)I1  0
For node a, I 3  I 2  3
 I 2  j8, I 3  3  j8  I N
27
 Ex. 10.10 (Cont.)

The Norton equivalent circuit

5 3  j8
Io  IN   1.46538.48 A
5  20  j15 5  j3

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 10.7 Op Amp AC Circuits
The key to analyzing op amp circuits is to keep two important
properties of an ideal op amp in mind:
– No current enters either of its input terminals.
– The voltage across its input terminals is zero.

Ex. 10.11: Determine v0(t) for the o amp circuit in Fig. 10.31(a)
if vs = 3cos1000t V.

Fig. 10.31(a)

29
 Ex. 10.11 (Cont.)
Vs  30,   1000 rad/s

• Apply KCL at node 1,

30  V1 V V  0 V1  Vo
 1  1 
10  j5 10 20
or 6  (5  j 4)V1  Vo

• At node 2,
V1  0 0  Vo

10  j10
V1   jVo
6   j (5  j 4)Vo  Vo  (3  j 5)Vo
6
Vo   1.02959.04 vo (t )  1.029 cos(1000t  59.04) V
3  j5
30
 Ex. 10.12
Compute the closed-loop gain and phase shift for the circuit in Fig.
10.33. Assume that R1 = R2 = 10 k, C1 = 2 F, C2 = 1 F , and 
= 200 rad/s.
Sol: 1 R
Z f  R2  2
jC2 1  jR2C2
1 1  jR1C1
Fig. 10.33 Z i  R1  
jC1 jC1
Since the circuit is an inverting
amplifier, the closed-loop
gain is given by
Vo Zf  jC1 R2
G  
Vs Z i (1  jR1C1 )(1  jR2C2 )
 j4
G  0.434 130 .6
(1  j 4)(1  j 2)
31
 10.9 Applications
• The concepts learned in this chapter will be applied in
later chapters to calculate electric power and determine
frequency response.
• The concepts are also used in analyzing coupled circuits,
three-phase circuits, ac transistor circuits, filters,
oscillators, and other ac circuits.
• In this section, we apply the concepts to develop two
practical ac circuits: the capacitance multiplier and the
sine wave oscillators.

32
 Capacitance Multiplier
Capacitance Multiplier: using integrated circuit technology to
produce a multiple of a small physical capacitance C when a
large capacitance (by a factor up to 1000) is needed.

The first op amp operates as a

voltage follower, while the second
one is an inverting amplifier. The
voltage follower isolates the
capacitance formed by the circuit
from the loading inverting amplifier.

Vi  Vo
Node 1 Ii   jC (Vi  Vo )
1 / jC
Vi  0 0  Vo R
Node 2  or Vo   2 Vi
R1 R2 R1
33
Capacitance Multiplier (Cont.)

 R2 
I i  jC 1  Vi By a proper selection of the
 R1  values of R1 and R2, the op amp
Ii  R  circuit can be made to produce an
or  j 1  2 C
Vi  R1  effective capacitance between the
V 1 input terminal and ground, which
 Zi  i 
Ii jCeq is a multiple of the physical
 R2  capacitance C.
 Ceq  1  C
 R1 
34
 Ex. 10.15
Calculate Ceq for capacitance multiplier when R1 = 10 k,
R2 = 1 M, C = 1 nF.

 R2 
Ceq  1  C
 R1 
10 6
 (1  )1 nF
10  10 3

 101 nF

35
 Oscillators
Oscillators: a circuit that produces an ac waveform as output
when powered by a dc input.
In order for sine wave oscillators to sustain oscillations, they
must meet the Barkhausen criteria:
1. The overall gain of the oscillator must be unity or greater.
Therefore, losses must be compensated for by an
amplifying device.
2. The overall phase shift (from input to output and back to
the input) must be zero.

Three common types of sine wave oscillators are phase-shift,

twin T, and Wien-bridge oscillators.

36
 Wien-Bridge Oscillator
The Wien-bridge oscillator essentially consists of a noninverting
amplifier with two feedback paths: the positive feedback path to
the noninverting input creates oscillations, while the negative
feedback path to the inverting input controls the gain.

1 j
Z s  R1   R1 
jC1 C1
1 R2
Z p  R2 
jC2 1  jR2C2

37
 Wien-Bridge Circuit (Cont.)

V2 Zp

Vo Z s  Z p
R2

 j 
R2   R1  (1  jR2C2 )
 C1 
R2C1

 ( R2C1  R1C1  R2C2 )  j ( 2 R1C1 R2C2  1)

To satisfy the second Barkhausen criterion, V2 must be in phase with Vo

to achieve oscillation. Hence, the imaginary part must be zero.

38
 Oscillators (Cont.)
Setting the imaginary part equal to zero gives the oscillation
frequency o as
1
 o R1C1 R2C2  1  0 or o 
2

R1C1R2C2
1 1
If, R1  R2  R and C1  C2  C,  o   2f o , f o 
RC 2RC
V2 1

Vo 3
In order to satisfy the first Barkhausen criterion, the op amp must compensate
by providing a gain of 3 or greater so that the overall gain is at least 1 or unity.
Vo Rf
Noninverting amplifier  1  3  R f  2 Rg
V2 Rg
39
 Ex. 10.16
Design a Wien-bridge circuit to oscillate at 100 kHz.

Sol:
Let R1  R2  R and C1  C2  C,

1 1 6
RC    1.59  10
2f o 2 100 10 3
Choosing R  10 k, then C  159 pF
Rf
2
Rg
 Choosing R f  20 k and Rg  10 k.

40
Problems:

41