FACT SHEET

MARCH 2018 | ©Perennia 2018

APPLE REPLANT DISEASE IN NOVA SCOTIA

By Michelle Cortens, M.Sc.,Tree Fruit Specialist

INTRODUCTION
Apple trees that have poor health and productivity when planted on old orchard soil often suffer from apple replant
disease. Replant disease is established in all apple growing regions of the world, including orchards in Nova Scotia.
In a perennial system like tree fruit, failure to manage replant disease will restrict productivity for the life of the tree (15+
years).
The disease is caused by several pathogens and parasites whose existence and role in growth reduction can vary by
region and site. The disease may be present even when standard practices for control are followed. Standard practices
are currently based on limited knowledge of the disease, so as knowledge improves, management practices will also
adapt. This factsheet will discuss the biology and the applied management of apple replant disease in Nova Scotia.

DISEASE SYMPTOMS
Replant disease is not new, but it has become more prevalent with investment by the apple industry in orchard renewal
using high-value varieties in high-density plantings. During the early years of a young orchard planting, the goal is to
encourage tree growth. Apple replant disease can significantly restrict tree growth (Figure 1).

The symptoms of apple replant disease include:

• Stunted tree growth and poor shoot growth

• Uneven growth within rows (aggravated

differences during years with water stress)

• Short internodes

• Small root systems and decaying roots

• Few new lateral or feeder roots (witch’s

broom appearance)

• Death of young trees

• Two to three years late into production

• Lower yield than healthy trees

Figure 1. Greenhouse trial in 1999 showing a) untreated topsoil from The symptoms can be mistaken for poor-quality
Nova Scotia orchard, b) sterilized topsoil from Nova Scotia orchard, c)
untreated potting mix. nursery stock, nutrient deficiency and root rot.

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THE CULPRITS: PATHOGENS AND PARASITES
Replant disease is complex because it is caused by several pathogens and parasites acting together, including some
that have not yet been identified. The causal organisms are specific to each region, and in Nova Scotia the disease
is attributed to the pathogens – Pythium, Phytophthora, Rhizoctonia, Cylindrocarpon, and the parasite – root lesion
nematode (Pratylenchus penetrans). Knowledge of the soil biology of apple replant disease can help drive decision-
making to maximize productivity in an orchard.

PATHOGENS
Pythium, Rhizoctonia, Phytophthora and Cylindrocarpon are commonly present in soil systems, and cause disease when
a plant’s defenses are poor. In the absence of a plant host, they persist in soil for many years in protective structures.
Periods of sustained soil moisture can activate and distribute these pathogens. Poor growth in apple trees can be
related to the infection of young tissue like root tips, and the release of systemic toxins and growth-inhibitors.

ROOT LESION NEMATODES

Of the parasitic nematodes, the root lesion nematode is the most economically important for apple trees in the
Annapolis Valley. In the fall of 2017, several orchards in NS reported damage to young trees due to high populations of
root lesion nematodes on replant sites. Reports of root lesion nematodes in orchards of the Annapolis Valley date back
to at least 1976.
The root lesion nematode is a worm-like organism that is invisible to the naked eye, and lives in soil and plant root
tissues (Figure 2). Nematodes become active when the soil warms up in spring, live inside roots especially during hot,
dry summers and continue to be active in the fall before the soil freezes. They are not overly mobile and stay within
1-2 meters of the root zone they infect. When the root is depleted of nutrients, the nematodes begin feeding on a
neighbouring tree.

A. B.

Figure 2. Microscopic images of nematode samples, invisible to the naked eye, showing a) a root lesion nematode 375 um in size, and
b) a nem-atode egg 63 um in size. A pin-shaped structure at the mouth end is repeatedly thrust into a root cell, making an opening for the
nematode to enter and eat. Root lesion nematod.

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The root lesion nematode parasitizes tree roots by penetrating the root tissue and feeding inside root cells, thereby
stunting trees. The most noticeable symptom of nematode damage in orchards is a random distribution of stunted
trees, where high populations of nematodes have parasitized specific trees (Figure 3). Nematode feeding constricts the
roots causing the plant to respond by growing new roots, which creates an extensively branched root system (Figure 4).
The wounds created by nematodes are also entry points for plant pathogens that compound the problem.

A. B. C.

Figure 3. Symptoms of feeding damage caused by high populations of root lesion nematode including a) uneven plant growth and weakening in
areas of high nematode populations, b) stunted tree growth due to poor root structure, and c) “witch’s broom” appearance of roots with excessive
branching but lacking fine feeder roots.

A. B.

Figure 4. The root of a young apple tree showing a) extensive branching following root lesion nematode feeding, and b) damage on the fine feeder
roots. Pythium and Rhizoctonia were also colonizing the roots – the classic trio in replant disease. Photos by Paul Hildebrand, Hildebrand Disease
Management.

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BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
The cause of apple replant disease varies by region and site. Site-specific management, using a series of steps, can help
lessen the disease pressure so trees can reach their potential (Figure 5). The emphasis is on prevention and pre-plant
management because limited practices are available to manage replant problems after plants are established.

PLANTING HISTORY
SOIL TEST TIGHTEN BIOSECURITY PLAN
TREE SPACING

MONITOR SYMPTOMS
ENHANCING SITE-SPECIFIC
MANAGEMENT
FUMIGATE POST-PLANT
SINGLE TREE SOIL DRENCH
SITE FOR TO NON-BEARING ROOTSTOCK
PRE-PLANT ESTABLISH TREES
REPLACEMENT TREES FOR FREE FROM
FUMIGATION IN OLD ALLEYWAY
NEMATODES NEMATODES
MANAGEMENT

MANAGEMENT OF MAINTAINING TREE HEALTH

DIRECTLY KILLING
CASUAL ORGANISMS APPLE TREE
REPLANT DISEASE
REPLANT
RESISTANT
ROOTSTOCK
PRE-PLANT POST-PLANT
IMPROVE SOIL INSECT, DISEASE
QUALITY AND AND NUTRIENT
NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT
INDIRECTLY KILLING AVAILABILITY AND IRRIGATION
CASUAL ORGANISMS
BY CREATING A DISEASE
SUPPRESIVE SOIL
BREAKING THE LIFECYCLE OF
PARASITES AND PATHOGENS

AMENDMENTS
(COMPOST, MANURE,
MULCH, SEED MEAL)
DESTROY WEEDS
AVOID AND LEFTOVER
EXCLUDE GROUND CULTIVATION OF ROOTS
COVER AND COVER NEMATODES
GROW COVER CROPS THAT HOST HOTSPOTS
CROPS THAT NEMATODES
SUPPRESS
NEMATODES

Figure 5. Management practices as they relate to each of the five main techniques that control apple replant disease. An integrated approach uses
several techniques to improve the opportunity for successful control of apple replant disease, which is represented by the pentagon linking the
techniques.

STEP 1: DIAGNOSIS OF PROBLEMS PRE-PLANT

• If apple trees have grown on a particular site in the last 30 years, then newly planted trees are at risk of apple
replant disease. In Nova Scotia, hundreds of replant soil tests were done between 1993 and 2004 and replant
disease was always present.

• Sites with sandy soils are more prone to nematodes but clay and clay-loam soils should still be tested. Sample for
nematode presence and density by collecting root or soil samples from an orchard block. Refer to Appendix A
for information on soil and root samples.

• Identify biosecurity risks such as fields with transmittable diseases and insects. Create a biosecurity plan. More
information on biosecurity in horticulture crops can be found in the Perennia factsheet: Biosecurity is Important in
Horticulture Crops Too.

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STEP 2: PRE-PLANT MANAGEMENT • Oilseed radish and oriental mustard
cultivars (Caliente, Cutlass, Forge):
Fumigation
Produces compounds that kill
• Apple growers are advised to fumigate the nematodes when the crop is cut green
soil before replanting an orchard. The goal of and incorporated immediately.
soil fumigation is to reduce pest populations
to give young trees the opportunity to grow, • Depending on field conditions, multiple years
unhindered, before parasite and pathogen of a cover crop may be needed to suppress
populations re-establish. Review Scotian Gold’s nematode populations below economic
best management practices for fumigation and thresholds prior to planting. Soil sample for
plan how to prepare the soil for fumigation. nutrients and nematode counts – before and
after cover cropping – to determine if desired
• At the time of publication, apple replant disease outcomes have been achieved.
has mainly been treated by the use of pre-plant
soil fumigation because fumigation offers the • Root lesion nematodes have a wide plant host
most consistent control of replant disease. range. Exclude cover crops that host parasitic
nematodes such as clovers, buckwheat and
• Methyl bromide was very effective but it was more.
discontinued from registration in 2005. The
discontinuation of chemical fumigants and • Cover crops add organic matter to the soil
pesticide products leads to uncertainty about system, however, incorporating green material
their availability in the future. into soil can increase the short-term presence of
Pythium and Rhizoctonia.
Field Preparation
Amendments
• Destroy leftover roots from orchard crops as
they harbour parasites and pathogens. • Composts, manures, mulches and seed meals
add organic matter to the soil, improving
• Improve soil quality and nutrient availability to the soil’s physical, chemical, and biological
provide trees with the necessary resources for properties. A healthy soil is conducive to
healthy growth. healthy tree growth and may even become
suppressive to disease if it supports beneficial
• Practice weed management as many weeds are soil organisms.
nematode hosts.
• Organic amendments can give inconsistent
• Avoid soil cultivation of a known nematode results, given the many unknown factors in
hotspot to prevent enlarging the area of replant disease and variable composition of
infestation. amendments.
Cover Crops • Highly degraded composts add organic matter
• Growing specific cover crops can reduce field without risking an increase in pathogens.
populations of nematodes. Choose varieties
that are known for suppressing nematodes and STEP 3: PLANTING MATERIAL AND ORCHARD
manage weeds to exclude nematode hosts. ESTABLISHMENT
The following crops have reduced nematode
populations, and are recommended for • Start with certified nematode-free rootstock
nematode suppression in Ontario. that is grown by a reputable commercial nursery.

• Canadian Forage Pearl Millet 101: A • Establish new orchard in an old orchard
poor host that inhibits reproduction of alleyway, if possible.
nematodes • Tighten tree spacing on a replant site as trees
• Specific sorghum x sudan-grass (sudex) will be smaller and take longer to fill the space
hybrids (Pioneer 877F): Produces relative to trees on virgin land. Trees on replant
compounds that kill nematodes and sites will not reach their biological potential,
suppress soil-borne diseases when even when standard practices to suppress
the crop is cut green and residue is replant disease are followed.
incorporated within 2 hours. More • Consider replant-resistant rootstock. The
information on sudex in orchards can Geneva breeding program claims that the
be found through PennState Extension. following rootstocks are tolerant to the classic
• African marigold cultivars (Crackerjack, replant pathogens: G.41, G214, G.935, G.202,
Creole): Root exudates kill nematodes. G.30, G.210, and G.969. The selections are not
widely available from nurseries.

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 • At this time, no apple rootstocks show beneficial soil organisms that prey on pests. Such a
resistance or tolerance to nematodes. G.935 long-term strategy may improve tree establishment
and G.202 were susceptible to root lesion and enhance production on replant sites. Short-term
nematode on replant sites in NS. methods are also under investigation to amend the
soil for specific improvements to soil biology prior to
• Choose ground cover between orchard rows
that does not host nematodes. Options include orchard renewal. The goal of soil management is to
creeping red fescue and perennial ryegrass. The create soil systems that keep pest populations in check.
commonly-used Kentucky bluegrass hosts root Fumigation removes a broad spectrum of good and
lesion nematodes. bad soil organisms. A fumigated soil tends to control
replant disease for up to one year, giving young trees
STEP 4: POST-PLANT MANAGEMENT an opportunity to establish. Eventually, the soil biology
• Follow a biosecurity plan to prevent the spread rebuilds and pests recolonize the system, preventing
of nematodes within and between blocks, and trees from reaching their biological potential. At
between orchards. Clean soil off of equipment present, the trees on a replant site are always inferior
that has visited an infected field, most to trees established on virgin land.
importantly during wet conditions when soil
clings to equipment. PROMISING RESEARCH
• Practice weed management to limit nematode In Nova Scotia, composted hog manure applied
hosts. during deep ripping was as effective as Telone C-17
fumigation in increasing yield of apple trees planted
• Practice disease, insect and nutrient in replant disease soil. The reason for the response
management, and irrigation to encourage tree is unknown, however, the large volume of compost
health. applied in the tree row might have displaced diseased
• Monitor for apple replant symptoms. Root soil. Nonetheless, addition of organic matter like
tissue can be tested for nematodes to diagnose compost is likely to improve soil properties.
a problem with tree growth (Appendix A). In Washington State, brown mustard (common and
centennial) seed meal was as effective as Telone-C-17
• If trees show symptoms of nematode
infestation, Vydate is currently the only chemical during tree establishment, and by the fourth growing
that is registered to provide control. Vydate can season the growth and yield was best for soil that was
be applied as a soil drench to non-bearing fruit amended with seed meal. The seed meal treatments
trees in spring. It will control nematodes but not also supported soil organisms that were suppressive to
pathogens. Always read and follow the label. root lesion nematodes (nematode predators and egg
parasites) and Pythium (pathogen parasites).
• If a tree has died from nematode infestation,
the single-tree site must be fumigated prior to MAJOR STUMBLING BLOCKS
replant. Vydate is currently registered for this use.
There are currently no recommendations for effective
and reliable alternatives to soil fumigation. Major
ALTERNATIVES TO FUMIGATION? stumbling blocks prevent alternatives to broad-spectrum
fumigation from being developed and implemented.
OPTIONS AND REQUIREMENTS
The use of alternatives is a good idea in theory, but
Alternatives to fumigation could include targeted in practice more needs to be learned about the soil
chemicals, cultural practices, and biological control. biology in orchard replant soils. With more research, the
However, methods with a narrow-spectrum of activity future might hold effective alternatives to fumigation.
are not expected to work when used alone. In some
cases, narrow-spectrum methods have suppressed
replant disease but are unlikely to show consistent and
effective results under a wide range of soil systems.
Note that alternatives to fumigation need to be
effective and reliable for their widespread adoption
as there are limited ways of mitigating pathogens and
nematodes after orchards are established.

DISEASE-SUPPRESSIVE SOILS
In theory, a soil that is suppressive to replant disease
could be produced by encouraging populations of

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APPENDIX A - SAMPLING FOR NEMATODES • Do not sample the roots of dead or severely
infected plants. Weak plants are a depleted
Collect root or soil samples from an orchard block to food source for nematodes, so nematodes will
test for the presence of nematodes. Keep the following vacate the area to feed on neighbouring plants.
notes in mind as you collect samples. Sample from trees that show minor symptoms –
• Cost: The Agriculture and Food Laboratory in usually trees at the margin of an affected area.
Guelph, ON, offers nematode tests. Nematode
count in soil is $49.20 per 1 L sample of soil. Alternatively, a soil sample can be used to diagnose
Nematode count in root tissue is $75.30 per 20- the presence of nematodes surrounding a tree.
30 g sample. Website: https://afl.uoguelph.ca/ The thresholds are less reliable because nematodes
soil-testing-services Phone 1-877-863-4235 or are dispersed in soil and the nematode count can
email: [email protected] (Prices given at time underestimate a problem.
of publishing) • To determine if nematodes are the cause of tree
• Timing: Root and soil samples are best when decline, choose a plant that is mildly infected.
collected in the spring (May-June) or during the Prepare a soil sample using soil cores taken
fall (September-October). Samples should not be from the sampling pattern for an individual tree
collected when fields are very wet or if soil is frozen. (Figure 6b). Sample the soil where feeder roots
grow because nematodes are expected in this
• Care: Place root or soil samples in a plastic bag, area. Collect a separate soil sample surrounding
and do not freeze or expose them to heat or a healthy tree, for comparison.
direct sunlight.
• Each 1 L soil sample is composed of a mixture
• Labelling: Label with a waterproof marker of 10 or more soil cores. Soil should be sampled
to indicate sampling date, location, and your to a depth of 20 cm. You may use a soil corer,
contact name. Write a sample number that tube or narrow trowel. Mix the soil and discard
corresponds with the health status of the tree any excess back to its origin.
(i.e. 1 for infected and 2 for healthy), so the
sample is unknown to the lab technician which • Collect soil in clean pails using clean shovels or
prevents bias. Record the details of each sample soil probes. Do not cross-contaminate samples
in your files. from separate sites.

DIAGNOSING NEMATODES PRE-PLANT 6A. 6B. DRIP LINE

A soil sample can be taken whether or not crops are
present. However, a soil sample may underestimate
the problem because nematodes are always more
concentrated in plant roots while they are widely
dispersed in soil. Only use a soil sample to indicate the
presence of nematodes and the type of species, not
as a reliable estimate of the population density. If the
goal is to simply identify nematode presence, then soil START
= SOIL SAMPLE TRUNK
samples are sufficient.
• Follow the sampling pattern for bare soil by Figure 6A. Sampling pattern for soil samples used to diagnose nem-
taking a soil core in a Z pattern, taking a soil atodes in an orchard a) pre-plant using a Z pattern, sampling every
10-25 paces throughout a field of bare soil, Figure 6B. post-plant
core every 10-25 paces and changing direction using a star pattern around an individual tree within the area where
(Figure 6a). Remove the top 2 cm of soil before feeder roots grow, from the branch to the tip of the trunk. Soil core=
sampling. Each soil sample should represent no
more than 2.5 ha. For more information, follow the sampling and shipping
guidelines provided by the diagnostic lab.
DIAGNOSING NEMATODES POST-PLANT IN REVIEWING THE RESULTS
YOUNG ORCHARDS
The diagnostic lab will report nematode counts but will
A root sample is always preferred over a soil sample not usually give an economic threshold. What do the
because nematodes live and feed in the roots of trees. results mean? Table 1 can be used as a guideline, in
Sampling directly from an established crop will give an conjunction with review by your tree fruit specialist. The
estimate of the population density of nematodes that thresholds are only a guideline because fruit trees can
feeds on apple tree roots. compensate for nematode feeding, depending on their
• Collect and submit an entire root system and root reserves and environmental conditions. Also, the
surrounding soil of an infected plant. Collect a trees are susceptible to nematode parasitism when they
separate sample of a healthy tree’s roots and are young and become less susceptible as they age.
surrounding soil, for comparison.

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Table 1. Economic thresholds of plant-parasitic nematodes for tree fruit from soil samples.*

TYPE OF NEMATODE ECONOMIC THRESHOLD BY SOURCE

OMAFRA PennState Extension
(nematodes/kg soil) (nematodes/kg soil)
Root-lesion 1000 400-600
Root-knot 1000 n/a
Pin 5000 n/a
Dagger 100 Any
Buld and Stem 100 n/a
*Estimates represented in this table are not local to Nova Scotia. Most are from field experience and observations – not controlled experimental
data – with no indication of timing or pattern of sampling. The economic thresholds listed should only be used as a rough guideline.

FOR MORE INFORMATION ABOUT APPLE REPLANT DISEASE, CONTACT:

Michelle Cortens, M.Sc.
Tree Fruit Specialist
Perennia Food and Agriculture Inc.
[email protected]
902-678-7722
© Perennia 2018

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