Introduction

Pests are animals, birds, nematodes, weeds, and insects or arachnids which attack plants
and cause damage in several different ways. Pests are categorized into different groups.
These include: Defoliators, Sap-Sucking pests, Gall forming pests, shoot Boring pests,
Stem Boring and Cutting pests, and Root feeding pests. These pests are mainly causing
damage in plantations but to some extent exist in nurseries and may lead to significant
losses if neglected by the nursery operators and plantation managers.
1. Defoliators
 Defoliators are insects that feed on leaf tissues.

i. Leaf-mining insects which feed within the leaf.

ii. Leaf tiers and leaf rollers which make shelter from leaves and graze this from
within.

iii. Leaf skeletonizers which eat the leaf tissue between the networks of leaf veins.

• Examples of common defoliators: grasshoppers, butterflies and moth larvae

(caterpillars), leaf beetles, weevils.

Typical symptoms of defoliation

• Large amount of missing foliage.

• Normally uneaten parts of leaves e.g. petiole are common.

• Browning of leaves.

• Silk shelters and web enclosing foliage.

• Insect remains including larval skin.

• Branch mortality.

• Whole tree mortality in very severe and persistent cases.

Defoliators: A-Larvae of Weevil (Gonipterus scutellatus) skimming the epidermis of

Eucalyptus leaf, B-Typical symptoms of defoliation caused by adult Gonipterus scutellatus.
Note the adult G. scutellatus feeding on the leaf, C-A caterpillar defoliating a Pinus caribaea
seedling (Source: Nyeko and Nakabonge, 2008)
Defoliator: Leaf beetle (Mesoplatys ochroptera) of Sesbania (Source: Nyeko and Nakabonge, 2008)

2. Sap-Sucking pests

• They suck liquid or semi-liquid material from leaves, stems, roots, fruits, flowers
or even seed.

• Affect tree vitality by extracting sap required for normal functioning of the plant,
such as shoot extension and leaf expansion.

• Psyllids and mirid bugs inject toxic saliva into their hosts causing necrosis of plant
tissue.

• Sap feeders can coat the surfaces of leaves and stems, and on which grows sooty
mold fungi. This causes reduced photosynthetic efficiency and the loss of host
vigor.

• Feeding by sap-sucking insects provides access for pathogenic fungi into plants,
and aphids, mirids (plant bugs) and cicadellids (leaf hopper) particularly are
important in the transmission of viruses.
Sap-Sucking pests: Psyllids. Inset: Enlarged psyllid (Adapted by Ronald Kisekka)
Sap-Sucking pests: Population of aphids on mainly lower sides of leaves of trees and seedlings
(Photo Credit: Ronald Kisekka)
Sap-Sucking pests: Morphology of whiteflies (Source: www.alamy.com)

Sap-Sucking pests: Appearance of whiteflies, one of Sap-sucking pests and their effect (sooty
moulds) on the seedlings as a result of secretion of honey dew (Photo Credit: Ronald Kisekka)
Damage caused by wooly whiteflies (one of sap-sucking pests) on juvenile seedlings: A-Entire
leaves clogged by wooly whiteflies; B- Individual leaves plucked-off to show the extent of
infestation by wooly whiteflies; C- Magnified portion of one of plucked-off leaves showing
population of wooly whiteflies and their initial effect on leaves; D- Damage in form of chlorosis/
yellowing and necrosis caused by wooly whiteflies on leaves of seedlings (Photo
Credit: Ronald Kisekka)
Typical symptoms of sap-sucking
• Discoloration (yellowing and browning) of leaves or needles.

• Curled leaves (leaf distortion),

• Honeydew and sooty mold on leaves, twigs, branches and sometimes on the
ground.

• Stunting of infested host plant.

• Premature leaf drop.

• Branch mortality and sometimes tree mortality.

Sap-Sucking pests: A-Adults of Thaumastocoris peregrinus (bronze bug) feeding on
Eucalyptus leaf, B- Discolouration of Eucalyptus crown caused by Thaumastocoris peregrinus,
C-Prunus africana leaves infested with psyllids covered by sooty mould (Source: Nyeko and
Nakabonge, 2008)

Management of psyllids, one of sap-sucking pests

 Spray with Rugor (dimethoate), Rocket, wood cyper e.t.c.

 Avoid alternative hosts e.g. Ficus.

 Biological control by an insect resembling tortoise with red black-spotted hind

wings (lady bird beetle).

 Avoid daily chemicals. Emphasize cultural practices for better results. Chemicals
are only used as the last resort.
Management of aphids (locally known as Muwempe) one of sap-sucking pests 

Remove hosts like Sonchus oleraceous from around nurseries.

 Practice weeding.

 Spray cold water on the leaves to dislodge aphids.

 For large aphid invasion, dust plants with flour. It constipates the pests.

 Neem oil, insecticidal soaps, and horticultural oils are effective against aphids.

Be sure to follow the application instructions provided on the packaging.

 Use either Dimethoate (Rugor), Rocket, Dusban or other pesticides.

 Apply medicated soap. Soapy water should be reapplied every 2-3 days for 2
weeks.

 Insecticidal spray, mix equal parts 70 percent alcohol and water (or, if using 95
percent alcohol, mix 1 part alcohol to 1 ½ parts water).

 Garlic repels aphids when planted near seedlings.

 Caution
 With alcohol or soap spray, always test on a small area first, and apply in
morning or evening, when the sun is not heating down.

 Watch the plant for a few days for any adverse reactions before applying more.

Sonchus oleraceous, an alternative host of aphids that should be avoided near nurseries. Encircled
are aphids on lower side of a leaf of S. oleraceous plant and their populations depend on season
(Photo Credit: Ronald Kisekka)

Control of whiteflies, one of sap-sucking pests

1. Grind 50 grams of ginger, mix with 3 litres of water, add 12 mls of liquid soap,
stir, sieve and spray on infested plants.

2. To one cup of cooking oil, add a cup of water, 2 tea spoons of washing detergent
and thoroughly mix. To the white oil formulation, add water in a ratio of 1 (white
oil formulation): 40 (water) and apply on leaves.
Caution before using mixed organic substances in 1 and 2 above
First test with fewer plants and observe if there is any wilting/ scorching effect. If yes,
then dilute with more water before spraying on entire plants with the organic pesticides
described in 1 and 2 above.

3. Gall forming pests

• Galls are unusual plant growths, which develop as a result of abnormal cell division
and/or cell enlargements following infestation of plants by organisms such as insects,
mites and fungi.

• They can occur on all parts of the plant but are most commonly found on leaves, stems
and buds.
 •
Insect-induced galls can be caused by species in several groups, but the most
important groups are wasps, bugs and flies.

• The shape of a gall is often characteristic of a particular insect species, but in some
species the males produce galls of different shapes from those produced by the
female.

• Galling rarely results in the death of the host tree, but severe dieback of attacked
parts can occur, and branches may break under the weight of galls.

• Photosynthetic capacity may be reduced where leaves are heavily galled and
distorted.

Gall forming pests: A-Leptocybe invasa (blue gum chalcid), the Eucalyptus galling wasp of
Australian origin. A nursery and field pest of Eucalyptus; B- Leptocybe invasa galls on
Eucalyptus twig. Note the emergence holes of adults of the wasp on the galls, C-Eucalyptus
shoots severely infested by L. invasa. Note the distorted and abnormally small leaves.

Gall forming pests: A-Gall bug (Phytolama lata). A nursery and field galler of Milicia excelsa
(Muvule) indigenous to Africa, B- Galls on Milicia excelsa caused by Phytolama lata (Source:
Nyeko and Nakabonge, 2008)

4. Shoot Boring pests

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• Shoot or tip-boring insects cause the most damage when they attack the apical
terminal or leader of the tree which results in irregular stem growth or multiple
branching when secondary terminals take over dominance.

Trees that have been subjected to repeated attack by such insects may have
stunted growth, bushy appearance, or at least malformed boles, and their value
for timber production can be greatly reduced or eliminated.

• Attacks on the buds and terminals of very young seedlings will often kill them, or
so stunt their growth that they are overtopped by weeds.

• Small silky web in the axil or accumulation of resin around the tip.

• Browning of tips and shoot mortality.

Shoot Boring pests: A- Cedar tip moth (Hypsipyla robusta). An important shoot borer of
mahogany species in Africa; B- Larva of Hypsipyla robusta in the shoot of a mahogany
species; C- Multiple branching of a mahogany species caused by Hypsipyla robusta
infestation (Source: Nyeko and Nakabonge, 2008)

5. Stem Boring and Cutting pests

• Wood and bark boring insects that attack seedlings often kill them.

• However, most species attack only felled, weakened or dead trees.

• Some feed on the outer surface of the bark, some tunnel into the inner bark while
others tunnel deeply into the sapwood and heartwood.

• Common stem borers include termites, beetles and wood wasps.

• Damage is often characteristic of a particular insect group and can be recognized

by the type of tunneling, frass (insect excreta and chewed wood particles) and
staining.
 •
Signs and symptoms of Stem Boring and Cutting pests
• Drying seedlings.

• Presence of earth tubes between soil and the seedlings or wooden structure (for
termites).

• Piles of frass on the outside of finished wood.

• Honeycomb wood boring damage and adult exit holes on the stem.

Some insect groups damage trees by completely eating stems or branches. Such
damage mostly occurs on nursery stock or newly planted trees.

Stem Boring and Cutting pests: A- Bark of Grevillea robusta girdled by Macrotermes
bellicosus, a damaging termite species to several tree species; B- Earth tubes on the outer bark
of Eucalyptus grandis formed by a termite species (a Pseudacanthatermes sp.); C- Pinus
caribaea seedlings with severed stems thought to be caused by crickets (Source: Nyeko and
Nakabonge, 2008)

Termites control tactics

 Dismantle their nests

 Dig a pit in the middle of the anthill (termite mound). Mix boiled water with
paraffin and pour in the middle of the anthill.

 Dig a pit in the middle of the anthill. Mix maximum (active ingredient:
imidacloprid) in water as instructed by the manufacturer though in slightly more
concentrations and pour in the middle of the ant hill near the nursery. Cover the
anthill with grass afterwards to seal it for better results.
 •
 Drench the potting soil with Maximum insecticide before sowing seeds especially
in areas with high infestation of termites near the nursery. This can be evidenced
by presence of anthills near your nursery.

6. Root feeding pests

• The insects damaging roots of seedlings consume the fibres and smaller roots.

• Others bore in the inner bark while some suck the sap.

• Examples: White grubs (larvae of scarab beetles), termites, root

• Weevils and cutworms (moth caterpillars).

Root feeders are generally most damaging in nurseries and young plantations
where the trees have small and fragile roots.

Root feeding pests: A- Typical mound of a termite species (Odontotermes species) damaging
to seedlings of Eucalyptus and Pinus species; B- Typical mound of Macrotermes bellicosus- the
most damaging termite species to trees in Uganda; C-Roots of a Eucalyptus grandis sapling
severed by Macrotermes bellicosus; D- Extensive felling of Eucalyptus grandis saplings by
Macrotermes bellicosus (Source: Nyeko and Nakabonge, 2008)

Physical appearance of root feeding pests: A- grub; B- Nematode (Adapted: Ronald Kisekka)
 •
Control of stem and root borers (e.g. grubs)
 Undertake periodical cleaning of collar region, removal of grubs, pupae
and eggs.

 Uproot and remove dead seedlings from nursery.

 Avoid injury to the trunk or exposed portion of the root.

 Swab the bark of the exposed roots and shoots with carbaryl 50 WP 2 g/L,
lindane 20 EC 1 ml/L.

 Swab with kerosene - coal tar mixture (1:2) up to one metre height on the
trunk and on exposed bark after shaving the infested bark to prevent egg
laying.

 Carry out root-feeding with monocrotophos (10 ml) + water (10 ml) in a
small polythene bag twice a year on both sides of the trunk.
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 Place 5 g of carbofuran 3 G or inject 10 ml monocrotophos 36 SL and

plug with mud to kill the grubs.

 Follow padding method of insecticide application with monocrotophos

36 SL 10 ml (Remove 5 cm bark at 30 cm from the base, place absorbent
cotton dipped in 10 ml monocrotophos 36 SL and cover with mud).
Control of nematodes, one of root feeding pests
 Spray with Furadan (Carbofuran) around the rhizosphere of seedlings.

 Drench the soil with Pearl and pour water on the soil where it was
applied three days back. Pearl is less toxic to animals. It fights
nematodes.

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF PESTS IN NURSERY TREE SEEDLINGS

1. Good cultural practices like crop sanitation.

2. Destroying severely infested seedlings by burying or burning.

3. Application of white oil formulation to repel whiteflies, aphids and other

honeydew secreting insects.
How is white oil made?

• Mix thoroughly 1 cup of water, half a cup of cooking oil and 2 table
spoons of washing detergent like Omo. Use ratio of 1 (white oil): 40
(water). Test on few plants before spraying on the rest.
4. Use of neem oil (extracts from Azadirachta indica).
5. Mounting yellow and/or blue insect sticky traps as checks at reasonable
distances apart in the nursery at heights slightly above the canopy of seedlings
as shown in figure below.

Mechanical control of pests: Yellow sticky traps hanging amidst seedlings in green house to trap
insects: 1. before trapping insects, 2. after trapping insects (adults of whiteflies, beetles, fungus
gnats and other winged insects). This disrupts their life cycle and helps deal with these pests, 3.
Yellow and blue sticky
traps before trapping insects (Adopted with modification by Ronald Kisekka)
6. Hand picking when pests are still in low numbers.
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7. Application of appropriate pesticides in case the number goes beyond

economic threshold for example Demon Max (Cypermethrin) for termites.
8. Use an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Approach which involves use of all
available methods to control pests. It is the best approach used for managing
pests and diseases in nursery seedlings. IPM can be best illustrated in the
figure below.

An array of pests and diseases control tactics used in IPM (Integrated Pest
Management) approach adopted from Leppla and Williams (1992) by R. Kisekka.
Note that the control tactics outlined for the different pests in this chapter each fall
under one of the components of IPM. To understand better the IPM Approach all its
five components, a clear description is given below.

Description of the components of IPM approach

1. Chemical control: This has two sub-components: (i) Natural toxins that
exist in plants as exudates and naturally defend the plants against attack
from pests and diseases for example alkaloids and tannins. (ii) Selective
products that are the commercially available chemicals which are able to
kill only pests and exclude beneficial organisms. This is very crucial
because pesticides used should not kill the parasitoids, predators that are
always present in the ecosystem to naturally check on the population of
pests.

2. Host plant resistance: There are conventionally selected/ bred varieties

which are able to resist pests and disease attack. We always encourage
nursery operators to go for those varieties which are known to be highly
resistant. However, there are also transgenic plants with an introduced
external resistant gene through genetic engineering/ recombinant DNA
technology. In Uganda, use of such plants is not yet legalized and hence,
•

nursery operators and farmers should not use them until the bio-safety bill
is passed.

3. Cultural control: These are tactics/ norms that a nursery operator can do
within his means to reduce on pests and disease attack on his seedlings.
They range from agronomic practice to multiple cropping systems.
Agronomic practices include:
i. Application of organic matter or manure which gives seedlings
high vigor able to withstand pests and disease attack,
ii. Good spacing to promote aeration,
iii. Good crop sanitation to reduce on inoculum density, iv.
Rouging which involves removal of diseased parts of the
seedling,
v. Soil solarization and soil treatment techniques which aims at
sterilizing the potting media to make it free from soil-borne
pathogens (as described in the section on diseases),
vi. Integration of insect sticky traps which aims at checking insect
populations in the nursery and more other techniques.

On the other hand, multiple cropping techniques involve creating a

mixture of seedlings/ tree species which creates a heterogeneous state that
confuses a pest or disease hence minimizing its outbreak.

4. Biological control: Involves use of natural living organisms to manage

pests and diseases. Parasitoids and predators naturally exist in the
ecosystem. Therefore, it is mandatory to apply selective chemicals which
cause no harm to them. There can also be introduction of parasitoids
targeting a particular pest. This is known as classical biological control.
Currently, NaFORRI has spearheaded application of classical biological
control in the management of a number of eucalyptus pests in the country.
At nursery level, some of the predators used in managing common pests
include lady bird beetles and others. A nursery operator should always use
selective chemicals which do not harm natural enemies. Alternatively, use
of organic chemicals in managing nursery pests is encouraged. These
include use of plant extracts from plants like neem, tephrosia, ginger, garlic,
tobacco and others. Some are used singly, while others in combination and
either before or after a certain period of fermentation depending on the
mixture.

5. Behavioural manipulation: Involves the use of naturally secreted

substances by the pest in its management. Such substances include
pheromones. There are several man made attractants and repellants for
managing pests and these normally target the natural pheromones in the
pests of interest. A good example
 •

of behavioural manipulation is the use of parapheromone traps in the

management of fruit flies which are major pests of several hosts especially
fruits. This utilizes the pheromones of a female fruit fly which are
implanted or baited on the strips of the traps to attract male fruit flies. The
trap is also incorporated with an insecticide which finally kills the male
fruit fly after falling prey. This then interferes with the whole life cycle of
fruit flies at mating level by regulating males in the ecosystem hence
managing fruit flies population effectively.

It should be noted that a system that has all the five components of IPM Approach
utilized will achieve the best pests and disease management results. At least three
of these five components should always be used concurrently and chemical
control should be used as the last resort after other components have failed to
manage the pests and disease damage on nursery tree seedlings and trees in
plantations.

Pest of forest nurseries

• 1. PEST OF FOREST NURSERIES Forest nurseries are the motherland of forestry

programmes The non availability of seedlings due to damage caused by the
insects,nematodes,diseases etc becomes main constraint for production of the seedlings.
Among all those damages,the insect cause the damage upto 45% and become the major
constraints in production of forestry seedlings.

• 2. FOREST ENTAMOLOGY An area of forest constitutes of about 56 million hecter of total

area in India. Among those which are destructive to the india forest insects paly a vital role
in and causes annual loss of 10% of the total forest revenue in which it mainly causes
damage to the seeds,nurseries,transplants and forest products also. To study all those
insects the FOREST ENTAMOLOGY has been established and is divided.

• 3. FOREST ENTOMOLOGY Pest of pest of failed pest of seeds and pest of forest pest of
standing nursery and stored timber fruits produts trees pest of natura forest pest of man
made industrial forest.

• 4. FOREST ENTAMOLOGY the forest nursery is attacked by the various pests which are
feeding on the various parts of the of forest seedlings and these pest are devided as... WHITE
GRUBS/CHAFFERS• WHITE GRUBS/CHAFFERS • ROOT FEEDERS • DEFOLIATERS • SAP
SUCKERS.

• 5. CHAFERS/WHITE GRUBS The different spp. Of white grubs cause damage to forest
seedlings and are as fallows HOLOTRICHIA CONSANGUINEA: F-SCARABIDAE O-
COLEOPTERA These grubs feed on the rootlets and cortical tissues of the seedlings and
cause the death of the seedlings. HOST:Acacia nilotica Aibizia lebbek Prosopis cineria
•

• 6. Controle; Bed fumigation with bromochloropicrin and applying of phorate granules

will decrese the white grubs

• 7. MALADERA INSANABILIES • O-COLEOPTERA F-SCARABIDAE • Thses grubs will feed on

the leaves of the seedlings and act as defoliaters of the plant. • HOST:Prosopis cinaria •
Acasia nilotica

• 8. RHYNIPTIA LAEVICIPS O-COLEOPTERA F-SCARABIDAE These will also feed on the

leaves of the seedling and act as defoliaters of the seedlings HOST:Prosopis cineria 
Acasia nilotica

• 9. CONTROLE MEASURES These can be controlled by application of chloropyripause and

bed fumigation with bromochloropicrin The soil before preparing the bed should be
ploughed so that grubs are can be destriyed by handpicking.

• 10. • Indian arid zone covers 31.7 million ha hot desert and 0.78 million ha cold desert,
which is about 12 percent of the country‟s total geographical area. The mean annual rainfall
in the region varies from 100 mm in the north- western sector of Jaisalmer to 550 mm in
eastern districts of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Haryana. The rainfall is highly erratic having 65
percent coefficient of variability. The vegetation in the Indian arid zone is very sparse ,
scanty and thorny. However, the forests and trees like many other plants, suffer from attack
by insect pests and diseases which cause a lot of damage, resulting in poor tree growth, poor
timber quality, and in some cases, complete destruction and reduction of forest cover in
Indian arid zone also. Thus, trees and forests need to be protected from these agents of
destruction. With the ever increasing human and livestock population, the amount of forest
per capita is declining particularly in the less industrialized or developing areas of the world.
It is estimated that the land under forest in developing countries is about 2100 million
hectares, or more than half of the forested land on earth. Considerable effort is needed
therefore to increase the productivity of the existing forests and to afforest suitable areas.
Diseases and insect pests constitute the major biological determinants of forest productivity
in the natural forests and particularly in plantations, thus offsetting the effort in increasing
wood production to meet the growing needs of an increasing population. The trees selected
for seed production can have individual branches covered with sleeves or pollination bags
made from woven glass fibre material to exclude the pest species. Insecticides like
Endosulphan and Tetrachlorvinphos are effective against bruchids. Some parasites and
predators can be successfully used to control the bruchids Parasites attack on egg, larvae
and pupal stages. Bruchid eggs, because of their position on the out side of a pod, are easily
located by parasitoids. Uscana sumifumipennis has been reported be a group of egg
parasitoids associated with bruchids. Bruchids fall to complete their life cycle in presence of
mites (Acarina) of the genus Pymotes. They feed on egg, larvae pupae and adults of bruchids.
Pymotis boylei is most probably the species which attacks on bruchids. • Meeta sharma •
arid forest research institute,jodhpur ,Rajastan

• 11. ROOTF EEDERS • THESE WILL FEED ON ROOTS AND CAUSE DAMAGE TO THE ROOTS
AND CAUSES WILTING OF PLANT AND FINALLY LEADS TO DEATH OF THE PLANT
NURSERY. • ODENTOTERMIS OBESUS: • O-ISOPTERA F-TERMITIDAE • HOST:Acasia nilotica
• Dalberzia sissoo
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• 12. MICROTERMIS MICROPHAGOUS • O-ISOPTERA F-TERMITIDAE • HOST:Acasia nilotica

• Dalberzia sissoo • in both the spp,the workers will feed on it and cause damage to the plant
and leads to the death

• 13. CONTROLE: spraying of chloropyripause to the seedlings will help to controle the
termites in the nursery seedlings.

• 14. DEFOLIATERS BRACHYTRYPES PORTENTOSUS: O-ORTHOPTERA F-GRYLLIDAE

Both adults and nymphs will cause the danage to the seedlings by scraping the green
matter on the leaves and they also cut the young seedlings and leads to death of young
seedlings. HOST:Tocomella undulata Albizzia lebbek

• 15. PAPILEO DEMOLEOUS: O-PAPILIONIDAE F-LEPIDOPTERA These caterpillers

will feed on the leaves and causes defoliation of leaves and feed on green matter and
decreases the photosynthesis HOST:Albizzia lebbik

• 16. PLECOPTERA REFLEXA: O-LEPIDOPTERA F-NOCTIDAE These also feedson the

leaves of the forest seedlings in the nurseries and feed on the green matter by scraping the
leaves. HOST:Dalberzzia sissoo
• 17. MYLLOSERUS DALBERZIAE: O-COLEOPTERA F-CURCULIONIDAE The adukt of
these insects feed on leaves and acts as defoliters HOST:Moringa oleifera Dalberzzia sissoo

• 18. PATIALUS TECOMELLA: O-COLEOPTERA F-CURCULIONIDAE The drubs of these

insects will feed on the leaves and decreses the seedlings vigour and cause the death of the
seedlings HOST:Tocomella undulata

• 19. Mites on tilia spp Budworm on picea spp Thrips damage on leaf

• 20. SAP SUCKERS The insects belongs to these group will make wounds on the seedlings or
cause damage to the seedlings mechanicakky and enter into the seedlings and suck the sap
from seedlings sand make plant to wilt and in sevear condition it leads to death.pecially from
the tender parts of the shoots and the important spp and their host are.

• 21. ACADILEYRODES RACHIPORA O-PYRHACORRIDAE F-HEMIPTERA This is the one

of the important spp among the sap suckers spp.and it effects no. Of spp.of the forest seedligs
and its host are.... Acasia nilotica,Acasia torti,Acasia senegal,Dalberzzia sissoo,Ecalyptus
spp,leucena luecophal,pongamia pinnata,prosopis cineria Etc.

• 22. APHIS GOSSYPII: O-HEMIPTERA F-APHIDIDAE HOST:Albezzia lebbeck,Acasia nilotica

The nymohs and adults cause damage to the seedlings and decreses the vigour of the
seedlings. DYSDERCUS SIGULATUS: O-HEMIPTERA F-PYRHACORRIDAE HOST:PONGAMIA
PINNATA The nymphs and adults are will cause damage .

• 23. OXYRACHUS TARANDUS: O-HEMIPTERA F-MEMBRACIDAE

HOST:Acasia nilotica Alberzzia lebbeck Prosopis cineraria PULVINARIA MAXIMA: O-
•

HOMOPTERA F-COCCIDAE HOST:Azadircta indaica The adults and nymohs of both these
spp.will suck the sap from the seedlings and leads to the death of the seedlings

• 24. EURYBROCHIS TEMENTOSA: O-HOMOPTERA F-EURYBRACHIDAE HOST-

Acasia nilotica Albezzia lebbeck Dalbergia sissoo Prosopis cineria Prosopis juliflora Nymphs
and adults of these spp.will suck the sap and causes damage to seedling

• 25. Thrips damage as sucker Dysdercus on pongamia Hemipterans on prosopis

• 26. DISEASES AND INSECT IN FOREST NURSRY SUONENJOKI RESEARCH STATION.

FINLANDThe forest-products industry and nonindustrial private landowners in the
southern United States depend on forest-tree nurseries for the production of high quality
seedlings. Nursery managers have long used methyl bromide fumigation to provide broad
spectrum control of weeds, disease-causing organisms, nematodes, and insects. Due to the
phaseout of methyl bromide by 2005, it is imperative to determine the pest problems that
will affect nursery production in the future, and to develop appropriate control strategies.
Since 1995 we have been assessing pest problems and evaluating various fumigants
including metam sodium, basamid, chloropicrin and methyl bromide for the control of pests
and the production of seedlings. More recently we have turned our attention to assessing the
potential benefits of other chemical (e.g., herbicides, seed treatments) and nonchemical (e.g.,
solarization, cover crops) pest control practices. Differences in seedling production
frequently have not been observed between fumigation treatments and nonfumigated
controls in our studies. Weeds, particularly nutsedge (&SHUXV spp.), have been the most
evident and severe problem. Although herbicides are available for most weeds found in
southern pine nurseries, their use to control nutsedge and other difficult-to-control weeds
have not been fully developed. We have not observed major losses in our studies that could
be definitively attributed to diseases or nematodes. Information is presently lacking on the
rate at which populations of disease-causing organisms and nematodes rebound in nurseries
following fumigation. Although finding acceptable alternatives to methyl bromide is
essential, developing the means to adequately predict pest problems is equally important. In
the future, additional emphasis needs to be given to development of more comprehensive
integrated pest management programs rather than just the evaluation of broad spectrum
fumigants. Stephen W.Fraedrich and L.David Dwinell USDA Forest Service,Southern
Research Station,Athens , GA

• 27. BIOFUMIGATION IN FOREST NURSERY AN ALTERNATIVE TO CHEMICAL

FUMIGATION? Organic matter, composts, manure usually emit volatile substances such as
ammonia and carbon dioxide during the process of fermentation. Such gases revealed to be
highly toxic for most of soilborne pathogens and nematodes. Vegetables crop under
greenhouses in the south part of Spain never suffer from soilborne diseases as a result of
biofumigation occurrence. Preliminary results carried out in controlled conditions showed
that 48 and 96 hours exposure to volatile substances released from urban composts reduce
greatly damping- off caused by the Rhizactonia solani to pine seedlings . Biofumigation
associated with solarisation can be the most promising mean of the integrated control of
disease prevention program B.Lebhihan,R.Perrin and P.Camporata Suonenjoki Research
Station in Finland

• 28. Integrated Pest Management is a system that combines cultural, biological and
chemical technologies to reduce insect, fungal and weed populations to levels below those
that result in economic damage. Nursery managers in the southern United States currently
use many practices to control pests of southern pine seedlings. Over the last three decades,
•

improvements in chemical, cultural, and biological pest control practices have increased
seed efficiency (defined as the number of plantable seedlings produced divided by the
number of pure live seed sown) and reduced the percentage of production costs associated
with pest control. As crop values increase, the economic thresholds for applying control
measures decrease. However, since the statistical power of most trials in bareroot nurseries
is low, the likelihood of experiments that detect ‘‘real’’ treatment difference (e.g. those that
consistently increase seed efficiency to the point where economic returns are affected) will
be low. This paper describes some current practices in southern pine nurseries and provides
some economic injury levels for various pest control treatments. INTEGRATED PEST
MANAGEMENT IN NURSERY

• 29. ETL and EIL for various IPM treatments David B south and Scott A Ennebaak School oF
Forest Sciences and Wildlife Sciences,Auburn University

• 30. A SEED EXCLOSER THAT AVOIDS THE SEED PREDATION,HAWAI DIVISION OF

FORESTRY AND WILD LIFE,KAMUELA

ABSTRACT
Forest insect pests and diseases are one of the current and prioritized research
programmes under the Forest Research Centre of the Sabah Forestry Department. The
current research includes documentation of insect pests and diseases on forest plantation
trees and potentially important commercial trees in Sabah. Surveys of pests and diseases
on the economic tree species including Neolamarckia cadamba, Octomeles sumatrana,
Terminalia copelandii, Acacia mangium, Falcataria moluccana and various Eucalyptus
species, as well as Bornean endemic dipterocarps, have been done. With such study,
baseline information of pest and disease syndrome, and profile of individual economic tree
species are documented, major pests and diseases can be identified. The baseline
information may also provide future preventive measures for outbreak of forest insect
pests and diseases. Study on insect pests of ornamental plants is also being carried out
since much emphasis has been given on urban forestry and landscaping. The study on
insects in mangroves, including insect pests, is an ongoing project in collaboration with the
International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems (ISME), which focuses work on mangrove
rehabilitation and sustainability. Research findings from all these insect pest and disease
projects will be highlighted.

Keywords: forest insect pests, diseases, forestry, research

INTRODUCTION
The establishment of forest plantations is one of the ways forward for the management of
forest resources in reducing the pressure on the declining natural forests. For Sabah’s
•

timber industry to remain competitive, the future of forestry lies in forest plantations as the
main source of raw wood material. Research on insect pests and diseases is among the
parameters that could contribute indirectly to the growth and yield of various timber and
non-timber species, be it in plantation forest or natural forest. Rehabilitation, reforestation
and replanting forest trees are an important and integral aspect of sustainable forest
management. These include natural regeneration, enrichment planting in logged over areas
and replanting in clearfelled areas. As of 2014, more than 230,000 ha in Sabah were
planted with forest plantation species (Anon 2014). Main forest plantation tree species are
Hevea brasiliensis (44%), followed by Acacia mangium (26%), Eucalyptus (16%), Falcataria
moluccana (6%) and dipterocarps (8%). The planting of rubber has been spearheaded by
Lembaga Industri Getah Sabah (LIGS). The Sabah Forestry Department has also been
emphasizing the planting on indigenous species, such as Neolamarckia cadamba (Laran),
Octomeles sumatrana (Binuang), Terminalia copelandii (Talisai Paya) and Duabanga
moluccana (Magas). Other non-timber species which have been given due attention are
Aquilaria malaccensis (Gaharu) for its fragrance from the resin.

FOREST INSECT PEST AND DISEASE RESEARCH UNDERTAKEN BY

THE SABAH FORESTRY DEPARTMENT
Research and development (R&D) is undertaken by the Forest Research Centre (FRC) of the
Sabah Forestry Department, located in Sepilok, Sandakan. The Centre endeavours to excel
in tropical forestry research, with its mission, to further develop and apply knowledge and
technology to support conservation, management, development and sustainable utilization
of the forest resources of Sabah through scientific research. Research on forest insect pests
and diseases is one of the current and prioritized research programmes under the FRC.
With the vast land area under forest cover in Sabah and the expansion of forest plantations,
there is a need to conduct research on insect pests and diseases in order to properly
manage the natural and plantation forests, and to control and prevent outbreak that could
be detrimental to the trees.

CURRENT RESEARCH ON FOREST INSECT PESTS AND DISEASES

1. Insect pests and diseases of forest plantation trees and other

potentially important trees in Sabah
The objectives of this study are to document the insect pests and diseases of plantation
tree species and some potentially important tree species in Sabah, and to evaluate the
status of insect pests and diseases of plantation tree species. Surveys on some potentially
important plantation species, such as Neolamarckia cadamba, Octomeles sumatrana,
Terminalia copelandii, Acacia mangium, Falcataria moluccana, Hevea brasiliensis and
various Eucalyptus species were conducted. Insect pests of the lesser known tree species
were surveyed as well in the field and at the nursery. The life cycle of insect pests was
monitored and documented. A few papers were published, e.g. insect pests of Terminalia
•

copelandii (Chung et al. 2006), Octomeles sumatrana (Chung et al. 2008a) and
Neolamarckia cadamba (Chung et al. 2009). Research is still on-going and a few papers
were presented at the national level, e.g. Chung & Farrah (2007), Chung et al. (2007) and
Chung et al. (2008b). Some of the common insect pests and diseases of selected forest
plantation species in Sabah are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Some common insect pests and diseases of selected forest plantation species in
Sabah.

No. Tree species Common insect pests (source) Common diseases (source)
(Common name)
1. Neolamarckia cadamba • Arthroschista hilaralis Fusarium & Pythium spp. Chin
(Laran) • Daphnis hypothous (1995)
(Chung et al. 2009)
2. Octomeles sumatrana • Aiteta deminutiva No major diseases recorded
(Binuang) • Spodoptera litura
(Chung et al. 2008a)
3. Terminalia copelandii • Lebeda intermedia No major diseases recorded
(Talisai Paya) (Chung 2014)
• Clethrogyna turbata
(Chung et al. 2006)
4. Acacia mangium (Acacia) • Coptotermes curvignathus • Ceratocystis manginecans (acaciivora)
• Microcerotermes dubius • Ganoderma philippi
(Chey & Intachat 2000) (Brawner et al. 2015)
5. Falcataria moluccana • Eurema hecabe Uromycladium tepperianum
(Batai) • Xystrocera festiva (Rahayu et al. 2009)
(Chey 1996)
6. Eucalyptus spp. Leptocybe invasa Teratosphaeria destructans
(Eucalyptus) Nisitrus vittatus (Andjic et al. 2011)
(Viviannye Paul, unpublished data) Chrysoporthe sp.
(Viviannye Paul, unpublished data)
7. Hevea brasiliensis • Coptotermes curvignathus (Chey 2002) • Rigidoporus lignosus
(Rubber) • Hypomeces squamosus • Colletotrichum gloeosporoides
(Chung et al. 2008b) (Lemmens et al. 1995)

2 Insect pests of Bornean endemic dipterocarps

Dipterocarps are the most important commercial timber trees in the tropical forest. As a
family of plants, Dipterocarpaceae dominates the international tropical timber market, and
thus plays an important role in the economy of many countries in Southeast Asia. In Sabah,
there are 183 species of dipterocarps, and about 70% of the total number of dipterocarp
species in Borneo, i.e. 96 species (52.5%) are endemic to Borneo. Documentation on new
insect-host plant is still on-going, and monitoring is being conducted at the nursery of the
Forest Research Centre, Sepilok. A research paper on insects associated with Bornean
endemic dipterocarp seedlings has been published (Chung et al. 2013).
•

3 Insect pests of urban forestry

There is a huge demand for ornamental plants in the country and for overseas as well.
Many of these plants are originated from the forests. Within the country, the ornamentals
are widely used in urban landscaping, lining the avenues of towns and cities, decorating
both public and private gardens. They provide shade, cool the atmosphere and beautify the
landscape. The purpose of this project is to document the insect pests of urban forestry
which have not been recorded previously. It is also to monitor the status of pests in the
urban areas, and to find solution for problems that occur. Some of the research findings
were published, e.g. defoliation of the Ketapang tree (Chung 2008a) and Bornean endemic
Alocasia cuprea (Chung et al. 2015), while others being presented, e.g. insects associated
with ornamental plants (Chung 2008b).

4 Insect pests of mangrove forest species

Majority of the mangroves in Malaysia are distributed in Sabah, especially on the east
coast. They are known to be an important breeding ground for marine life and a source of
economic livelihood for coastal communities. However, very little is known about insects
associated with the mangrove forests. Thus, surveys were carried out to investigate the
insects affecting the growth of mangrove species. In the Sepilok Mangrove Forest Reserve,
Coccotrypes sp. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) was recorded attacking seedlings of
two mangrove species. About 60% of Rhizophora apiculata (Bangkita) seedlings and 7% of
Ceriops tagal (Tengar) seedlings within a 50 x 50 m area died as a result of the infestation
(Chung et al.
2008c).

The Sabah Forestry Department has been actively involved in mangrove rehabilitation, in
collaboration with the International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems (ISME) and Tropical
Biosphere Research Centre (TBRC) of Ryukyus University, Japan. Studies were conducted to
investigate some of the insect pests attacking planted mangrove trees (Chung and Tangah,
2013). In 2015, a survey on insects was conducted at the Sg. ISME plot in Sg. Manila,
Sandakan. This is part of the collaboration with the International Society for Mangrove
Ecosystems (ISME) to monitor the health of the rehabilitated mangrove site. Other study on
insects in mangrove forest includes the insect survey conducted at Tundon Bohangin within
the Ramsar site in the Lower Kinabatangan-Segama Wetlands, in 2014 and 2015. The
purpose of this study was to procure insect data to enhance biodiversity conservation of
this Ramsar site, as well as to investigate some of the potential pest species.

CONCLUSION
•

Research on forest insect pests and diseases indirectly contributes towards sustainable
forest management. Such information provides a better understanding on various insect
pests and diseases in relation to the host plants and the environment. This will eventually
lead to better implementation and proper management of forest plantations, as well as the
natural forests.

Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Datuk Sam Mannan (Director of Forestry) and Dr Lee Ying Fah
(Deputy Director – R&D) for their support in this research programme. Funding for many of
the projects in this programme mainly comes from the Malaysian Plan (RMK) allocation
through the Ministry of Natural Resources & Environment and the State annual recurrent
allocation.

References

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Brawner, J., Japarudin, Y., Lapammu, M., Rauf, R., Boden, D. and Wingfield, M.J. (2015).
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Lasiocampidae) caterpillars on a Ketapang tree. Sepilok Bulletin 8: 53-58.

•

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29 August, 2008.

Chung, A.Y.C. (2014). Discovering the insects of Heritage Amenity Forest Reserve, Sandakan.
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Chung, A.Y.C. and Joseph Tangah (2013). New hostplant record for nettle caterpillar, Thosea
vetusta on Avicennia alba. Poster presented at National Seminar on Coastal Forest
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Chung, A.Y.C., Nilus, R. and Hastie, A. (2006). New records of Talisai Paya (Terminalia
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Chung, A.Y.C., Suzana, S., Pereira, J.T., Gubilil, P. and Midin, N. (2015). A new record of hawk
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FOR FURTHER READING

1. Evans J & J Turnbull (2004; 3rd Edn). Plantation Forestry in the Tropics
(Chapter 10 – Forest Nurseries)
2. ICFR, 2008. The Institute of Commercial Forestry Research’s Annual
Research Review 2007. See www.icfr.ukzn.ac.za
3. Kapalaga I, 2003. The Management of Small & Medium Scale Nurseries
in Uganda. Study for FRMCP (available from SPGS).
4. Longman KA, 1998. Growing Good Tropical Trees for Planting:
Propagation and Planting Manual (Vol. 3).Commonwealth Science
Council.
5. Smith-Wright J & I. Goodlet, 1990. USUTU Forest (Swaziland) Nursery
Manual.
6. Temmes M (2003). Report on Nursery Management in Uganda. Study for
FRMCP (available from SPGS).
7. Nyeko, P. 2008. Field Guidelines for Insect Pests and Diseases of
Commercial Tree Species in Uganda. SPGS.
8. Nyeko, P and Nakabonge, G. 2008. Occurrence of Pests and Diseases in
Tree
Nurseries and Plantations in Uganda. A Study Commissioned by the
Sawlog
Production Grant Scheme (SPGS)