ISSN 1831-9424

ISSN 1831-9424

CLEAN ENERGY
TECHNOLOGY
OBSERVATORY

Photovoltaics in the European Union

2 0 2 3

STATUS REPORT ON TECHNOLOGY

DEVELOPMENT, TRENDS, VALUE CHAINS &
MARKETS

EUR 31691 EN
 rvice. It
aims to provide evidence-based scientific support to the European policymaking process. The contents of this publication do not
necessarily reflect the position or opinion of the European Commission. Neither the European Commission nor any person acting on
behalf of the Commission is responsible for the use that might be made of this publication. For information on the methodology and
quality underlying the data used in this publication for which the source is neither Eurostat nor other Commission services, users
should contact the referenced source. The designations employed and the presentation of material on the maps do not imply the
expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the European Union concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or
area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

Contact information
Name: Anatoli Chatzipanagi
Address: European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Ispra, Italy
Email: [email protected]

EU Science Hub
https://joint-research-centre.ec.europa.eu

JRC135034

EUR 31691 EN

PDF ISBN 978-92-68-08387-1 ISSN 1831-9424 doi:10.2760/732675 KJ-NA-31-691-EN-N

Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2023

© European Union, 2023

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How to cite this report: Chatzipanagi, A., Jaeger-Waldau, A., Cleret De Langavant, C., Gea Bermudez, J., Letout, S., Mountraki, A., Schmitz, A.,
Georgakaki, A., Ince, E., Kuokkanen, A. and Shtjefni, D., Clean Energy Technology Observatory: Photovoltaics in the European Union - 2023
Status Report on Technology Development, Trends, Value Chains and Markets, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg,
2023, doi:10.2760/732675, JRC135034.
Contents

Abstract ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1
Foreword on the Clean Energy Technology Observatory ......................................................................................................................... 2
Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
Executive Summary ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
1.1 Scope and context ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
1.2 Methodology and Data Sources ........................................................................................................................................................... 8
2 Technology status and development trends ............................................................................................................................................ 9
2.1 Technology readiness level ..................................................................................................................................................................... 9
2.1.1 Photovoltaic (PV) module technologies ........................................................................................................................ 10
2.1.2 Emerging innovative PV deployment applications ................................................................................................. 13
2.2 Installed Capacity and Production ................................................................................................................................................... 15
2.3 Technology Costs ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 20
2.4 Public RD&I Funding and Investments .......................................................................................................................................... 26
2.5 Private RD&I funding ................................................................................................................................................................................ 28
2.6 Patenting trends .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 32
2.7 Scientific publication trends ................................................................................................................................................................. 35
2.8 Assessment of R&I project developments .................................................................................................................................. 38
3 Value Chain Analysis ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 39
3.1 Turnover ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 39
3.2 Gross value added ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 41
3.3 Environmental and socio-economic sustainability ................................................................................................................ 42
3.4 Role of EU Companies ............................................................................................................................................................................. 43
3.5 Employment ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 48
3.6 Energy intensity and labour productivity ..................................................................................................................................... 51
3.6.1 Energy intensity ........................................................................................................................................................................... 51
3.6.2 Labour productivity .................................................................................................................................................................... 52
3.7 EU Production Data ................................................................................................................................................................................... 53
4 EU Market Position and Global Competitiveness ............................................................................................................................... 55
4.1 Global & EU market leaders ................................................................................................................................................................ 55
4.2 Trade (Import/export) and trade balance .................................................................................................................................... 58
4.3 Resource efficiency and dependence in relation to EU competitiveness ................................................................ 61
5 Conclusions................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 63
References .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 65
List of definitions ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 73
List of boxes ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 76
List of figures ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 77

i
List of tables ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 79
Annexes ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 80
Annex 1 Summary Table of Data Sources for the CETO Indicators ............................................................................................... 81
Annex 2 Countries, regions and continents coding ................................................................................................................................... 82
Annex 3 Energy System Models and Scenarios: POTEnCIA and POLES-JRC ............................................................................. 83
A3.1 POTEnCIA Model Overview .................................................................................................................................................................... 83
A3.2 POTEnCIA CETO Climate Neutrality Scenario Overview...................................................................................................... 84
A3.3 POLES-JRC Model ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 85
A3.4 POLES-JRC CETO Global 2 C Scenario .......................................................................................................................................... 87
Annex 4 PV topics in Horizon Europe Work Programmes (WP) 2021-2022 and 2023-2024, the ongoing
projects of the 2021-2022 PV calls and ongoing Innovation Fund projects ........................................................................... 88
Annex 5 Upstream c-Si technology sector and downstream utility-scale installation sector ....................................... 93
Annex 6 Sustainability Assessment Framework ......................................................................................................................................... 94
Annex 7 List of EU companies for polysilicon, ingot, wafer, cell and module production equipment and for
module components, tracking systems and inverters ............................................................................................................................ 98

ii
Abstract
As part of the Clean Energy Technology Observatory (CETO), this report on Photovoltaics (PV) is built on three
sections: the technology state of the art, future developments and trends, the value chain analysis and the EU
position and global competitiveness. PV is the fastest-growing source of electricity production from renewable

photovoltaic systems is required in order to achieve the goals set in the European Green Deal (EGD). The current
trend of the EU market shows that it is growing faster than what is required to reach the new PV system
capacity installations by 2030 as described in the EU Solar Strategy communication. As the overall global
demand for PV components is growing even faster than in the EU and trade frictions can occur, precaution is
required to avoid a fallout of international supply chain disruptions on the deployment of PV in the EU. To hedge
such a risk, the EU value chain should be able to supply at least 25-35 % of the EU market. At the moment,
this is possible for the production of polysilicon, backsheets, contact materials, inverters and balance of system
components. Additional new capacities for wafers, cells and solar glass production are needed.

1
Foreword on the Clean Energy Technology Observatory
The European Commission set up the Clean Energy Technology Observatory (CETO) in 2022 to help address the
complexity and multi-faced character of the transition to a climate-neutral society
energy and climate policies create a necessity to tackle the related challenges in a comprehensive manner,
recognising the important role for advanced technologies and innovation in the process.
CETO is a joint initiative of the European Commission Joint Research Centre (JRC), who run the observatory, and
Directorate Generals Research and Innovation (R&I) and Energy (ENER) on the policy side. Its overall objectives
are to:
- monitor the EU research and innovation activities on clean energy technologies needed for the delivery of
the European Green Deal
- assess the competitiveness of the EU clean energy sector and its positioning in the global energy market
- build on existing Commission studies, relevant information & knowledge in Commission services and
agencies, and the Low Carbon Energy Observatory (2015-2020)
- publish reports on the Strategic Energy Technology Plan (SET-Plan) SETIS online platform
CETO provides a repository of techno- and socio-economic data on the most relevant technologies and
their integration in the energy system. It targets in particular the status and outlook for innovative solutions
as well as the sustainable market uptake of both mature and inventive technologies. The project serves as
progress reports on competitiveness of clean energy
technologies. It also supports the implementation of and development of EU research and innovation policy.
The observatory produces a series of annual reports addressing the following themes:
- Clean Energy Technology Status, Value Chains and Market: covering advanced biofuels, batteries, bioenergy,
carbon capture utilisation and storage, concentrated solar power and heat, geothermal heat and power,
heat pumps, hydropower & pumped hydropower storage, novel electricity and heat storage technologies,
ocean energy, photovoltaics, renewable fuels of non-biological origin (other), renewable hydrogen, solar
fuels (direct) and wind (offshore and onshore).
- Clean Energy Technology System Integration: building-related technologies, digital infrastructure for smart
energy system, industrial and district heat & cold management, standalone systems, transmission and
distribution technologies, smart cities and innovative energy carriers and supply for transport.
- Foresight Analysis for Future Clean Energy Technologies using Weak Signal Analysis
- Clean Energy Outlooks: Analysis and Critical Review
- System Modelling for Clean Energy Technology Scenarios
- Overall Strategic Analysis of Clean Energy Technology Sector
More details are available on the CETO web pages

2
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank
- Samuel Carrara (JRC.C.7) for his review and comments.
- Nigel Taylor (CETO project leader), Andreas Schmitz (CETO deputy project leader) for their support,
review and comments.

The authors would like to thank the following colleagues for their valuable contribution to this report:
- Marcelina Grabowska and Olivier Eulaerts (JRC.I.3 TIM team) for the bibliometrics data.
- Cynthia Latunussa, Umberto Eynard and David Pennington (JRC.D.3) for their contribution regarding
the environmental sustainability of PV.
- Ugo Simeoni, Maider Machado (CINEA) and Maria Getsiou (DG RTD) for the Innovation Fund and Horizon
Europe data.
- Jacopo Tattini, Raffaele Salvucci and Marc Jaxa-Rozen (JRC.C.6) for the POTEnCIA modelling.
- Andrea Diaz Rincon, Burkhard Schade (JRC.C.6) for the POLES-JRC modelling.
- Stavros Lazarou (ESTAT) for his guidance regarding the PV installed capacity and PV electricity
generation data.

The authors would like to acknowledge the valuable input received by the following experts:
- Johannes Lambert (fz-juelich).
- Thomas Garabetian (SolarPower Europe, ETIP-PV).
- Johan Lindahl and Amelia Oller Westerberg (European Solar Manufacturing Council (ESMC)).
- Jochen Rentsch (Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems (ISE)).

Authors
Anatoli Chatzipanagi, Arnulf Jaeger-Waldau, Charles Cleret de Langavant, Juan Gea Bermudez, Simon Letout,
Aikaterini Mountraki, Andreas Schmitz, Aliki Georgakaki, Ela Ince, Anna Kuokkanen, Drilona Shtjefni.

3
Executive Summary
Following the E
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Assessment Report in April 2022 combined with the
geopolitical developments in 2022 accentuated the urgent need of the clean energy transition. To this end, in
2022, the European Commission presented the REPowerEU and the EU Solar Energy Strategy with the aim of
reducing net emissions by at least 55 % by 2030 and more than 500 GWp additional increase of the photovoltaic
capacity by 2030. Furthermore, it proposed a target of 40 % participation of renewable ene

recently proposed Net-Zero Industry Act aims to set the required environment to scale up manufacturing of
net-zero industry in the EU and face up to the future demand. The target set is for 30 GW p of European
manufacturing along the entire value chain by 2025 and 40 % of installed solar PV being manufactured within
the continent by 2030.
Photovoltaics is the fastest-growing source of electricity production from renewable energies and a pillar for

The global cumulative PV installed capacity exceeded 1 TWp in March 2022 and estimates for 2023 are above
1.5 TWp. The EU alone reached a cumulative installed PV capacity over 211 GWp at the end of 2022 and a
cumulative electricity generation of 196 TWh from PV systems. The average PV module efficiency has increased
from 9 % in 1980 to 14.7 % in 2010 and 21.1 % in 2022. Silicon-based photovoltaic technology remains the
predominant technology (efficiency of 24 % and over) but research regarding performance, integration and
sustainability is still essential. As far as thin-film technologies are concerned, the way forward for Copper Indium
(Gallium) Selenide (CIGS) and Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) technologies is mass production to benefit from scaling
effects by considering at the same time the supply of potentially critical materials for their production.
Depending on the learning curve, perovskite module (module efficiency 18.6 %, record cell efficiency
24.35 ± 0.5 %) manufacturing could quickly achieve comparable costs compared to current technologies. Multi-
junction technology, silicon-based tandems with III-V top material (32.65 ± 0.7 % module efficiency) together
with perovskite-silicon tandem devices (28.6 % module efficiency for large area cells as required for module
production) are the two most promising and efficient technologies.
Current technological advancement and market orientation are moving towards the replacement of Passivated
Emitter and Rear Contact (PERC) architecture (~21 % module efficiency with projections reaching 23 % in 2033)
by n-type Tunnel Oxide Passivated Contact (TOPCon) (22 % module efficiency with projections reaching 24 %
in 2033) that will further increase efficiency. Bifacial modules are emerging in the market (increase of their
current 35 % market share to 70 % in the next ten years). Ideal for applications that allow the
absorption/exploitation of light from both sides of the module (front and rear), for different orientations and
needs, like in the case of emerging innovative PV applications like agrivoltaics.
Solar PV costs have fallen significantly since 2010, mainly due to the large-scale manufacturing and also the
intense Research & Development (R&D) efforts of the past decades and the significant amounts of funding.
Both PV module prices and the Levelised Cost of Electricity (LCoE) have decreased considerably and further
decreases are foreseen in the next years. The global weighted-average LCoE for utility-scale projects fell by
88 % between 2010 and 2022 from USD 0.417/kWh to USD 0.045/kWh. Projections for the EU indicate that in
2050 it will further decrease by approximately 60 % compared to 2020. The relevant regulatory and economic
schemes, such as feed-in tariffs and minimum targets for generation from renewables in electricity systems,
together with the above-mentioned cost reductions have rendered PV a competitive technology.

(R&I) funding in solar

was approx. 30 % of the global public R&I funding solar in 2010 as well as in 2021. As far as public R&I funding

2021. The compound growth of public R&I funding on PV between 2010 and 2021 in the EU decreased by only

Development (R&D) funding in PV decreased from 15 % in 2010 t

PV suffered a compound decrease of 8 % in the period 2010-2019. The global private R&D funding in PV
experienced a compound decrease of 6 %. The EU is in 4 th position in terms of the total number of patents after
China (1st), South Korea (2nd), and Japan (3rd) but ranks 1st in high-value patents above the United States (2nd)
and the rest of the world (3rd). The publications regarding PV technologies, systems, and applications generated
in the EU are found to be significantly fewer than those of other countries (mainly China) but significantly more
highly-cited (as are also publications from the United States).

4
The Energy Payback Time (EPBT) of PV systems has experienced a 12.8 % decrease over the past 24 years. The
EPBT of a PV system in Southern Europe is one year, whereas in Northern Europe less than a year and a half.
Nonetheless, it is also important that the PV sector further reduces its environmental footprint and becomes
more sustainable and circular along the entire PV value chain.

growth between 2015 and 2021 is estimated to be 21 % with the top five Member States (Germany, France,
the Netherlands, Spain Germany together with
the US, Japan, China and South Korea host almost 70 % of identified innovators. The EU as a total hosts 22 %
of innovators in the field of PV. In particular, Germany holds the 4th position behind the US, China and Japan

PV in recent years mainly due to the large-scale deployment of PV systems, thus limited to the downstream
and not the upstream value chain (i.e. manufacturing). The compound growth of PV employment in the EU is
estimated to be around 35 % in the period between 2020 and 2022. Currently, PV employment in the EU is
mainly in the downstream activities (deployment) but it is foreseen to increase also in the upstream activities
(manufacturing) as the announced PV manufacturing expansions for 2025 will demand a significant amount of
workforce. For 2027, jobs are expected to increase by 104 %, 79 %, 141 % and 153 % in the manufacturing,
deployment, O&M and recycling activities respectively. Finding the needed workforce will be challenging and
the appropriate actions must be taken at an early phase (skilling, re-skilling, up-skilling, etc.). As expected (due
to their strong presence in both the downstream as well as the upstream value chain), at global level, the
number of PV-related jobs created in China is more than 10 times higher than that of the EU.
Between 2011 and 2021, the compound decrease in production value in the EU was 10 %, slightly recovering
from the EUR 1 474 million of production in 2020 to reach EUR 2 540 million in 2022. China has a leading
market in PV and exhibits small dependence on the EU as far as imports are concerned. Almost all leading solar
cell and module production companies are Chinese and they dominate the PV module shipments. In 2022,
Chinese companies have produced 84 % of the total PV cells (crystalline and thin-film). The top five companies
are Chinese and they account for 47 % of the global PV cell production in 2022. Regarding PV module
(crystalline and thin-film) production in 2022, China accounted for 78 % of the global production. The top four
companies are based in China and together accounted for 52 % of the global PV module production. Additionally,
the costs for PV manufacturing in China are considerably lower than in Europe. According to a 2022 IEA report,
costs in China are 10 % lower than in India, 20 % lower than in the United States, and 35 % lower than in
Europe. The EU is aiming at strengthening its position in the global market with several manufacturing capacities
being announced and realised in the next years. The planned expansions include all segments of the PV
manufacturing value chain from polysilicon to wafer, cells and modules in different locations in the EU. In the
inverter market, in the recent years, SMA (Germany) and Power Electronics (Spain) have grown less than other
companies from China and therefore did not maintain the considerable market share they enjoyed until 2020.
Together, the above-mentioned European companies accounted for 14 % in 2018 to 7 % in 2022. The EU as a
total but also each member state (MS) individually exhibited a negative relative trade balance between 2019
extra-EU imports have increased by 14 % between 2015 and 2021, while for the same
period, its exports decreased by 6 %.
The EU is not directly affected by a high-risk supply of critical raw materials since, for now, it is importing final
products and not the primary raw materials. However, taking into consideration the planned large-scale EU
domestic PV manufacturing and the commitment to render EU competitive, raw materials supply may become
crucially relevant in the short-term. The use of silver for connections has been identified as a potential concern
due to the expected large-scale manufacturing activity in the next few years and therefore there is continuous
R&D for the minimisation of silver use as well as raw materials substitution like copper. Particular attention is
needed also regarding PV glass that is lacking in the EU and has to be imported, mainly from China.
Therefore, the promising advancements in photovoltaics are crucial for the next years, both to reach EGD targets
and to favour the emergence of competitive new European industrial players and clusters producing
higher value products with the ability to relocate an increased share of the photovoltaics value chain into Europe.

5
Table 1. CETO SWOT analysis for the competitiveness of photovoltaics.

Strengths Weaknesses
- The EU is a technology leader in polysilicon as - Energy and labour costs in the EU are
well as certain manufacturing equipment. significantly higher than for trading partners.
- The EU has advanced and highly automated - Planning procedures and permitting is too
manufacturing techniques. long, which increases costs.
- Strong EU support (under REPowerEU policy) - Financing is a major issue to build PV
and global markets. manufacturing plants along the value chain.
- Strong R&I activities regarding new materials - Limited acceptance of low profit margins in
(e.g. perovskites) and applications. value chain parts of PV manufacturing.
- Low carbon footprint for EU sourced and - Shortage of skilled workers in case of strong
produced PV modules. growth of manufacturing and deployment in
the EU.
- Negative trade balance for the EU, particularly
with China.
- The limited support schemes for
manufacturing do not follow the global
market growth.
- The EU has decreased its share in global
inventions.
Opportunities Threats
- The EU has several world-leading R&D clusters - The economic availability of critical raw
for silicon PV and thin film technologies. materials used in current module designs may
be a limitation.
- PV manufacturing in the EU could be
competitive under the condition that: - The concentration of large share parts of the
supply chain in one country poses a risk for the
i) it is done in large gigawatt-scale factories
security of supply and resilience of the
(economy of scale) and
industry.
ii) these factories are fully integrated across
- More direct and targeted support schemes for
all stages of the value chain (ingot, wafer, cell
manufacturing are being applied in the US
and module) and highly automated.
(IRA) and India (PLI).
- Creation of green jobs in both the
manufacturing and the deployment sectors.
- High automation in manufacturing will
decrease labour costs.

Source: JRC 2023

6
1 Introduction

1.1 Scope and context

This report on photovoltaic (PV) energy is part of the annual series reports from the Clean Energy Technology
Observatory (CETO) (European Commission, 2023a). It address technology maturity status, development and
trends; value chain analysis and global market and European Union (EU) positioning, and builds on previous
European Commission studies in this field (Taylor and Jaeger-Waldau, 2020; Chatzipanagi, Jaeger-Waldau, et
al., 2022).
Over the past decade, photovoltaics has become a mature technology and the fastest-growing source of
electricity production from renewable energies. It is the technology that converts light into electricity using
semiconductors (special type of materials) exploiting the photo-electric effect. The main types of photovoltaic
cell and module technologies are the crystalline silicon (mono and poly), the thin-film (Copper Indium (Gallium)
Selenide, Cadmium Telluride, amorphous silicon, perovskite), and the multi-junction (multiple p-n junctions of
different semiconductor materials absorbing different wavelengths of light) modules. The photovoltaic systems
can be ground-mounted, building-mounted or building-integrated. According to how the produced electricity is
handled, the systems can be grid-connected, stand-alone or grid-connected with battery backup. There are
different main types of photovoltaic systems: residential, commercial or utility-scale systems. The main
components of a photovoltaic system are the photovoltaic modules, the tracking system, the balance of system
and the inverter.
The publication of the 6th Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Assessment Report in April 2022
(IPCC, 2022) and the geopolitical developments in 2022 have highlighted the urgency of the clean energy
transition. The European Commission had reacted with the REPowerEU Communication (European Commission,
2022a) and the EU Solar Strategy Communication (European Commission, 2022a) in March and May 2022
respectively. REPowerEU aims to reduce net emissions by at least 55 % by 2030 and the EU Solar Strategy
called for an additional photovoltaic capacity of over 500 GWp between 2021 and 2030, which would mean a
roughly fourfold increase of the nominal capacity to over 720 GW p by 2030. As an intermediate step towards
climate neutrality (European Green Deal) by 2050, in December 2020, the European leaders endorsed the
Comm Within the framework of the
(European Commission, 2022e) of EU legislative measures, in October 2023 the Council
adopted the new Renewables Energy Directive (RED)
energy consumption to 42.5 % by 2030 with an additional 2.5 % indicative top up to allow the target of 45 %
to be achieved (European Council, 2023).
Furthermore, the recently proposed Net-Zero Industry Act aims to set the required environment to scale up
manufacturing of net-zero industry in the EU. One of the identified strategic net-zero technologies is PV. A
simplification of the regulatory framework (permitting) for the PV manufacturing and a skills development
support are among the actions included in the Act that will help increase the EU PV competitiveness. The target
is set so that by 2030, manufacturing capacity of the strategic net-zero technologies (as defined in the NZIA)
in the EU approaches or reaches a benchmark of at least 40 % of the EU
corresponding technologies necessary to achieve the EU (European
Commission, 2023b). In addition, the European Commission endorsed the creation of the European Solar PV
Industry Alliance (ESIA) (European Commission, 2023d) that will support the above-mentioned objectives and
policies that will result in scaling-up and speeding-up the production of renewable energy in Europe with the
aim of regaining its independence from Russian fossil fuels, and making its energy system more resilient. The
ESIA aims to at least 30 GWp across the full supply chain by 2030 (European
Commission, 2023b, 2023d).
Globally, new PV capacity increased by about 40 % to over 230 GW p in 2022, which is at the lower end of the
conservative (228 GWp) and optimistic forecasts (252 GWp). For 2023, market forecasts are considerably higher,
with an annual new installed capacity estimates above 300 GW, which would bring the total cumulative installed
PV capacity to exceed 1.5 TWp (Jäger-Waldau, 2023). In 2022, the photovoltaic market in the EU grew by over
one third to more than 40 GWp and reached a cumulative installed capacity of over 211 GWp. Compared to
2022, the Solar Strategy would require an annual market volume increase to over 100 GW p annually by 2030,
which is achievable if the current market trend can be maintained (Chatzipanagi and Jaeger-Waldau, 2023).

7
1.2 Methodology and Data Sources
The present report follows the general structure of all CETO technology reports and is divided into three sections
with several indicators aiming to present and evaluate the EU PV technology along its value chain:
 Technology State of the art and future developments and trends;
 Value chain analysis;
 EU position and global competitiveness.
The technology state-of-the-art and future developments and trends section builds on the:
- PV technology readiness level;
- Installed capacity and electricity production;
- Technology costs;
- Public and private R&I funding;
- Patenting trends;
- Scientific publication trends;
- Impact of EU R&I.
The value chain analysis maps the situation of the PV technology with regard to the:
- Turnover;
- Gross Value Added;
- Environmental and socio-economic sustainability;
- EU companies;
- Employment;
- Energy intensity and labour productivity;
- EU production.
The EU position and global competitiveness analyses the EU position in the global market according to the:
- Global and EU market leaders;
- Trade, imports and exports;
- Resources efficiency and dependence.
The report uses the following information sources:
 Existing studies and reviews published by the European Commission and international organisations;
 Information from EU-funded research projects;
 EU and international databases;
 EU trade data, trade reports, market research reports and others;
 JRC own review and data compilation;
 Stake

Details of specific sources can be found in the corresponding sections and Annex 1 provides a summary of the
indicators for each aspect, together with the main data sources.

8
2 Technology status and development trends

2.1 Technology readiness level

The global compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of PV installations was 26 % in the period 2012 to 2022. In
2022, overall investments in renewable energy have increased by 16 % to USD 499 billion (Bloomberg New
Energy Finance, 2023b). Over the same period, investments in photovoltaics increased by 47 % and accounted
for USD 301.5 billion or 60 % of the renewable energy investment.
New PV capacity increased by about 40 % to over 230 GWp in 2022, which is at the lower end of the conservative
(228 GWp) and optimistic forecasts (252 GWp) (Bloomberg New Energy Finance, 2023a; TrendForce, 2023). For
2023, market forecasts are considerably higher, with an annual new installed capacity estimates above
300 GWp, which would bring the total cumulative installed PV capacity over 1.5 TW p. China has a cumulative
installed capacity of more than 400 GWp, representing roughly one third of the total global 1 185 GW p installed
PV capacity. The European Union follows with about 18 % or 211 GWp and the United States with over 142 GWp
(12 %) (Figure 1). At the end of 2022, 24 countries globally and 12 in the EU installed more than 1 GWp (IEA-
PVPS, 2023b).

Figure 1. Global cumulative photovoltaic installations from 2010 to 2022 with an estimate for 2023.

Source: (Jäger-Waldau, 2023)

The EU is a leading installer of PV per capita with 475 Wp/capita on average, having six EU Member States in
the first 10 countries in this ranking (SolarPower Europe, 2022c). Australia is the country with the highest
capacity per capita (1 168Wp/capita), followed by the Netherlands with 1 051W p/capita and Germany with
800Wp/capita (Chatzipanagi and Jaeger-Waldau, 2023).
This growth is due to the decreasing cost of the PV modules and systems (EUR/W p), and the increasingly
competitive cost of the electricity generated (in EUR/MWh). Analysing the global evolution of module price vs
cumulative production, the Learning Curve suggests a price decrease of 25 % for each doubling of cumulative
production in the last 40 years (Fraunhofer ISE, 2023).
In Germany, at the end of 2020 the price for a typical 10 to 100kW p PV rooftop system is only 7.4 % of the
price in 1990, thus a net-price regression of about 92 % in 30 years (Fraunhofer ISE, 2023).
The 2017 PV Implementation Plan is currently being under revision by the Strategic Energy Technology Plan
(SET-Plan) Implementation Working Group (IWG) on Photovoltaics. The updated and renewed 2023
Implementation Plan, expected shortly (IWG PV-Implementation Working Group on Photovoltaics, 2023), adopts

9
the challenges and corresponding targets and R&I topics from the 2022 ETIP-PV SRIA (SNETP, 2022). This will
contribute to a common understanding of PV R&I priorities at European and Member State levels and facilitate
the alignment of R&I and cross-border collaboration aimed for.

2.1.1 Photovoltaic (PV) module technologies

According to the International Technology Roadmap for Photovoltaic (ITRPV) 14 th edition (VDMA, 2023), the
yearly learning for module efficiency for the past 12 years is presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Yearly average module efficiencies for the period 2010-2022.

Year 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022

Aver.
module
14.7 15.2 15.4 16.0 16.3 17.0 17.5 17.7 18.4 19.2 20.0 20.9 21.1
efficiency
[%]

Source: (VDMA, 2023)

The above-mentioned module efficiencies, between 2010 and 2019, were calculated, based on average module
powers of p-type polycrystalline (poly c-Si) and monocrystalline (mono c-Si) silicon modules reported by ITRPV
(3rd to 11th edition) for a standardised module size of about 1.64m2 with 60 cells. After 2019 an average
module area of 1.7m2 is considered. Average module efficiencies for Passivated Emitter and Rear Contact
(PERC) modules in 2020 and 2021 are assumed to be 20 % based on the ITRPV 12th edition and 20.9 %
respectively. For a better comprehension of the evolution of PV module efficiencies, the 1980 average PV
module efficiency is reported to be 9 % (VDMA, 2023).

Crystalline silicon
The crystalline silicon technology accounts for 95 % (350 GWp) of global PV module production (Jäger-Waldau,
2023). Of these, monocrystalline (mono c-Si) modules almost monopolise the crystalline market as
polycrystalline (poly c-Si) modules have reduced their market share to less than 5 % (VDMA, 2023). The record
efficiency of mono c-Si and poly c-Si cells is 26.1 % (ISFH, p-type rear IBC) (NREL, 2023) and 23.3 % (Jinko
Solar, n-type) (Green et al., 2023) respectively, whereas the efficiency of the modules is 24.7 % (Maxeon
(112 cells)) for the mono c-Si and 20.4 % (Hanwha Q cells (60 cells)) for the poly c-Si (Green et al., 2023). The
efficiency of average commercial wafer-based silicon modules increased from 15 % to over 20 % over the last
10 years (Fraunhofer ISE, 2023). The silicon heterojunction (HJT) technology (crystalline silicon/amorphous
silicon) has demonstrated a record cell efficiency of 26.8 % (LONGI, n-type HJT) (Green et al., 2023).
The European Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda for PV (SRIA) (SNETP, 2022) identifies that further
R&D support in the EU in the field of silicon PV technology is needed and it should aim at the ultimate objective
of achieving multi-GWp of silicon cell and module manufacturing capability with low carbon footprint and
circularity in the EU, further lowering the Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCoE) of both utility-scale PV and
integrated PV
performance and lower costs, while at the same time achieving sustainability and integration in the
environment.
Research and innovation regarding performance, integration and sustainability are still essential in order to
reach large-scale deployment. This also includes high-efficiency silicon technology being used for multi-junction
devices (efficiencies may reach 30 % for hybrid tandems and 40 % for multi-junctions1).
The technology targets and research priorities for silicon PV modules as they were identified in SRIA (SNETP,
2022) are presented in Figure 2.

1
Tandem devices consist of two junctions whereas multi-junction devices consist of more than two (i.e. multiple) junctions.

10
Figure 2. Technology targets, research priorities and respective TRLs for the monocrystalline and polycrystalline silicon PV
modules.

TRL 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030
Nanophotonic structures to allow thinner cells
2-3
Boost efficiency by advanced technologies (up/down conversion, direct bandgap films, …)
Low-cost crystal pulling of
3-5 ingots for G12 and beyond
Module development (3D, aesthetics, circularity, …)
Process/equipment for epi wafers/alternatives
5-7
Sustainable module technology for higher performance: Pb-free, F-free, longer lifetimes, …
Pilot lines for advanced ingot pulling and for epi wafers
7-8 Establish European pilot lines for advanced homo and hetero
cell/module
Source: (SNETP, 2022)

Thin-film
The thin-film share of global production is only 5 % corresponding to 7.8 GWp of the total PV module global
production. Of these 7.8 GWp, 78 % is CdTe, 19 % CIGS and 3 % is amorphous silicon. The record cell efficiencies
of CdTe and CIGS are 22.3 % (First Solar) and 23.6 % (Evolar/Uppsala) respectively and for the modules, CdTe
modules exhibit an efficiency of 19.5 % (First Solar) and CIGS 19.2 % (Solar Frontier (70 cells)) (Green et al.,
2023). The CdTe module efficiency has increased from 9 % to 19 % in the last 10 years (Fraunhofer ISE, 2023).
As far as the CIGS technology is concerned, there are only a few European producers (mostly branches of Asian
companies), whereas CdTe modules are produced only by First Solar in the United States. The efficiencies of
commercial CIGS and CdTe modules need to increase and reach those reached in the laboratory. Only this way
can they compete with crystalline silicon modules. The way forward for these two thin-film technologies is mass
production in order to benefit from scaling effects, but a remaining issue is the supply of critical materials for
their production (indium, tellurium, etc.).
The technology targets and research priorities for the thin-film PV modules as they were identified in SRIA
(SNETP, 2022) are presented in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Technology targets, research priorities and respective TRLs for the thin-film PV modules.

TRL 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030
2-3 Screening of novel TF-absorber materials for single- and multi-junctions
Development of TF for specific integrated PV applications
3-5
Module design for improved sustainability
Large-area module production with reduced lab-to-fab losses
5-7
Production processes for "Mass Customisation" for integrated PV applications
Next generation production equipment for larger size modules
7-8
Pilot lines for "Mass Customisation"
Source: (SNETP, 2022)

Perovskites
Perovskites (Pks) are currently a very promising thin-film technology and for this reason, justify a separate
-junction cell has increased
from 3.8 % at their discovery in 2009 to an impressive 24.35 ± 0.5 % (NUS/SERIS) in 2023 whereas the
perovskite module record efficiency is 18.6 % (UtmoLight (39 cells)) (Green et al., 2023). It is expected that
module efficiencies will be comparable to current existing PV technologies within the next 5 years.
The EU has remarkable expertise in perovskite PV modules and may be considered a leader. At the moment,
several companies are starting pilot lines of production. Some of these companies, reported in (SNETP, 2022),
are Evolar (focusing on semi-transparent perovskite on glass as an upgrade for existing PV modules like
crystalline or CIGS with the 4-terminal approach, where current PV module top glass can be replaced by a glass
containing the semi-transparent Pk-PV module), Saule Technologies (focusing on flexible Pk-PV made by ink jet

11
printing, with sheet-to-sheet processes today, but with the intention of moving to roll-to-roll production) and
Solaronix (producing opaque Pk-PV on glass).
China is also a producer of this technology. Active companies are Microquanta, GCL, UtmoLight, Trina and
Boamax. At the end of 2022, Microquanta built a 20 MW perovskite pilot line capacity Quzhou, Zhejiang and the
world's first 100 MW perovskite production line was completed and put into operation in the beginning of 2022
(Asiachem, 2022). GCL New Energy has a 10 MWp line (soon to be joined by a 100 MW p pilot line) producing
semi-transparent and hence bifacial perovskite modules with non-certified efficiencies of 16 % on 40 x 60 cm2
glass. The company has plans for a 1 GWp production line (SNETP, 2022). UtmoLight has a trial production line
of a 150 MW perovskite module production line and in early 2023 started constructing its GW production line
in Wuxi (Asiachem, 2022).
Depending on the learning curve, perovskite module manufacturing could quickly achieve costs comparable to
current commercial technologies. The industry anticipates that perovskites will become a low-cost, highly
efficient and stable technology that may incorporate different characteristics (level of flexibility, transparency,
etc.). This way, perovskites could become an ideal technology for many different photovoltaic applications in
infrastructure, buildings, vehicles, etc.
The technology targets and research priorities for the perovskite PV modules as they were identified in SRIA
(SNETP, 2022) are presented in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Technology targets, research priorities and respective TRLs for the perovskite PV modules.

TRL 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030
Pb-free TF PV absorbers Recycling strategies for Pk
2-3
Low-cost highly performant transparent electrodes
3-5 Module manufacturing
5-7 Demonstrate at pilot level Pk modules on glass and on foils for various applications
7-8 Establish EU pilot lines for Pk modules on glass and on foils
Source: (SNETP, 2022)

Multi-junction
The multi-junction technology consists in incorporating multiple p-n junctions made of different semiconductor
materials within the same cell. This technology allows reaching the highest efficiency levels among all
technologies. The silicon-based tandems with III-V top material are the most efficient technology, with a record
efficiency of 38.8 % for a 5 junction cell (NREL, Spectrolab, 2-terminal, (2.17/1.68/1.40/1.06/.73 eV)) and
32.65 ± 0.7 % for a module (Sharp, 40 cells; 8 series, InGaP/GaAs/InGaAs) (Green et al., 2023).
In particular, perovskite-silicon tandem devices reach high efficiencies and benefit from lower manufacturing
costs as well. The perovskite/silicon tandem cell design has a record efficiency of 33.7 % (KAUST, 2-terminal)
while the record efficiency for large area cells as required for module production is 28.6 % (Oxford PV, 2-
terminal) (Green et al., 2023).
According to SRIA, tandem technologies should reach a market share of more than 5 % while successfully
transitioning from niche to mass market applications by 2030 (starting with significant market shares in 2026
(VDMA, 2023)). The technology targets and research priorities for multi-junction PV modules as they were
identified in SRIA (SNETP, 2022) are presented in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Technology targets, research priorities and respective TRLs for the multi-junction PV modules.

TRL 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030
2-3
Stable high-quality recombination layers
3-5 and charge-selective layers
Improved module concepts for 3T and 4T
High-throughput processing up to module level
5-7
Bifacial multijunction devices
7-8 Establish European pilot lines for various tandem technologies and applications
Source: (SNETP, 2022)

12
Bifacial modules2 represent another field of technological advances. Even though they have been in the market
for many years now, they have recently attracted increased interest. They are used for ground-mounted
applications with or without a tracker but can also be vertically mounted. Silicon heterojunctions (HJT) and
Tunnel Oxide Passivated Contact (TOPCon) modules can reach considerably higher bifaciality3 than p-type
Passivated Emitter and Rear Contact (PERC). Bifacial technology is expected to increase its market share from
35 % today to 70 % in the next ten years (VDMA, 2023). Rear contact of modules represent another major
advance (Wilson et al., 2020). With PERC modules being near their upper-efficiency limit (currently 21 %
efficiency with projections reaching almost 23 % in 2033), the industry is investing in n-type technology with
major manufacturers switching to TOPCon (currently 22 % efficiency with projections reaching 24 % in 2033)
and HJT technologies (currently 22.5 % efficiency with projections reaching 24 % in 2033) (VDMA, 2023). Silicon
based tandem cells and modules (with efficiencies of 26 %) will start mass production in 2027 and their
expected efficiency will reach levels of over 27 % in 2033 (VDMA, 2023). The n-type TOPCon manufacturing
capacity already increased considerably in 2021 and projections suggest that it will become the dominant
technology by 2033 with a 60 % market share, from the 15 % in 2023 (VDMA, 2023). HJT technology (current
market share of 7 %) will increase its market share to 20 % in 2033. Silicon based tandem and back contact
(p and n-type) will represent 5 % of the market each (VDMA, 2023). PERC technology with a market share of
more than 70 % in 2023, will remain dominant until 2025 and will eventually reduce its market share to approx.
10 % in 2033 (VDMA, 2023).
Lifetime and reliability of PV modules needs to be guaranteed. These aspects are especially crucial for highly
promising new technologies like perovskites-based PV that offer great opportunities. In order to understand the
performance and reliability of these new materials, testing procedures and standards have to be adjusted to
new module technologies or reflect new degradation modes (SNETP, 2022).

2.1.2 Emerging innovative PV deployment applications

In March and May 2022, the European Commission published the REPowerEU Communication and the EU Solar
Strategy Communication respectively (European Commission, 2022b, 2022a). As part of the REPowerEU
package (aiming for a reduction of net emissions by at least 55 % by 2030), the EU Solar Strategy called for
an additional photovoltaic capacity of over 500 GWp between 2021 and 2030, which would mean a roughly
fourfold increase of the nominal capacity to over 720 GWp by 2030. To achieve the above-mentioned target,
extended deployment will be needed and the European Commission has identified innovative forms of PV
deployment that can contribute to the mitigation of land constraints linked to competition for space. These are
agrivoltaics, building integrated photovoltaics, floating photovoltaics, infrastructure integrated photovoltaics
and vehicle integrated photovoltaics. The European Commission has also committed to provide guidelines to
the Member States regarding these innovative forms of PV deployment.
In 2022 the dominant PV application was traditional power plants with a 65 % share of the applications market,
followed by rooftop applications (approx. 33 %). Building integrated photovoltaics, agrivoltaics and floating
photovoltaics accounted for only 2 % all together (VDMA, 2023). The 2022 International Technology Roadmap
for Photovoltaic reports a projected small decrease of traditional power plants and rooftop applications (55 %
and 30 % respectively) in favour of the building integrated photovoltaics, agrivoltaics and floating photovoltaics
that will account for 5 % each in the applications market in 2033 (VDMA, 2023). PV in residential and
commercial buildings are expected to make up half of PV installations globally until 2050 (SNETP, 2022).

Agrivoltaics
Agrivoltaics consists in the simultaneous use of areas of land for both solar photovoltaic power generation and
agriculture. Agrivoltaics interacts with a range of policies related to clean energy, energy transition, sustainable
agriculture, food security, biodiversity, rural development and research & innovation, all of which underpin the
goals of the European Green Deal (EGD) (Chatzipanagi, Taylor, et al., 2022).
The potential of agrivoltaics in the EU is significant. A coverage of only 1 % of Utilised Agricultural Area (UAA)
with agrivoltaic systems translates into roughly 944 GWp (assuming an installed capacity per land area of
0.6 MWp/ha), which is half of the amount that can be achieved by traditional ground-mounted PV systems
(around 1 809 GWp). The potential 944 GWp of agrivoltaic systems are approximately 5 times more than the EU
installed capacity in 2022 and the electricity generated would cover roughly 40 % of the
consumption in 2022.

2
Bifacial modules are PV modules that can produce electrical energy when illuminated on both its sides (front and rear).
3
Bifaciality refers to the ratio of rear efficiency in relation to the front efficiency subject to the same irradiance.

13
One of the main challenges for agrivoltaics is related to the absence of a clear and EU-harmonised definition,
which could lead to land characterisation changes when agrivoltaics systems are installed on agricultural land.
This change could have an impact on the eligibility to agricultural subsidies. In fact, in several cases, the land is
excluded from the Common Agricultural Policy subsidies. Many Member States are general in their plans
regarding the support for investments in renewable energy. Support for agrivoltaics is not directly mentioned in
most of the Member States CAP Strategic Plans and only a few have included it explicitly in their plans (without
defining specific targets and/or providing dedicated financial support). Technical challenges as well as
challenges regarding the permitting and grid connection procedures have also been identified. In addition, there
has been an increase in land prices impacting the welfare and security of the farmers. Finally, regardless of the
technological advancements, there are still technical challenges that need to be addressed in order to maximise
the electricity production while taking into consideration the biodiversity and without compromising significantly
the crop yield. The economic benefit and the security of property as well as investments for the farmer must
be at the centre of the efforts to promote agrivoltaics and public awareness and acceptance (Chatzipanagi,
Taylor and Jaeger-Waldau, 2023).
Agrivoltaic applications stand between TRL 3 and 8, depending on the agricultural context. Further studies
regarding the crop suitability identification and implementation of water management optimisation will
(SNETP, 2022).

Building integrated photovoltaics

Building integrated photovoltaics is a known and well established PV application for many years now. It consists
in the replacement of conventional building materials with materials incorporating PV technologies so as to
have a double function, acting like an energy producing building component. The generated electricity is
consumed close to where it is produced, thus excluding potential grid investments.
According to a recent study, when considering a building skin to building net surface area ratio of 0.78 and a
building skin glazing ratio of 30 %, buildings could cover their electricity consumption using building integrated
photovoltaics systems by 2030 in the EU (Gholami, Nils Røstvik and Steemers, 2021). There are 4 key initiatives
to tackle barriers for building integrated photovoltaics. These are through the review of the Renewable Energy
Directive II (RED II) (European Commission, 2018a) and the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD)
(European Commission, 2018b), the launch of the New European Bauhaus initiative (European Commission,
2020b) and last but not least, the revision of the Construction Products Regulation (European Commission,
2022i).
Building integrated photovoltaics applications are characterised by high TRLs. The challenge for the building
integrated photovoltaics sector lays in the lack of solutions of scale, the research regarding the technological
aspects for the multi-functionality of building integrated photovoltaics products and the absence of regulation
harmonisation between PV and building regulations. The full upscaling of the building integrated photovoltaics
market requires actions related to PV module and Balance of System (BoS) technology development, business
models, design and energy integration (TRL 4-8) as well as clarity regarding PV in building regulations at
regional, national and EU level in order to avoid fragmentation (TRL 8-9) (SNETP, 2022). As far as building
integrated photovoltaics product manufacturing is concerned, flexibility and automation will contribute to more
cost competitive applications with significantly reduced Pay Back Times (PBT).

Floating photovoltaics
Floating photovoltaics consists in the deployment of PV modules on water surfaces. The most common surfaces
envisaged for this application are man-made water surfaces such as irrigation dams, industrial basins, water
treatment plants or hydropower reservoirs. Floating photovoltaics has also been deployed on natural waters
like lakes and offshore sea locations (mostly at low wave categories). This PV application takes advantage of
the cooling effect coming from the water beneath the PV modules and the easy installation while contributing
to water evaporation and algae growth reduction. The current installed capacity in Europe is close to 0.5 GW p,
while global installations have reached 2 GWp.
When coupled with hydropower (or installed on dam surfaces) or wind energy, floating photovoltaics can exploit
the already established grid connection in addition to the multiple benefits mentioned before. The coverage of
(i.e. man-made) area can generate close 140 TWh, which corresponds to approx.
7 % of the EU in 2022 (Kakoulaki, Gonzalez Sanchez, et al., 2023).
The challenges floating photovoltaics are facing are mostly technological and related to the optimisation of the
system design for low wave categories (TRL 6-8 for wave categories 1-2), the feasibility of floating

14
photovoltaics systems for high wave categories (TRL 3-4 for wave category 3-4) and lifetime and reliability
aspects (SNETP, 2022). As for agrivoltaics, taking into consideration the environment, biodiversity and water
preservation policies is of major importance.

Infrastructure integrated photovoltaics

Infrastructure integrated photovoltaics is the integration of PV in elements of infrastructure like noise or crash
barriers in roads and highways, road pavements, dikes, landfills, flyovers, road roofing and parking lots. The
infrastructure element in these applications, in addition to its main functionality (like noise or crash protection),
incorporates PV modules for the simultaneous generation of electricity. The most common infrastructure
applications are on noise barriers and landfills.
Research on PV on transport infrastructure (roads and railways) has shown that the potential installed capacity
in the EU is 401 GWp, translated into 280 TWh 391 TWh depending on the PV technology employed
(monofacial vs. bifacial PV modules). The above-mentioned electricity generations cover between 11 % and
16 % ctricity consumption in 2022 (Kakoulaki, Fahl, et al., 2023). As far as closed landfills
are concerned, the potential for EU can reach 13 GWp (Szabó et al., 2017). In Netherlands, the potential
installation capacity on dikes has been identified to be 11 GWp (TNO, 2023).
Depending on the specific application, TRLs vary between 6-7 for landfills, road roofing and noise barriers to 4-
5 for crash barriers and dikes. Infrastructure integrated photovoltaics is set to ramp-up when the designed
integrated solutions become more mature in terms of performance and safety, as well as cost effective (SNETP,
2022).

Vehicle integrated photovoltaics

The reduction of PV costs and higher penetration of EV are the main driving forces behind vehicle integrated
photovoltaics developments. However, this application can have several variations depending on the (i) type of
vehicles (light-duty, heavy-duty, camper, etc.), (ii) use of energy (for extended range, refrigeration, etc.), (iii) PV
technology (Si, III-V, organic, etc.).
Apart from the above-mentioned parameters, also the climatic conditions play a significant role in vehicle
integrated photovoltaics. A recent publication performed on a commuter car and a light delivery van, even
though it does not take into account shading, suggests that the average annual solar range (mileage) of a
photovoltaic electric vehicle with 454 Wp vehicle integrated photovoltaics can amount between 12 % (worst
climatic conditions for PV) and 35 % (best climatic conditions for PV). The respective range for a delivery van
with 649 Wp vehicle integrated photovoltaics, is between 9 % and 23 % (considering a 51 % higher annual
mileage versus the car driving pattern) (Thiel et al., 2022).
Some of the challenges that vehicle integrated photovoltaics is facing are related to technological parameters
like shading of the PV modules while the vehicle is moving, safety requirements, electro-magnetic compatibility

sustainability (SNETP, 2022). The Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda on Photovoltaics reports expected
TRL between 6 and 8 by 2025.

2.2 Installed Capacity and Production

Proper and straightforward comparisons are not possible as there are several factors (IEA-PVPS, 2023a; Jäger-
Waldau, 2023) impacting these statistics (Box 1).
As depicted in Figure 6, the global cumulative PV electricity production increased from 96 TWh in 2012 to
1 283 TWh in 2022 (EMBER, 2023), presenting a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 30 %. The EU
generated approximately 66 TWh from PV in 2012, corresponding to a share of 69 % of the global PV electricity
production. From 2012 to 2022, the share decreased gradually to 15 % of the global cumulative PV
electricity production, with a cumulative EU PV electricity production of 196 TWh in 2022. China, on the other
hand, increased its share in global PV electricity production from 1 % in 2012 (3.6 TWh) to 33 % (418 TWh) in
2022.
A bit less than three- ity in 2021 (70 %) was produced in only four
of the twenty-seven countries. These are Germany, Spain, Italy and France (Figure 7). The same countries, in

2012 and 2022 are Poland, Hungary and Romania. The Member State (MS) and world countries coding can be
found in Annex 2.

15
 Figure 6. Global and EU cumulative PV electricity production with EU share for the period 2012-2022.

Source: JRC analysis based on Eurostat, IRENA and Ember

Box 1. Uncertainty in reported capacity numbers.

 Not all countries report standard nominal power capacity for solar PV systems (DC or W p under
standard test conditions), but rather report the inverter or electrical connection capacity, which is
the DC capacity is larger than
the AC capacity, has increased from 1.1 to almost 2. In 2022 constructed larger PV plants have a
DC/AC ratio of 1.1 to 1.6, which means that the nominal capacity can be 10 to 60 % higher than
the reported AC capacity. Overpowering of PV systems leads to a longer utilisation of the full
connection capacity and can be cheaper than the installation of electricity stabilisers to maintain
steady supply at the required power.
Looking at energy scenarios, energy modellers are only interested in AC capacity, since the
electricity network is AC. Therefore, significant differences can exist in the actual needed nominal
power of PV systems, which determines the number of modules needed, and the modelled network
capacity.
The reported capacity numbers of PV installations in this chapter are given in nominal DC power or
Wp. Where national statistics report capacities in AC, a conversion factor based on industry
information and project descriptions is used.
In 2022, China changed its national reporting system from nominal capacity to AC capacity. This
created some difficulties to convert the reported capacity of 51 GW AC residential/commercial
systems and 36.1 GWAC large scale systems to GWp. Under the assumption that residential and
commercial systems have no overpowered capacity, this would give a value of 51 GW p for the
residential/commercial systems. Under the assumption of an average overpowering ratio of 1.3 (an
average between lower and higher overpowering) results in 47 GW p for large scale systems. The
total then is 98 GWp.
 Some statistics only count the capacity which is actually connected or commissioned in the
respective year for the annual statistics, irrespective of when it was actually installed. This can lead
to short term differences in which year the installations are counted. This can lead to differences
in the annual statistics, but levels out in the long-run, if no double counting occurs. E.g.:
- In Italy about 3.5 GWp of solar PV systems were reported under the 2nd conto energia and
installed in 2010, but only connected in 2011.
- The construction period of some large solar farms spread over two or more years.
Depending on the regulations whether or not the installation can be connected to the
grid in phases and whether or not it can be commissioned in phases, the capacity count is
different.
 Some countries don't have official statistics on the capacity of solar PV system installations or
sales statistics of the relevant components.

16
 Figure 7. EU PV cumulative electricity generation per country for the period 2012-2022.

Source: JRC analysis based on Eurostat

The approx. 200 TWh of generated electricity from solar in the EU contributed to the avoidance of
billion in gas costs (Jones, 2023) in 2022. The share of solar electricity generat
mix increased from 2.5 % in 2012, to 5 % in 2020 and 8 % in 2022. The respective percentage for the
world increased from 0.4 % to 3 % and to 4.5 % (EMBER, 2023). The share of solar in electricity production
increased in twenty EU countries. The country with the highest share of solar electricity generation is
Luxembourg (20 % in 2022), whereas the country with the highest increase of solar electricity generation
between 2020 and 2022 is the Netherlands (from 7 % to 14.5 % of solar electricity generation in the
respective years).
Regarding the cumulative PV installed capacity4, the EU had installed 69 GWp in 2012, which grew to 212
GWp in 2022, while globally 100 GWp and 1 180 GWp had been installed in these respective years. This
69 % in 2012 to 18 % in 2022
(Figure 8).
between 2012 and 2022 are 12 % and 23 % respectively. In 2022, 48 % of new capacity installation
globally was on rooftops (IEA-PVPS, 2023a). The estimated PV installed capacity in 2023 is over 1 500 GWp
(Jäger-Waldau, 2023).

Figure 8. Cumulative global and EU PV installed capacity with EU share for the period 2012-2022.

Source: JRC analysis based on (Jäger-Waldau, 2023)

Figure 9 shows PV installed capacity from 2012 until 2022 per country.
The countries contributing less to the EU installed capacity are shown as rest of EU. At EU level, Germany, Spain,

4
Refers to the current actual operational installed capacity, without considering decommissioning. In the future, as decommissioning
of PV plants will grow, a distinction will be necessary when referring to cumulative capacity.

17
Italy, and France installed 65 % of the total EU installed capacity in 2022 from 68 % in 2021 and 86 % in
2012.

Figure 9. EU PV cumulative installed capacity per country for the period 2012-2022.

Source: JRC analysis based on (Jäger-Waldau, 2023)

In 2016, the share of rooftop installations was 80 % and the remaining was for utility-scale. Since then, the
growth of utility-scale installations was more prominent but still, in 2022, rooftop installations make up for
60 % of the total installations. Distributed systems in 2016 represented 61 % of the total number of systems
in Europe, with centralised systems at a 39 % share. In 2022, distributed systems decreased their share to
55 % and centralised systems conquered an additional 6 %, arriving at 45 %. The global situation in 2016 was
notably different as distributed systems were only 27 % of the total systems but increased to 49 % in 2022.
SolarPower Europe (SPE) is reporting a cumulative EU capacity of 209 GWp in 2022 (SolarPower Europe, 2022a).
Accor he cumulative PV installed capacity in the EU in 2026 will be
between 417 GWp and 591 GWp (SolarPower Europe, 2022a). In 2030 according to the business-as-usual
scenario, the PV capacity will reach 672 GWp and according to the accelerated scenario, it will exceed 1 TWp,
by also taking into consideration the current geopolitical risks (SolarPower Europe, 2022d). The ambition for
2050 is to reach 7-8.8 TWp of PV installed capacity and 10-12 TWh of PV electricity production (Manish et al.,
2020). Others project an installed capacity of 500 GWp by 2030 .
Regarding the projections for the global cumulative PV installed capacity, the IEA holds a conservative position
that does not exceed 1.6 TW AC in 2024 due to the assumption of rather low capacity additions in 2023 and
2024 (IEA, 2023b). By 2027, IEA projects that the global cumulative PV installed capacity will be between
2.4 TWAC and 2.7 TWAC (IEA, 2023c). On the other hand, SPE projects 2.4 TWp by 2025, 2.9 TWp by 2026 and
3.5 TWp by 2027 for a medium scenario. According to the high scenario, 2 TW p can be exceeded already in
2024 and the global cumulative PV installed capacity can reach almost 4 TW p in 2027 (SolarPower Europe,
2023c). Beyond 2027, 22 TWp are projected in 2050 for the base growth scenario and over 60 TW p for the fast
growth scenario (Vartiainen et al., 2020).
The JRC projections for EU and global PV installed capacity and electricity generation are based on the POTEnCIA
(for the EU) and POLES-JRC (for the world) models. Annex 3 includes the energy system models and scenarios
used in the models.
As far as the EU is concerned (Figure 10), the POTEnCIA model is in accordance with SPE for the short-term
projections, i.e. 2030 with 834 GWp of installed PV capacity. For the long-term projections, the model output is
in the order of 2 TWp.

18
 Figure 10. Projections of gross installed capacity and electricity generation in the EU until 2050.

Source: JRC POTEnCIA model

The global installed PV capacity and the electricity generation projections until 2050, based on the POLES-JRC
model, are presented in Figure 11 and Figure 12 respectively. Based on the reduction of the investment costs
for both small/residential and utility-scale projects as well as for modules (Figure 11), the projections of POLES-
JRC model for the global PV installed capacity are in line with the projections of SPE for 2025 and 2030. For
the long-term projections (2050), the global installed PV capacity is foreseen to be at 17 TW p, 5 TWp lower
compared to the base growth scenario of the previous mentioned studies (Vartiainen et al., 2020).

Figure 11. Global overnight investment cost and gross capacity for small/residential and utility-scale.

Source: JRC POLES-JRC model

19
 Figure 12. Gross electricity production for small/residential and utility-scale and share of gross electricity production.

Source: JRC POLES-JRC model

However, the dynamics of the PV sector are not entirely captured by the above projections. According to
Bloomberg, this year, the installation at global level will grow by 56 % and as a result, the projected installed
capacity in 2030 will exceed 5.8 TWp (Bloomberg, 2023).

2.3 Technology Costs

Since 2010, the reduction of solar PV systems cost has been remarkable. Between 2010 and 2020, the cost of
residential, commercial rooftop and utility-scale PV systems decreased by 64 %, 69 % and 82 % respectively
(Feldman et al., 2021). This is due to significant technology improvements made possible by the intense R&D
efforts of the past decades combined with the industrialisation of the manufacturing process and massive
expansion of the market. These developments were fostered by the introduction of public support schemes like
feed-in tariffs or minimum targets for renewable electricity generation, combined with the introduction of
relevant regulatory frameworks to enable the integration of renewable energy sources in the electricity system
(IRENA, 2020a). The above-mentioned measures promoted PV awareness and acceptance thus acting as indirect
influencing parameters that increased PV deployment hence also the demand for PV production.
It is important to note that technological progress and industrial learning are the two key ingredients for a
further decrease in PV investment costs as well as operation and maintenance costs. However, this can only be
ensured with steady and predictable R&D funding, both from the public and the private sector. Increased
attention should be paid to the soft costs, including regulatory, planning and permitting costs, which in the past
have not followed the same radical decrease as other technology-related factors.
CAPEX
The capital investment in a photovoltaic system can be divided into three components: the photovoltaic modules,
the Balance of System (BoS) (support structure, tracking system, cabling, inverter, etc.) and the soft costs
(permitting, marketing, etc.).
In 2022, the PV modules and the mounting /structural BoS (including labour and equipment) make up for 65 %
of the total cost while the soft costs account for the remaining 36 %. (VDMA, 2023).
The reduction in PV module prices has been remarkable. In the past 41 years, there is a 25 % decrease in
module prices following each doubling of cumulative PV module production (Fraunhofer ISE, 2023). Between
2012 and 2022 the price of c-Si modules decreased by 80 % while the global cumulative installed capacity
increased by more than 1 TWAC reaching 1.2 TWAC in the same period (IRENA, 2022). Between 2021 and 2022
only, c-Si module prices went down by 7 % (VDMA, 2023). Figure 13 presents the different cost attributions to
the overall module price. The bottom line of the figure represents the absolute spot price, while the stacked
representation at the upper right corner presents the share of each attribution.

20
 Figure 13. Spot market price trends for poly-Si, mono-Si wafers, cells and modules between 2018 and 2022.

Source: (VDMA, 2023)

The PV module price reduction is mainly due to the higher efficiencies achieved over years, i.e. less active area
needed for the same wattage production. The land area requirement has decreased as well from
2.7 hectares/megawatt (MWAC) in 2010 to 1.9 ha/MWAC in 2020 (IRENA, 2020c). Further land requirement
reductions may be achieved with the application of bifacial modules that exploit both sides for the conversion
of light into electricity in applications like agrivoltaics, floating photovoltaics, infrastructure integrated
photovoltaics and building integrated photovoltaics. These applications enable the production of electricity
without changing the land use and without competing with other activities such as agriculture in the case of
agrivoltaics.
As seen also in Figure 13, module prices are directly influenced by the polysilicon price as it is an essential raw
material in the PV manufacturing sector. The increase of polysilicon price has influenced module prices as well.
After a particularly low price in July 2020 (USD 6.8/kg), polysilicon shortage in 2021 and 2022 caused significant
price increases. The peak polysilicon price was met in December 2022 (USD 37/kg) and then prices started
decreasing during 2023, reaching a USD 9/kg price in June 2023 (slightly higher than the January 2021 price)
(Bernreuter Research, 2023c). Accordingly, module prices have experienced a similar price increase from
EUR 0.22/Wp in July 2020 to EUR 0.35/Wp in October 2022 and ultimately a decrease to EUR 0.22/Wp in
September 2023 (PVxchange, 2023). Polysilicon prices are expected to keep dropping due to oversupply (several
manufacturers increased their capacities and new players, attracted by the rising demand for PV, entered the
sector) until they reach a USD 7/kg bottom (Bernreuter Research, 2023d).
The prices for the different PV module categories, in September 2023 for the EU are presented in Table 3.
Previous research, conducted by IRENA, has shown that the total installed costs are higher in Japan due to the
higher costs mainly in installation. The United States experiences similar contributions of hardware and soft
costs but have significantly lower installation costs, resulting in total installed costs of about 37 % lower than
in Japan. India and China demonstrate total installed costs that are lower by approx. 65 % than Japan. India in
particular has the lowest installation costs and soft costs (IRENA, 2022). At EU level, Ireland is the country with
the highest total installed cost due to high installation costs as well as soft costs. The Netherlands have similar
total installed costs, mainly due to hardware costs related to grid connection, cabling/wiring, safety and security
and monitoring and control rather than modules and inverter. Spain and France have approx. 25 % lower total
installed costs compared to Ireland. Germany has the lowest costs in the EU, 34 % lower than Ireland (IRENA,
2022).

21
Table 3. EU spot market module prices by technology in September 2023.
PV module technology EUR/Wp
0.31
High efficiency5
0.43 (September 2022)
0.22
Mainstream6
0.34 (September 2022)
0.14
Low cost7
0.21 (September 2022)
Source: (PVxchange, 2023)

In 2022, inverter costs represented only 4 % of the total cost of a large-scale system (>10 MWAC) (VDMA, 2023),
down from 9 % (Ribeyron, 2020). According to (former) IHS Markit, already in 2021, inverter prices were lower
than what was projected (Ribeyron, 2020).
As module and inverter costs have significantly decreased, nowadays other BoS costs account for a larger share
(IRENA, 2020b). This is because the learning rate of modules proved to be higher
than that of BoS and OPEX. In 2020, the BoS costs accounted for 57 % of the total installed costs (without the
consideration of inverters) (IRENA, 2022).
Soft costs8 are varying significantly depending on the country. Utility-scale PV systems in the United States
were close to USD 0.50/WDC (around USD 0.09/WDC higher than in the EU and Asia) (VDMA, 2023).
The global weighted-average total installation costs for newly commissioned utility-scale projects fell by 81 %
between 2010 and 2020, from USD 4.731/WAC to USD 0.883/WAC (IRENA, 2020c). From 2020 to 2021 it further
decreased by 6 % resulting in USD 0.857/WAC (IRENA, 2022).
In 2022, the capital cost for a utility-scale PV system is estimated at USD 770/kWDC in the EU, USD 705/kWDC
in the Asia and USD 1 410/kWDC in the United States. An estimated worldwide average for 2022 is at USD
966/kWDC (VDMA, 2023).
According to projections, the global median price of modules will decrease from USD 0.32/Wp in 2022 to
USD 0.18/Wp in 2032(VDMA, 2023). As far as inverters are concerned, no significant cost reductions are
expected in the next ten years impacting the total capital cost of the PV systems (Figure 14). Capital cost
reductions will be in the range of 35 % and will effectively be a result of module price and soft costs reductions.
Projections for worldwide average utility-scale system costs suggested USD 608/kWDC in 2033 (VDMA, 2023).
Other work regarding the projected capital cost in Europe is shown in Figure 15. For rooftop installations, the
capital costs may fall to an average value of EUR 0.8/Wp in 2030 from approximately EUR 1.1/Wp in 2020, while
the projection for 2050 is a compound average decrease of 6 % over the 2020-2050 period (from EUR 1.1/Wp
to EUR 0.6/Wp from 2020 to 2050). For utility-scale installations, the compound decrease is projected to be 4 %
and 7 % for the periods 2020-2030 and 2020-2050 respectively.

5
Crystalline modules with mono- or bifacial HJT, N-type TOPCon or IBC (Back Contact) cells and combinations thereof, which have
efficiencies higher than 21 %.
6
Standard modules, typically with poly- or monocrystalline cells (also PERC), which are mainly used in commercial PV systems and
which have an efficiency of up to 21 %.
7
Factory seconds, insolvency goods, used or low-output modules (crystalline), products with limited or no warranty, which usually also
have no bankability.
8
Include project developer costs, overhead and profit, sales tax and permitting fees.

22
 Figure 14. Large-scale system component costs in 2022 and projections.

Source: (VDMA, 2023)

Figure 15. Capital cost projections for rooftop and utility-scale PV installations for the period 2020-2050.

Source: (Prina et al., 2019; Moser, 2021)

OPEX
The O&M benchmark costs in the US in 2020 are reported to be USD 18.7/kW AC/year for commercial ground-
mounted installations, USD 18.6/kWAC/year for commercial roof-mounted installations, USD 28.9/kWAC/year for
residential installations, USD 16.3/kWAC/year for fixed utility-scale installations and USD 17.5/kW AC/year for 1-
axis tracking utility-scale installations (IRENA, 2020c).
According to IRENA, average utility-scale O&M costs in the Europe 9 are around USD 10/kWAC/year, and in
Germany at USD 9/kWAC/year, (suggesting an 85 % decrease between 2005 and 2017). This reflects in a 16 %
- 18 % reduction with every doubling of cumulative installed capacity (IRENA, 2020b, 2022).
An evaluation of solar energy costs at EU level revealed that the average EU O&M costs 10 for utility-scale
installations are between EUR 6.8/kWp/year and EUR 14.8/kWp/year. The lowest O&M costs are in Bulgaria in the

9
A scope which is different from the EU, as in the rest of the present report.
10
O&M costs are calculated as a percentage of the initial investment (I0). For fixed angle PV systems: 1 % of I0 and for 2-axis tracking
system: 1.5 % of I0.

23
range of EUR 5.2-11.2/kWp/year and the highest in Germany between EUR 8.7/kWp/year and EUR 18.9/kWp/year
(Lugo‐laguna, Arcos‐Vargas and Nuñez‐hernandez, 2021). The low range value refers to a fixed system and the
high range value to a 2-axis tracking system.
LCoE
The trend for global convergence of PV solar system CAPEX continued over the last year, despite elevated
material costs and increased fuel prices. Of course, local factors like market size and maturity, import taxes,
local content rules or existing tax credits have an influence on local prices, and can still lead to significant price
variations. In the first half of 2022, the global benchmark LCoE for PV systems increased significantly but
decreased for non-tracking PV systems in the second half of 2022 (Bloomberg New Energy Finance,
2023a)(Bloomberg New Energy Finance, 2022a, 2022b). At the end of 2022, it showed an overall increase of
12 % compared to 2021 and stood at USD 45/MWh. The full range of LCoE for non-tracking PV systems among
different countries around the world varied between USD 27/MWh to USD 229/MWh (upper limit due to a
weakening of the local currency against the USD). Similarly, the global cost benchmark for tracking PV systems
increased by about 13 % to USD 44/MWh. This development was driven mainly by price increases in the USA,
which saw higher material prices, increased transport costs and higher module prices due to alternative sourcing
of solar modules triggered by trade frictions with China (Jäger-Waldau, 2023).
A comparative analysis of calculated LCoE values at different EU locations and with different Weighted Average
Costs of Capital (WACC) rates (ETIP-PV, 2020) has shown that for a residential rooftop installation (Figure 16)
when applying a 6 % WACC, the EUR 0.100/kWh of LCoE in 2020 will decrease to EUR 0.040/kWh of LCoE in
2050 in Finland. For southern locations, like in Spain, for the same conditions, the 2020 LCoE of EUR 0.055/kWh
will be reduced to EUR 0.022/kWh in 2050. Indicatively, LCoE values for residential rooftop installations are
expected to be higher than utility-scale installations by a factor of roughly 2 (Vartiainen et al., 2020).

Figure 16. PV LCoE at six European locations with different nominal WACCs for 5 kW p residential rooftop PV installation.

Source: (ETIP-PV, 2020)

The relevant LCoE values for a commercial rooftop installation presented in Figure 17 are lower than for the
residential installation in Figure 16. In Finland from EUR 0.080/kWh in 2020 the LCoE will decrease to
EUR 0.034/kWh in 2050, whereas in Spain in 2050 it will drop by EUR 0.028/kwh from EUR 0.046/kWh.

24
 Figure 17. PV LCoE at six European locations with different nominal WACCs for 50 kW p commercial rooftop PV
installation.

Source: (ETIP-PV, 2020)

A decrease of EUR 0.038/kWh between 2020 and 2050 (from EUR 0.063/kWh to EUR 0.025/kWh) is projected
for the LCoE of industrial installations in Finland. In Spain, the LCoE will drop by EUR 0.022/kWh in 2050 in
comparison to 2020 (EUR 0.015/kWh) (Figure 18).

Figure 18. PV LCoE at six European locations with different nominal WACCs for 1 MW p industrial PV installation.

Source: (ETIP-PV, 2020)

In the case of utility-scale installations and taking into consideration the wholesale electricity prices, the cost
of electricity produced from PV was already competitive in Munich and Helsinki even when applying a WACC of
7 % and in London, Toulouse, Rome and Malaga when applying a WACC of even over 10 % (Figure 19).

25
 Figure 19. PV LCoE six European locations with different nominal WACCs for 100 MW p utility-scale PV installation
compared and average spot market electricity price in 2019.

Source: (ETIP-PV, 2020)

According to Figure 20 grid parity is already a reality in various countries and for many others costs are
decreasing to such levels that PV electricity is becoming competitive and expected to be even more so in the
years to come. The figure shows the price of electricity for several countries, for three different system prices
green points on the figure represent the cases where PV
is competitive, while the blue points are the cases where PV competitiveness depends on the system prices and
the retail prices of electricity (IEA-PVPS, 2023b).

Figure 20. LCoE as a function of solar irradiance and retail prices in key markets.

Source: (IEA-PVPS, 2023b)

2.4 Public RD&I Funding and Investments

The public investment in solar energy and PV (treated as a sub-category) at EU and global level from 2011 until
2021 is illustrated in Figure 21a. It must be noted that the 2020 and 2021 values do not include funding
reported from Italy thus an artificial decline is created for 2020 and an equal to 2019 investment is shown for
2021.
Overall, EU public investments in solar increased by 180 % between 2000 and 2011, year when they peaked.
Thereafter they started decreasing gradually. Between 2011 and 2021 the decrease was 32 % at EU level. At
global level, solar public investments increased by 146 % between 2010 and 2011 and decreased by only 10 %
between 2011 and 2021. The year 2011 was a peak investments year both at EU and global level.

26
Regarding PV public funding, the EU experienced a 92 % increase between 2000 and 2011, following a slight
decrease of 8 % for the period 2011-2021. Globally, PV public investments increased by 68 % in 2000-2011
and decreased by 50 % over the period 2011-2021. For PV, the peak investments year was 2009 at global
level and 2009 and 2013 at EU level.

Figure 21. (a) EU and global public investment in Solar and PV R&D, (b) EU and (c) global allocation of solar energy
technologies for the period 2010-2019.

Source: JRC analysis based on IEA

While 58 % of the total solar energy sector public investment was attributed to PV in the EU, the respective
percentage at global level was 41 % for the period between 2011 and 2021 (Figure 21b and c). The total
cumulative EU public investments in PV accounted for 49 % of the total cumulative global public investments
in PV during the period 2011-2021, while in the case of the total cumulative public investments in solar, the
EU accounted for 35 % of the global total cumulative public investments. The above-mentioned percentages
are lower than expected since Italy is not included in the datasets for the years 2020 and 2021.

Figure 22. (a) EU public investment per MS and (b) EU public investment and % of GDP in Solar and R&D for the top five
MS.

Source: JRC analysis based on IEA and (The World Bank, 2023)

Data on PV public investments (IEA codes: 312 Solar photovoltaics) are not always reported from the EU MS
and therefore are considered incomplete. For this reason, Figure 22a and b

technology of PV. This enables a more direct and fair comparison.

Germany, France, Italy, Spain and the Netherlands are the top five EU countries with the highest public
investment in solar energy technologies. Germany and France have kept a nearly constant solar energy public
investment as a percentage of their GDP, between 0.003 and 0.004 % of its GDP and between 0.003 % and
0.005 % of its GDP respectively. Spain shows a peak in 2011 (0.006 % of GDP) and a decrease in the following
years. The same applies also for Italy with 0.004 % of its GDP until 2015 and decreasing thereafter. In the case
her unstable ranging from
0.002 % to 0.006 % with a distinct peak in 2015 (0.009 % of GDP).

27
 Figure 23. (a) Global public investment per country and (b) global public investment and % of GDP in Solar and R&D for
the top five countries.

Source: JRC analysis based on IEA and (The World Bank, 2023)

From the Figure 23a, in which thirteen major economies are analysed, the EU and the United States accounted
together for 60 % of the total global public investments in solar cumulatively in the period from 2011 until
2021. For PV public investments, the EU accounted for 49 %, Japan for 17 % and the United States for 12 %
of the global public investments for the same period (2011-2021). In 2013 and 2015, Australia dedicated
significant amounts of money for public investments in solar, reaching 0.021 % and 0.009 % of its GDP (Figure
23b). The rest of the major economies did not overcome the 0.008 % of their GDP for public investments in
solar. Switzerland is, globally, the sixth country with the highest public investment on solar but the first with the
highest average % of GDP (0.007 % on average in the period 2011-2021).
In Figure 23a and b,
denotes funding from EU framework programmes (H2020) and is only available from 2014 onwards.

2.5 Private RD&I funding

Retrieving as well as evaluating information on private funding for PV is difficult as private companies do not
have the obligation to disclose their financial and Research & Development (R&D) details. According to the
results of an analysis performed regarding the PV R&D funding from 2014 to 2020 (Moser et al., 2021), a
substantial portion of funding is coming from the private sector. In particular, the analysis showed that
approximately two-thirds of the R&D funding comes from the private sector and the remaining one-third from
the public sector.
The following tentative analysis is based on the use of patenting output as a proxy for private funding (Fiorini
et al., 2017; Pasimeni, Fiorini and Georgakaki, 2019) and the results should therefore be interpreted with caution
(especially in the case of China). Unlike public investments, the analysis is performed from 2010 until 2019,
since 2020 data is incomplete.
According to the collected data for public R&I funding in the previous chapter and the data for private R&D
funding in this chapter, the relationship between public and private funding is different from that presented in
(Moser et al., 2021). While the public investments for the EU and globally ranged from EUR 173 to 233 million
and from EUR 305 to EUR 634 million respectively for the period 2010-2019, the private investments in the
EU and globally ranged from EUR 0.8 to EUR 1.8 billion and from EUR 6.3 to EUR 12 billion respectively for the
same period Figure 24. Analysing the relationship between public and private funding from 2010 until 2019 in
the EU, it is observed that public R&D funding was between 11 % and 18 % of the total R&D funding. This
suggests a much higher contribution of the private sector to the PV R&D funding (82 %-89 %). Private funding
at global level is even more important as it covers between 93 % and 96 % of the total funding.

28
 Figure 24. EU and global private investment in PV for the period 2010-2019.

Source: JRC analysis based on (Fiorini et al., 2017; Pasimeni, Fiorini and Georgakaki, 2019)

Between 2010 and 2019, as far as PV is concerned, the indication is that the EU exhibits a more extended
decrease in private than in public investments (-53 % against -8 %), while over the same period, private
investments at global level suffered a smaller decrease than public investments (-44 % against -47 %).
Regardless of the public or private nature of the investment, investments have suffered significant decreases
both in the EU and globally. However, there is an indication that, unlike the EU, the rest of the world is more
and more benefitting from private rather than public investments.

Figure 25. EU and global cumulative private investment in PV for the period 2010-2019.

Source: JRC analysis based on (Fiorini et al., 2017; Pasimeni, Fiorini and Georgakaki, 2019)

As shown in Figure 25, at global level, the cumulative private investments in PV exceeded the EUR 80 billion in
2019. In the same year, the EU private investments amounted to EUR 13.3 billion (16 % of the cumulative
private investments at global level).
Figure 26a presents the five EU countries with the highest levels of cumulative private investment in the EU.
These five countries account for 90 % of the total cumulative private investments in the EU from 2010 to 2019.
Germany had the highest level of private investment in PV, accounting for 66 % of the cumulative investments
(2010-2019), followed by France with 9 % and Italy with 8 %.

29
 Figure 26. (a) EU cumulative private investment in PV per MS and (b) global cumulative private investment in PV EU and
top five countries for the period 2010-2019.

Source: JRC analysis based on (Fiorini et al., 2017; Pasimeni, Fiorini and Georgakaki, 2019)

Globally Figure 26b, the cumulative private investments in PV from Japan (30 %) and China (23 %) represent
more than half of the global cumulative private investments. The EU represents 16 % of the total cumulative
private investments from 2010 to 2019, representing approximately EUR 13.3 billion out of a total of
approximately EUR 83.3 billion. The next two regions are the US (13 %) and South Korea (12 %).
Global VC investments11 in photovoltaics companies increased sharply over the past 2 years, surpassing the
highest levels seen in the early 2010s, and amounted to EUR 2.2 billion in 2022 (Figure 27). This represents an
increase of + 3.5 % compared to 2021 levels, a five-fold growth compared to the beginning of the 2017-2022
period, and puts an end to a period of lower investments whose beginning can be traced back in 2014. This
trend is essentially driven by an outstanding growth of VC investments in Chinese firms in 2021 and 2022, both
at early and later stages12, and, to a smaller extent, by the rebound of later stage investments in US firms after
a long period of lower investment levels.

Figure 27. EU and global total Venture Capital investments for the period 2011-2022.

Source: JRC analysis based on Pitchbook

The United States and the EU host respectively 30 % and 23 % of active venture capital companies over the
2017-2022 period. With 22 % of identified ventures, China has however taken a clear lead in the VC investment
race with a high level of constant investment over the past 2 years. Regarding the total VC investments (early
and later stage), China and the United States accounted for 45 % and 27 % respectively in the 2017-2022
period, while the EU accounted for 17 % of the global 2017-2022 total (see Figure 28).

11
Private Equity refers to capital investments (ownership or interest) made into companies that are not publicly traded. Venture capital
(VC) is a form of private equity and a type of financing that investors provide to start-up companies and small businesses that have
long-term growth potential. The early and later stages indicators in this analysis aggregate different types of equity investments in a
selection of companies and along the different stages of their growth path. For each technology, companies are selected based on
their activity description (keyword selection and expert review).
12
For early and later stages investments, only pre-venture companies (that have received Angel or Seed funding, or are less than 2
years old and have not received funding) and venture capital companies (companies that have, at some point, been part of the
portfolio of a venture capital investment firm) are included.

30
Figure 28. Top ten countries total Venture Capital investments for all stages for the periods 2011-2016 and 2017-2022.

Source: JRC analysis based on Pitchbook

China accounts for 62 % of global early-stage investments and 39 % of global later stage investments over
2017-2022. While later stage investments in Chinese companies have decreased in 2022 (- 39 % compared to
2021), they remain almost 3.5 times higher than in 2020. This trend is driven by companies such as SolarSpace,
Yonz Technology or Sinopont that were founded over the 2011-2016 period but had not attracted venture
capital so far and are now raising late-stage venture capital to support their growth. The growth of early-stage
investments in Chinese companies in 2022 compensate the drop of later stage investments in 2022. Early-
stage investments rose sharply since 2021 and have more than doubled in 2022 (x 2.6 as compared to 2021).
This trend is driven by investments in manufacturers of solar photovoltaic polycrystalline silicon wafers such
as Gokin Solar or Meike Solar that were founded recently (2019 and 2017 respectively) and are scaling very
fast.
Early-stage investments in EU VC companies amounted to EUR 135 million over the 2017-2022 period. They
have continuously decreased after a peak in 2020 and are back to their 2019 level. Over the 2017-2022 period,
the EU accounted for 9 % of global early-stage investments (vs 15.5 % over 2016-2021) and its competitive
positions further weakens in an accelerating global investment race. 40 % of the identified VC companies were
founded after 2017 and the United States, the EU and China host similar shares (24.5 %, 24 % and 23 %
respectively) of those 166 active companies over the 2017-2022 period. EU companies however only captured
16 % of the identified grant funding13 over the 2017-2022 period behind the United States (34.5 %) and Canada
(26 %) and closely followed by the United Kingdom (14 %). The remaining 9.5 % is attributed to the rest of the
world. PitchBook only reports negligible (or none) amount of grant funding for Japanese, Korean or Chinese
start-ups.

13
Even though grant funding is not equity funding, grants are included among early VC stages because they are an import source of
funding for start-ups.

31
Later stages investments in EU companies amounted to EUR 910 million over the 2017-2022 period, supported
by a smaller number of larger investments in manufacturers and installers of solar panels in Germany (Enpal,
Zolar) and Spain (Alter EnerSun). While they have decreased in 2022 (- 15 % compared to 2021), they remain
7 times higher than in 2020. Accounting for 21 % of global later stage investments over 2017-2022 (vs 16 %
over 2016-21), the EU improved its competitive position as later stage investments for Chinese companies are
decreasing. Late-stage VC investments in EU companies are essentially concentrated in Germany and Sweden,
which outrank the United Kingdom, but remain far behind the United States and China. France and the
th

and 11 position in terms of late-stage VC investments over the 2017-2022 period.

th

2.6 Patenting trends

Patenting trends are a valuable tool to analyse research trends in concepts that have market value. They are
essentially using R&D knowledge to translate it into commercialised products. It must be noted though that in
no way they may be used for R&D analysis but they can provide an insight into innovation.
The dataset used for the creation of the patent indicators (Fiorini et al., 2017; Pasimeni, 2019; Pasimeni, Fiorini
and Georgakaki, 2019, 2021; Pasimeni and Georgakaki, 2020) is based on the following Cooperative Patent
Classification (CPC) codes: Y02B 10/10, Y02E 10/50, Y02E 10/52, Y02E 10/541, Y02E 10/542, Y02E 10/543,
Y02E 10/544, Y02E 10/545, Y02E 10/546, Y02E 10/547, Y02E 10/548, Y02E 10/549 (European Patent Office,
2023). It has to be noted though that data for 2020 is not complete.
As depicted in Figure 29 China has the largest number of patents with more than 14 000 inventions, followed
by South Korea and Japan. The EU is in 4th position with 1 134 inventions in total between 2018 and 2020.

Figure 29. Number of inventions and share of high-value and international activity for the period 2018-2020.

Source: JRC analysis based on EPO Patstat

However, when only the high-value inventions14 are taken into consideration, the EU moves 1st with 59 % of its
total inventions being high-value inventions and China results into the last position, thus suggesting that the

14
High-value inventions (or high-value patent families) refer to patent families that include patent applications filed in more than one
patent office. International inventions include patent applications protected in a country different to the residence of the applicant.
High-value considers EU countries separately, while for international inventions European countries are viewed as one macro category.

32
EU, unlike China, is generally filing to more than one patent office 15. The same trend is evident also as far as
international inventions16 are concerned. The EU is aiming for patent applications outside while China appears
to be concentrated on applying mainly within the country rather than internationally. The EU is surpassed by
Japan and the United States regarding the international inventions. While Figure 29 shows the high-value
inventions as a percentage of the total number of inventions, Figure 30a presents the number of high-value
inventions in absolute numbers for each year from 2009 until 2020. A decreasing trend is observed for most
countries apart from South Korea and China. Germany, France and the Netherlands are among the top ten
countries with the highest number of high-value inventions between 2018 and 2020 (Figure 30b).

Figure 30. Number of high-value Inventions and (b) Top ten countries with high-value inventions for the period 2018-
2020.

Source: JRC analysis based on EPO Patstat

Table 4 and Table 5 respectively present the top ten entities globally and in the EU which filed the highest
number of inventions in PV between 2018 and 2020.
Table 4. Global top ten entities with high-value inventions in PV for the period 2018-2020.
Number of high-
Entities Country
value inventions

Samsung Display Co Ltd 478 KR

Boe Technology Group Co Ltd 211 CN

Wuhan China Star Optoelectronics Semiconductor Display

203 CN
Technology Co Ltd

Samsung Electronics Co Ltd 94 KR

Lg Philips Lcd Co Ltd 92 KR

Lg Electronics Inc 62 KR

Sharp Kabushiki Kaisha 46 JP

Kaneka Corporation 36 JP

Chengdu Boe Optoelectronics Technology Co Ltd 36 CN

Panasonic Intellectual Property Management Co Ltd 35 JP

Source: JRC analysis based on EPO Patstat

Almost half of the top ten entities in the field of high-value inventions are based in South Korea. The rest of
the top ten list includes entities from China and Japan (Table 4). In the period 2016-2018, the only EU company,

15
An invention is considered of high-value when it contains patent applications to more than one office.
16
Patent applications protected in a country different to the residence of the applicant.

33
Merck Patent Gmbh (Germany), was in the tenth position in the global top ten entities (Chatzipanagi, Jaeger-
Waldau, et al., 2022). However, for the period 2018-2020, no European entity has made it to the top ten. As far
as the EU is concerned, the top ten list highlights the leadership of German entities in high-value inventions
(Table 5). The company Cynora Gmbh has conquered the first position in the EU top ten and Merck Patent Gmbh,
first company for the period 2017-2019 (Chatzipanagi, Jaeger-Waldau, et al., 2022) has dropped to the fourth
position.
Table 5. EU top ten entities with high-value inventions in PV for the period 2018-2020.
Number of high-value
Entities Country
inventions

Cynora Gmbh 27 DE

Hanwha Q Cells Gmbh 22 DE

Azur Space Solar Power Gmbh 21 DE

Merck Patent Gmbh 21 DE

Heliatek Gmbh 15 DE

Novaled Gmbh 12 DE

Total Sa 11 FR

Isorg 10 FR

Eni Spa 10 IT

Borealis Ag 8 AT

Source: JRC analysis based on EPO Patstat

Figure 31 presents the countries in which patents for high-value inventions were submitted, and subsequently
enjoyed patent protection, between 2018 and 2020. Chinese applicants have mainly chosen to patent their
inventions in the US. The number of patent applications in the EU and other countries is very small. US inventors
have split their patent applications evenly between China, Europe and other geographical areas. The same
applies also for EU inventors, where patent applications are split evenly between China, US and others.
Applicants from South Korea are mainly applying in the US and China and to a lesser extent in Europe. In
conclusion, the US is receiving the largest number of high-value invention applications. Europe is 3rd to last as
far as the reception of patent applications is concerned.
A more detailed evaluation of the high-value patenting activity for the single CPC codes for CIS, dye-sensitised,
II-VI group, III-V group, micro c-Si, mono c-Si, poly c-Si, a-Si and organic PV cells from 2009 until 2020 reveals
a general decreasing trend for all PV technologies. More in particular, III-V group PV cell patents exhibit
fluctuations (increases and decreases) between 2009 and 2020, with the United States being the leader. High-
value patents related to the organic technology, have experienced an increase between 2009 and 2017 and
started decreasing thereafter. Japan is leading in the field of dye-sensitised, mono c-Si and a-Si PV cell patents.
The US is the country with the highest number of patents on II-VI group and III-V group PV cells and South
Korea patented inventions mostly relating to organic PV cells, w
high-value patents in 2018. The EU has significantly increased the number of high-value patents related to III-
V group PV cells and surpassed the US to reach the leading position in this domain in 2019.

34
 Figure 31. International protection of high-value inventions for the period 2018-2020.

Source: JRC analysis based on EPO Patstat and Sankeymatic

2.7 Scientific publication trends17

In the EU, the number of publications on PV technologies has increased steadily from 2012 to 2022 for all
technologies apart from perovskites. For this later particular PV technology, there has been a rapid increase in
the number of papers published from 2014 onwards (Figure 32a), due to the promising outlooks of this
technology. It is thanks to this intense research activity that the perovskites technology has reached such high
efficiencies in recent years. The analysis of PV technologies publications at global level confirms the same
trends as at EU level. In general, global publications dealing with the perovskite technology accounted for only
5 % of all technologies publications in 2012 but slowly increased, reaching an 81 % share in 2022. CdTe and
CIS technologies publications decreased from around 25 % of all technologies publications in 2012 to 4 % in
2022. Publications related to kesterite and multi-junction technologies decreased from approx. 15 % in 2012
to 4 % in 2022. Those on mono cSi, poly cSi and a-Si are very limited, resulting to being less than 3 % of total
publications in 2022.
The number of publications on mono c-Si, poly c-Si, a-Si, CdTe and kesterite technologies has been comparable
for the EU and China from 2012 until 2022. However, the number of publications on these technologies
remained very limited compared to the rest of the technologies in the above-mentioned period. On CIS/CGS and
multi-junction technologies, the EU has had more publications than other countries and China seems to have
developed an increasing interest in publications related to these technologies over the past 3 years. As far as
the CdTe technology is concerned, the leading country in publications is the United States for the period 2012-
2022 (being the dominant country in the CdTe production and market). However, it must be noted that
publications on CdTe technology in the United States have decreased after 2016. For the perovskite technology,
which is the highest-trending topic, China has the highest number of papers between 2012 and 2022 (Figure
33).

17
The scientific publication trends have not changed since last
2021 has slightly changed compared to the 2022 CETO PV report due to the constant update (additions, removals, etc.) of the
academic publishing databases.

35
 Figure 32. EU publications on PV (a) technologies, (b) systems and (c) applications for the period 2012-2022.

Source: JRC analysis

Figure 33. Global publications on perovskites for the period 2012-2022.

Source: JRC analysis

However, the total number of publications does not necessarily depict the quality of the work. As depicted in
Figure 34, skites but the
are slightly more numerous than China ). The best performing
country is Switzerland, for which 52 % of its total number of publications is also highly cited. The United States
and the United Kingdom follow with 43 %. FWCI is
significantly lower (2.3) than ), meaning less frequent citations despite the large number of papers
as a total. Almost half of the total number of publications on perovskites in the United States are highly cited
publicatio , denoting the high quality and frequent citation of the relevant papers.
At EU level, Germany is the country with the highest number of publications and citations on all PV technologies.
The o are Spain, Italy, France and Sweden. In terms of collaboration networks
for the publication of papers, China has strong bonds with the United States while the EU is mainly collaborating
with the United Kingdom, Switzerland but also with India, Japan and China. At EU level, the countries with the
highest number of publications (Germany, Italy, France and Spain) collaborate mainly between themselves as
well as with the Netherlands and Belgium.

36
 Figure 34. Global highly cited publications on perovskites and EU position for the period 2012-2022.

Source: JRC analysis

In the field of PV systems, publications in the EU as illustrated in Figure 32b evidence a predominance of
literature on the topic of inverters. The same is true at global level as well. Globally, from 2012 until 2022,
approximately 9 000 papers on inverters were published. Papers dealing with PV tracking systems were only
525. For BoS and hardware installation, there were around 130 and 62 papers respectively over the same
ions on
inverters. Germany ranks 1st nd
with 14 % and Denmark
and Italy follow with 12 % and 11 % respectively. In 2012, 20 % of the papers on inverters globally were
published by institutions based in the EU, however this share decreased to 12 % in 2022. China also has a high
number of publications in this field and its share in scientific publications remained stable around 30 % between
2012 and 2022, thus holding the first position. India, having a tradition in power systems research, is the 3 rd
country in the ranking with a share of publications in 2022 comparable with the EU . China has the greatest
number of publications on inverters, followed by the EU and the United States but only 16 s
United States highly cited publications is 20 % and
24 1.4 against 1.6 for the EU and 2.2 for the United States. It should be noted
verters segment of the PV value chain is not necessarily reflected in the number
of publications on inverters, as these publications are usually produced by research centres rather than private
companies that are also very active in this field. At EU level, even though Germany has the highest number of
publications on inverters, Denmark is the country with the highest portion of highly cited papers (40 % of the
). A strong collaboration between the EU and the United States has been identified
for BoS-related publications. For publications on inverters, China, the EU and the United States, the countries
with the highest number of publications, seem to co-
among themselves. At EU level, the strongest collaborations clusters on inverter publications are Germany-
United Kingdom-Austria-Belgium-Netherlands, France-Italy-Romania-Poland and Spain-Portugal-Estonia-
Finland.
Building integrated photovoltaics is the PV application that attracted the highest number of publications to date,
as illustrated in Figure 32c. The interest in floating photovoltaics has increased over the past 4 years and so
has the number of related publications. Agrivoltaics-related publications spiked in 2022 and vehicle integrated
photovoltaics has started attracting more attention. The EU, from 2012 until 2022, has published the highest
number of papers on building integrated photovoltaics making up for 23 % of the total number of papers on
the topic globally. China follows with 17 %. More than 22 % building integrated
photovoltaics come from Italy. Spain followed with 17 % and Germany with 11 % building integrated
photovoltaics publications. Even though the EU has the highest number of papers on building integrated
photovoltaics, the highly-cited ones represent only 15 % of the total. By com -cited papers
on building integrated photovoltaics represent 21 % of the total. Both, however, have a FWCI of 1.5. The United
Kingdom highly cited publications are 26 % and 23 % of the total building integrated
photovoltaics publications respectively and the countries have FWCIs of 2 and 1.8 respectively. At EU level, the
country with the highest number of publications on building integrated photovoltaics, Italy, has also an
impressive percentage of highly cited publications on building integrated photovoltaics equal to 25 %. The
respective percentage for Spain and Germany (2nd and 3rd ranking countries regarding building integrated

37
photovoltaics publications) is significantly lower at 7 % and 12 % respectively. In this field, the main
collaborations identified for publications are between China-United States-South Korea, United Kingdom-Japan
and EU-Switzerland-India. At EU level, Spain, United Kingdom and Portugal are co-publishing several papers on
building integrated photovoltaics, just like Italy, Switzerland and France. In the field of vehicle integrated
photovoltaics, for the first time, strong collaborations are identified between EU-Japan, United States-
Switzerland and China-South Korea.

2.8 Assessment of R&I project developments

Horizon Europe
The Horizon 2020 Work Programme (WP) from 2014 to 2020 included one hundred and forty PV projects for
which EUR 455 million were allocated. Horizon Europe (2021-2027), Horizon successor, is expected to
boost the . The indicative budgets for PV projects under the
2021-2022 and the 2023-2024 WPs are EUR 172 million and EUR 134 million respectively.
The Horizon Europe WPs 2021-2022 and 2023-2024 for Cluster 5 - Climate, Energy and Mobility, under
Destination 3 Sustainable, secure and competitive energy supply, support photovoltaic electricity generation
through research and innovation activities along the value chain and the technology readiness level scale (TRL).
The projects include research and innovation actions (TRL up to 5), innovation actions (TRL up to 7) and
coordination and support actions to accelerate the deployment of solar energy in the EU.
In particular, the Work Programme covers research and innovation activities along most of the value chain for
photovoltaics, including novel concepts at cell and module level; alternative equipment and processes for PV
manufacturing (including pilot lines for innovative technologies and advanced manufacturing of PV technologies
and integrated PV systems); operation, performance and maintenance of PV systems; recycling of PV modules;
resource efficiency in production, use and disposal of PV modules and penetration of PV in renewable energy
communities.
Regarding photovoltaic cell technologies, the focus is placed on research and innovation activities on advanced
concepts for crystalline silicon technology; stable, high performance and large area perovskite solar cells and
modules; high efficiency thin film technologies and high efficiency and low-cost tandem cells and modules.
Regarding applications, the Horizon Europe work programmes for 2021-2022 and 2023-2024 support
demonstration activities in the fields of floating PV applications, novel agro-photovoltaic systems, PV integration
in buildings and infrastructure, low-power PV applications, electric mobility and solar systems for industrial
process heat and power.
Innovation Fund
nstration of innovative low-
carbon technologies. The Innovation Fund provides grants for projects aiming at commercial deployment of
innovative low-carbon technologies, with the objective of bringing to the market industrial solutions to
decarbonise Europe and support its transition to climate neutrality. In addition, the Fund has a technical
assistance component which allows unsuccessful proposals that meet certain conditions to benefit from project
development assistance (PDA) support provided by the European Investment Bank.
A number of new solar actions are expected as a result of on-going or closed calls in 2023, subject to a
competitive process of proposals selection:
 3rd call for large-scale projects (deadline 16 March 2023) with a EUR 3 billion budget and
 3rd call for small-scale projects (deadline 19 September 2023) with a EUR 100 million budget Value
Chain Analysis.
Annex 4 presents an overview of the topics on PV in Horizon Europe WPs for 2021-2022 and 2023-2024, the
ongoing projects of the 2021-2022 Horizon Europe PV calls and the ongoing Innovation Fund projects.
PV-related projects also exist under other programmes, like CEF-Energy, Renewable Energy Financing
Mechanism, Just Transition Mechanism, LIFE or European Maritime Fisheries and Aquaculture Fund, etc..

38
3 Value Chain Analysis

3.1 Turnover
The EU PV turnover in 2021 was approximately EUR 28 billion, growing from EUR 21 billion in 2020. However,
the slight decrease in turnover between 2019 and 2020 was the result of a price effect rather than a volume
effect, as the installed capacity between 2019 and 2020 actually increased. This indicated that cost reductions
are translating into price reductions for consumers. The compound annual growth rate of the PV turnover in the
EU was 20 % between 2015 and 2021 (Figure 35). Globally, the PV market is estimated to have reached a
turnover of approximately USD 200 billion (EUR 170 billion18) in 2021 (Fortune Business Insights, 2022) and
thus, the .4 % of the total. In 2020 the The global turnover of the PV
sector in 2022 amounts to USD 237 billion (EUR 225 billion19) (IEA-PVPS, 2023b).

Figure 35. EU turnover in PV for the period 2015-2021.

Source: JRC analysis based on

Germany, France and Netherlands accounted for almost h over in 2021, whereas the
aggregated turnover of the top five countries in Figure 36 (Germany, France, Netherlands, Spain and Italy)
makes up for almost three-

Figure 36. EU turnover in PV for the top EU countries in 2019, 2020 and 2021.

18
Euro foreign exchange reference rates: 1 USD2021 = 0.8455 EUR2021
(https://www.ecb.europa.eu/stats/policy_and_exchange_rates/euro_reference_exchange_rates/html/eurofxref-graph-usd.en.html)
19
Euro foreign exchange reference rates: 1 USD2022 = 0.9497 EUR2022
(https://www.ecb.europa.eu/stats/policy_and_exchange_rates/euro_reference_exchange_rates/html/eurofxref-graph-usd.en.html)

39
 Source: JRC analysis based on

Germany and Netherlands have steadily increased their turnover from 2015 to 2021 with market compound
annual growth rates of 13 % and 36 % respectively. The French and Spanish markets have recovered from the

revert its market to higher than 2019 levels, Spain has not managed to match its 2019 turnover of
EUR 5.5 billion. While the above-mentioned countries are traditionally in the top five list for all the years, Poland
constitutes an emerging market with a compound annual growth rate of 77 % between 2015 and 2021 (Figure
37).

Figure 37. Turnover in PV for the top five EU countries for the period 2015-2021.

Source: JRC analysis based on

In addition to Poland, Estonia and Sweden are two emerging markets with strong CAGRs of 62 % and 48 %
respectively for the period 2015-2021. Italy demonstrates a rather low CAGR in turnover (9 %) between the
same years.

Figure 38. (a) Absolute and (b) share of turnover along the upstream (polysilicon to module) value chain for major
economies in 2022.

Source: (IEA-PVPS, 2023b)

According to Figure 38a, China is dominant in all segments of the upstream (polysilicon to module) (Annex 5)
PV value chain (from polysilicon to modules production) with a turnover 3 times more than all the rest of the
world combined. (polysilicon to module) PV sector is

40
 turnover relies mostly on polysilicon (Figure 38b). Approx. 0.40 % of
2022 GDP is due to the PV manufacturing sector, while for Malaysia and South Korea the respective
percentages are 0.95 % and 0.07 %. In Europe, the PV manufacturing industry does not contribute more than
0.020 % to its 2022 GDP (IEA-PVPS, 2023b).

3.2 Gross value added

The gross value added (GVA) is an economic productivity metric that measures the contribution of a corporate
subsidiary, company, or municipality to an economy, producer, sector, or region.
Figure 39, as already presented in previous work (European Commission, 2021) shows the EU share of the
global gross value added (GVA) in the different segments of the PV value chain after being disaggregated
according to their market size for the year 2020. It must be noted that inaccuracies may be present because
there may be positive (equipment for PV manufacturing) and negative (for PV panels) trade balances in the
different segments of the value chain.

Figure 39. Breakdown of GVA throughout the solar PV value chain.

Source: Guidehouse Insights, 2020 (CPR, 2021)

exhibited a CAGR of 20 % between 2016 (EUR 4.7 billion) and 2021 (EUR 11.5 billion). At EU
level and similarly to turnover, Spain had a remarkably high gross value added in 2019 that reached
EUR 2.4 billion and then decreased to around EUR 1.2 billion in 2021. By contrast, most EU countries have
increased their gross value added in 2021 compared to 2020 and 2019. Germany is again the leading EU
market (Figure 40).

Figure 40. Gross Value Added in PV for the top ten EU countries in 2019, 2020 and 2021.

Source: JRC analysis based on

41
3.3 Environmental and socio-economic sustainability
PV modules produced in China have a higher carbon footprint than those in the EU. PV modules manufactured
in the EU produce 40 % less CO2 than PV modules manufactured in China (Fraunhofer ISE, 2021). This is mainly
attributed to the polysilicon (poly-Si) and the monocrystalline Czochralski silicon (Cz-Si) production. Regarding
the different PV module configurations, the glass-glass PV modules have a slightly lower carbon footprint
compared to the traditional backsheet and framed PV modules (Figure 41).

Figure 41. Carbon footprint of different PV module configurations in different countries.

Source: (ETIP-PV, 2023)

A fully-fledged and adapted methodology for PV module carbon footprint calculation, with particular regard to
the manufacturing and shipping phases, has been proposed in 2023 (Polverini et al., 2023). This method has
the potential of being adapted to consider the full life cycle of PV modules, including end-of-life phase. It is a
basis for the market requirements of according to the Ecodesign Directive
(European Commission, 2022c).
Additional information, also for the carbon footprint of the different PV technologies and systems as a whole,
can be found in Annex 6.

42
3.4 Role of EU Companies
The analysis of the EU companies in the PV value chain is performed based on the structure presented in Figure
42.

Figure 42. Value chain structure.

Source: JRC 2023

The EU PV manufacturing status is presented in Figure 43 and the announced EU PV manufacturing facilities
that are planned until 2025 (latest update June 2023) are presented in Figure 44. In June 2023, Norwegian
Crystals, the mono c-Si ingot producer has declared bankruptcy, weakening the efforts for rebuilding the EU PV
supply chain (Bernreuter Research, 2023a). In addition, in September 2023, NorSun announced a temporary
suspension of its production, and ultimately also related employee layoffs, as a result of the pressure from the
module oversupply in Europe (PV Magazine, 2023a). At global level, some of the major announcements are
presented in Table 6.
Regarding the raw materials of PV manufacturing the EU leading company in polysilicon is Wacker Chemie,
while the main companies for solar glass are Interfloat Corporation (Germany), ENF Ltd. (Germany), Euroglas
GmbH (Germany), Saint-Gobain (France) and Alliaverre (France). Endurans (the Netherlands), Coveme (Italy),
Dunmore (Germany) and Aluminium Feron (Germany) are the main producers of backsheets and foils (ETIP-PV,
2023). Apart from the Austrian company Borealis, encapsulant producers are mainly located outside the EU,
while silver paste producers in the EU are Heraeus (Germany), DuPont and Dycotec Materials (United Kingdom)
(ETIP-PV, 2023).
Furthermore to the metallurgical grade silicon (mg-Si), polysilicon, ingot and wafer, cell and module status quo
in the EU in Figure 43, Annex 7 presents the main EU companies for production equipment for polysilicon, ingot,
wafer, cell and module as well as for module components, tracking systems and inverters. The information has
been obtained from SolarPower Europe (SolarPower Europe, 2023b).

AlsoEnergy (which is a United States based company that operates partially in the EU), Solar-log and
Meteo&Control. Regarding the Engineering, Procurement and Construction (EPC) segment, there are numerous
companies and the market is highly fragmented. The same applies also for the deployment segment with major
companies such as Enel Green Power, Engie and BayWa.re leading the market. In the recycling segment, the EU
counts more than 15 recycling companies. Some, indicatively, that are dealing with direct recycling of PV
modules are Envaris, Reiling, Rieger & Kraft Solar and Rinovasol in Germany, La Mia Energia and Yousolar in
Italy, Euresi and Solucciona Energia in Spain. Regarding the rest of the world, Switzerland and the United
Kingdom also have PV recycling facilities, while the United States have an extended recycling market with more
than 20 companies (CEM, Cleanlites Recycling, Dynamic Lifecycle, Echo Environmental, Exotech, Fab Tech, First
Solar, Green Lights Recycling, Mitsubishi Electric, We Recycle Solar and others) (ENF, 2023).
As far as the promising perovskite technology is concerned, the material provision market is dominated by
companies in the United States and Japan. Among the approximately twenty global material providers there is
also Dyenamo in Sweden (Perovskite-info, 2023b). Two major EU module developers; Enel Green Power in Italy
and Evolar in Sweden are among the twenty global market players for the perovskite technology, with the
United States dominating. Oxford PV is an important company in the sector and is based in the United Kingdom
(Perovskite-info, 2023c). The EU is a leader in the equipment manufacturing for the perovskite technology.
Seven major companies are active in the sector: MBRAUN, Aixtron and Bergfeld Lasertech in Germany, FOM
Technologies and infinityPV in Denmakr, SparkNano in the Netherlands and JACOMEX in France (Perovskite-info,
2023a).

43
Figure 43. PV manufacturing capacities in the EU in September 2023.

Source: Fraunhofer ISE

44
Figure 44. PV manufacturing capacity expansions until 2025.

Source: Fraunhofer ISE

45
Table 6. Global PV manufacturing expansion announcements.
Country Company Component New capacity
China Lihao Semiconductor Polysilicon 100 000 MT
China Tongwei High-purity crystalline silicon 120 000 MT
China Runyang Yueda High-purity crystalline silicon 30 000 MT
China Shangji CNC High-purity crystalline silicon 50 000 MT
China Runxiang Quartz Mining Polysilicon 260 000 MT
China Hoshine Silicon High-purity crystalline silicon 200 000 MT
China LONGI Green Energy Wafer 100 GWp
China TCL Zhonghuan Wafer 35 GWp
Wafer 20 GWp
China JA Solar
Crystal pulling 20 GWp

China Jinko Wafer 20 GWp

(first phase: 10 GWp)
China Canadian Solar Wafer and cell 14 GWp
China Huamin
Wafer 41 GWp
China Daheng Energy
High efficiency n-type mono c-Si,
China Shijing Technology 34 GWp
TOPCon solar cells
TOPCon cells 16 GWp
China Mingpal Jewelry
HJT cells 4 GWp
Anhui Haojing New
China TOPCon cells -
Energy
China Hongxi Energy TOPCon and HJT cells -
China Maddle Technology High-efficiency mono c-Si 9 GWp
China Shunfeng Electric High-performance cells 10 GWp
China Zhengqi Holdings High efficiency n-type cells 20 GWp
Sunflower, Shaoxing
China TOPCon cells 10 GWp
Jicheng
East China Heavy
China High-efficiency cells 10 GWp
Machinery
China Light Potential Energy HJT laminated cells 10.8 GWp
China Hewang New Energy High-efficiency cells 10 GWp
China Qingyuan Energy Group TOPCon cells 10 GWp
Yonghe Intelligent
China Ultra-efficient n-type cells 10 GWp
Control
China Tianchen Shares High-efficiency cells 20 GWp
China Youhua Technology High-efficiency cells 20 GWp
China Ju Neng Power HJT cells 10 GWp
Zhengxin
China Cells 10 GWp
Optoelectronics

46
 Country Company Component New capacity
India Reliance New Energy Integrated PV 4 GWp
India Adani Infrastructure Integrated PV 737 MWp
India Shirdi Sai Integrated PV 4 GWp
United States REC Silicon Polysilicon 20 000 MT
United States SPI Energy Wafers/ingots 1.5 GWp
United States First Solar Thin-film modules 3.5 GWp
United States Q Cells Integrated c-Si modules 9 GWp
United States Fuyao Group Glass -
United States Toledo Solar Thin-film modules 2.7 GWp
United States Meyer Burger Modules 1.5 GWp
United States PV Hardware Trackers 6 GWp
United States Endurans Solar Backsheets -
United States Q Cells Modules 1.4 GWp
United States GameChange Solar Trackers 6 GWp
United States Mission Solar Modules 700 MWp
United States 3Sun (Enel) Modules/cells 3.0 GWp
Source: (IEA, 2022c; Mercom Clean Energy Insights, 2023)

Ten countries host almost 85 % of identified innovators globally (Figure 45). The United States concurs the first
position with 21 owed by China with a share of 18 %. Three EU
countries are included in the top ten countries of innovating companies: Germany (4 th), France (6th) and the
Netherlands (8th).
The United States (1st) and China (2nd) have a very strong base of venture capital companies while most of the
innovators in Japan (3rd), Germany (4th) and South Korea (5th) are corporate innovators (Figure 45).
Within the EU (hosting 22 % of the globally identified innovating companies), the Netherlands and Sweden
report a stronger share of venture capital companies.

Figure 45. Innovating companies in the period 2017-2022.

Source: JRC analysis based on compilation of sources

47
3.5 Employment
Employment in the PV sector is another parameter reflecting its market growth. Employment data differ
significantly based on the data source as can be seen in Box 2. The discrepancies encountered in the different
sources are a result of different methodological approaches in estimating the employment, both at EU as well
as global level. From the 648 000 PV jobs in the EU in 2022, SPE estimates that 281 000 were direct. IEA-
330 000. IRENA reports direct and indirect jobs and
estimates the EU PV jobs in 2022 to have amounted to 517 000, a number of more than 100 000 jobs lower
than the 648 000 jobs SPE estimation. Taking these differences into consideration, caution is needed when
evaluating the data. The present analysis uses da -PVPS and completes where
necessary with data from IRENA, namely for the global numbers. For the EU jobs of the different segments in
the PV value chain, SPE data was used.

Box 2. Differences in EU and global PV employment data.

EU
2020 2021 2022
SolarPower Europe: 357 000 PV jobs 466 000 PV jobs 648 000 PV jobs
166 000 PV jobs 223 000 PV jobs Not available yet
IEA-PVPS: 185 000 PV jobs 185 000 PV jobs 330 000 PV jobs
IRENA: 166 000 PV jobs 236 000 PV jobs 517 000 PV jobs

World
2020 2021 2022
IRENA: 3 980 000 PV jobs 4 290 000 PV jobs 4 900 000 PV jobs
IEA-PVPS: 3 980 000 PV jobs 4 290 000 PV jobs 5 800 000 PV jobs

Source: (IRENA and ILO, 2021; SolarPower Europe, 2021a; IREN

and ILO, 2023; SolarPower Europe, 2023a; IEA-PVPS, 2023b)

Between 2008 and 2016, the PV sector suffered a dramatic decrease in jobs. The compound decrease in total
PV jobs in the EU was 15 %. This decrease reflected a decrease of 8 % for rooftop and 23 % for ground-
mounted applications. This is in part due to base effects, owing to the sudden increase in the number of PV jobs
in 2008 in Spain for the installation of around 3 000 MW of ground-mounted systems that were not maintained
afterwards (EY, 2017).
Globally, PV jobs reached 5.8 million at the end of 2022 (IEA-PVPS, 2023b), from 4.3 million in 2021 (IRENA
and ILO, 2023). ed 6
number of total PV jobs between 2018 and 2022 is depicted in Figure 46. According to IEA-PVPS, China, that
has the largest PV market in the world, accounted for 71 % of the world PV jobs in 2022 (4.1 million jobs) (IEA-
PVPS, 2023b). In 2020, the EU was in the 5th place globally, after China, the United States, Japan and India.
However, in 2022, the EU conquered the 3rd position behind China and India.
In 2021, of the 4.3 million PV jobs globally, 28 % are estimated to have been in the upstream sector (i.e
production) and the remaining 72 % in the downstream sector (i.e. installation) (IEA-PVPS, 2022). This is in
accordance with previous research conducted in 2016 stating that 25 % of EU employment supported by the
PV industry was upstream and 75 % downstream (Dodd et al., 2020). In 2022, the share of jobs in the upstream
segment was increased to 33 % (vs. 67 % share of jobs in the downstream activities) (IEA-PVPS 2023). A 2022
report from Fraunhofer ISE (Fraunhofer ISE, 2022a) suggests that 7 500 full-time equivalents (FTEs) are needed
for the production of 10 GWp of PV generation assets from silicon ingot via wafer and cell to module, whereas
the installation of 10 GWp of PV requires 46 500 FTEs, suggesting a standard ratio of 14 % for upstream versus
86 % for downstream activities (Fraunhofer ISE, 2022a). In general, small scale PV generates more jobs than
utility-scale PV (IEA-PVPS, 2023b).

48
 Figure 46. Global direct and indirect PV jobs and EU share between 2018 and 2022.

Source: JRC analysis based on (IEA-PVPS, 2019, 2020, 2021; IRENA and ILO, 2021; IEA-PVPS,
2022a; IEA-PVPS, 2023b; IRENA and ILO, 2023)

According to Figure 47a, in 2022 most PV jobs in the EU were related to deployment activities (84 % versus
79 % in 2021). Of those, a bit less than two thirds were identified as indirect jobs. O&M activities represented
7 % of total PV jobs (9 % in 2021) and of these half were direct and half indirect jobs. Jobs related to
manufacturing activities account for 7 % (9 % in 2021) and are mostly direct jobs (SolarPower Europe, 2023a).
The manufacturing activities are further divided into the manufacturing of inverters representing 73 % of PV
jobs in 2022, up from a 70 % share in 2021 and a 46 % share in 2020 (SolarPower Europe, 2023a). On the
contrary, the share of PV jobs in the polysilicon production and module production activities appear to have
decreased between 2020 and 2022 from 29 % to 10 % for the former and from 22.5 % to 15 % for the latter
(SolarPower Europe, 2023a). PV jobs in the inverter, polysilicon and modules sectors accounted for 98 % of the
total manufacturing jobs (Figure 47b). In the polysilicon production sector, half of the jobs are direct and half
indirect, whereas, in the rest of the sectors, jobs are mostly direct.

Figure 47. (a) Employment in PV value chain segments and (b) employment in manufacturing segment share in 2022.

Source: JRC analysis based on (SolarPower Europe, 2023a)

As far as PV jobs with relation to applications are concerned, in 2021, 73 % of the jobs in the EU were for
rooftop and 27 % for utility applications. The country with the highest, but decreasing over the years, proportion
of jobs (72 % in 2020, 56 % in 2021 and 50 % in 2022) for utility applications was Spain. For rooftop
applications, the highest proportion of jobs can be found in Poland and Italy (close to 90 %) (SolarPower Europe,
2023a).

(Chatzipanagi, Jaeger-Waldau, et al., 2022), there was a decrease in EU PV jobs

between 2019 and 2020, mainly due to the significant respective decreases which took place in Spain and
France. The 2017 auction in Spain required that all installations be realised before the next one in 2019. For
this reason, the number of PV-related jobs increased notably until 2019 but decreased again afterwards as the
annual power installed decreased from about 5 GW p in 2019 to 3 GWp in 2020. As the annual PV installations

49
increased between 2020 and 2021 by 4.5 GW p, so did the related jobs by 33 %. Of course, it has to be noted
that 2020 was the year when Covid19 occurred and disruptions took place both in the upstream as well as the
downstream activities. Figure 48).
Most PV jobs have been created in Germany, the country with the biggest PV market and the largest installed
PV power in the EU. For 2021, in Germany, the total number of jobs, according to Eur 000,
increased by only 1 % compared to 2020. Germany is followed by Poland, which was the 6th country in PV
installed capacity in the EU in 2021 creating around 35 200 jobs (74 % increase compared to 2020). Spain and
Netherlands had a bit more than 20 000 jobs in 2021 (Figure 48). For the period between 2015 and 2021,
trend with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of
10 %. Poland and Spain exhibit CAGRs of 76 % and 43 % respectively. High CAGRs in PV employment for the
period 2015-2021 occur also in Portugal (44 %), Greece (34 %) and the Netherlands (31 %). On the contrary,
Italy appears to be on a much flatter trajectory. It ranks 3rd in the EU as far as cumulative installed PV capacity
is concerned but exhibits a low CAGR in employment (7 %) between 2015 and 2021 due to the fact that the
country has not installed more than 800 MWp annually these past eight years.

It has to be noted that apart from the total EU number of PV employment, SPE reports differences also at EU
level (SolarPower Europe, 2023a). More in particular, according to SPE, -
related jobs already since 2020 . Poland, Germany and Spain
Poland being the fastest-growing PV jobs market
in the recent years, surpassing Germany. PV jobs in Spain and Italy presented a CAGR of 50 % between 2020
and 2022. Italy is re-emerging regarding PV jobs in 2022 in the 5th position.

Figure 48. EU direct and indirect PV jobs between 2015 and 2021.

Source: JRC analysis based on

Regarding projections for 2027, SPE devised 3 different scenarios. These are the low, medium and high
scenarios that are based on the non-, partial- and full-accomplishment of the targets of the European Solar
Industry Alliance (ESIA)20 respectively. Growth projections by 2027 range between 39 % (903 000 jobs for the
low scenario) and 153 % (1 600 000 jobs for the high scenario) with a moderate increase of 86 %
(1 200 000 jobs) for the medium scenario (SolarPower Europe, 2023a). The number of deployment jobs in the
-mentioned medium scenario while
the number of O&M-related jobs may increase by 141 % according to the same scenario. Manufacturing-related
jobs are expected to grow between 28 % (low scenario) and 168 % (high scenario). The medium scenario
foresees a 104 % growth in manufacturing employment, with module and inverter manufacturing accounting
for three fourths of the total manufacturing in all scenarios. Decommissioning and recycling jobs are projected
to grow by 153 % based on the medium scenario as many PV systems are approaching their end of operating
lifetime (SolarPower Europe, 2023a). SPE also projects that the portion of rooftop-related jobs will decrease
from 73 % in 2022 to 63 %. 60 % and that of utility-scale related jobs will increase to 40 % (SolarPower
Europe, 2023a).

20
The European Solar PV Industry Alliance (ESIA) aims to accelerate solar PV deployment in the EU by scaling-up to 30 GW of annual
solar PV manufacturing capacity in Europe by 2025 (https://solaralliance.eu/).

50
In the manufacturing sector, according to (ETIP-PV, 2023), the number of employees for the mg-Si and
polysilicon process are estimated at 144 and 672 full-time equivalent jobs, respectively and include operators,
technicians and engineers, with operators being the profession with the highest share in both processes
(approx. 75 %). For the rest of the manufacturing segments and considering a 10 GW p TOPCon manufacturing
plant, for the ingot and the wafer processes, the number of jobs required are 1 715 and 1 808 respectively. For
the cell and module production, the 1 441 and 3 179 full-time equivalent jobs are necessary. Again, operators
make up for most of the jobs in comparison to technicians and engineers. Of course, it has to be noted that the
level of automation is constantly increasing. Regarding the deployment sector, jobs may be less stable than in
the manufacturing sector but can benefit local communities and economies. According to SPE, for a 10 MWp
ground-mounted system 2-4 design engineers, 1-2 electricians and approx. 45 construction workers are needed.
For a 10 kWp rooftop system 1 electrician and 4 construction workers are needed (SolarPower Europe, 2023a).

One third of the total jobs in renewable energies is in the PV sector (IEA-PVPS, 2023b). Women represent 40 %
of the total employees in the PV sector, the highest share in all renewable energies and oil and gas sector. Most
women in the PV sector are employed in administrative positions (58 %), followed by non-STEM (science,
technology, engineering and mathematics) technical positions. The share of women in STEM jobs is 32 % (the
global average is 35 %) (IRENA and ILO, 2023).

Reskilling and upskilling workers in the PV sector will be essential in the near future, if not already now, as many
workers are shortly going into retirement. At the same time, the needs for workers will continue to grow along
with the planned manufacturing expansions as well as the planned installations in the next years.

Concerns have risen over the years regarding forced labour particularly in the Uyghur Region in China, which
now accounts for approximately 35 %) and as much as 32 % of
global metallurgical grade silicon production. The vast majority of modules produced globally continues to have
exposure to the Uyghur Region (Crawford and Murphy, 2023).

3.6 Energy intensity and labour productivity

3.6.1 Energy intensity

The Energy Return on Investment (EROI) (in terms of electricity) of different PV technologies and at different
irradiation levels can be seen in Figure 49. The highest EROI is observed for the CdTe technology in the United
States, whereas the lowest for CIGS PV systems in Japan.
According to Fraunhofer ISE, in the past 24 years, the Energy Payback Time (EPBT) of PV has experienced a
decrease of 12.8 %. Depending on the location and the technology used for the PV system, its EPBT can be as
low as 0.9 years (South Europe), while in the Northern European countries it slightly exceeds the one year
(Fraunhofer ISE, 2023).
Figure 50 shows presents an EPBT comparison between different PV technologies at different irradiation levels
in different global locations.
EPBT for PV systems produced in Europe is shorter than for those produced in China because of better grid
efficiency21 in Europe. (Fraunhofer ISE, 2023). Additional information can be found in Annex 6.

21
The higher, the better in countries where upstream production is located; (better energy mix to generate electrical power; less losses
in the electrical transmission network). At downstream (where PV is installed) a low grid efficiency reduces the EPBT (Fraunhofer ISE,
2023).

51
 Figure 49. Energy Return on Investment of different technology PV systems, under three irradiation levels in different
global locations.

Source: (Fthenakis and Leccisi, 2022)

Figure 50. Energy Pay Back Times of different technology PV systems, assuming three irradiation levels in different
global locations.

Source: (Fthenakis and Leccisi, 2022)

3.6.2 Labour productivity

The labour productivity of the entire PV value chain for the years 2019, 2020 and 2021 is presented in Figure
51. The most job-intensive segments along the upstream PV supply chain are module and cell manufacturing.
Over the last decade, however, the use of automation and automated guided vehicles has increased labour
productivity, thereby reducing labour intensity (IEA, 2022b).

52
 Figure 51. PV labour productivity in the EU in 2019, 2020 and 2021.

Source: JRC analysis based on

3.7 EU Production Data

No production codes are explicitly associated with photovoltaics. The selected Prodcom codes, "PRODuction
COMmunautaire" (Community Production), (Table 7) correspond to vague product groups that include solar cells,
semiconductor devices and photovoltaic cells. However, they can be used as a proxy for understanding the
trends.
Table 7. Prodcom codes as a proxy for PV production.

HS code Description Alias

Parts of diodes, transistors and similar semiconductor devices,

26114070 photosensitive semiconductor devices and photovoltaic cells, light- Semiconductors
emitting diodes and mounted piezo-electric crystals

Photosensitive semiconductor devices; solar cells, photo-diodes, photo-

26112240 Parts
transistors, etc.
Source: JRC analysis based on PRODCOM

Figure 52 shows the EU production in value. Over the past ten years (2013-2022), the overall production value
shrunk by 10 % with an annual compound growth of -1 % and an average value of EUR 2.2 billion. In 2022, the
total value had a 7 % increase compared to the previous year, reaching EUR 2.5 billion. Semiconductors occupy
the biggest share of the EU production value, while the production value of parts has increased after 2018.

53
 Figure 52. EU production value per commodity for the period 2011-2022.

Source: JRC analysis based on PRODCOM

Germany and Italy were the top EU producers (Figure 53) holding 50 % and 14 % of the total EU production
respectively (ten-year average). Germany had a balanced production of both commodities, while the 90 % of
semiconductors. Not all Member States keep disclose their production data and
this is why some years have no boxes for France, Austria and Netherlands.

Figure 53. Top five EU PV producers for the period 2011-2022.

Source: JRC analysis based on PRODCOM

54
4 EU Market Position and Global Competitiveness

4.1 Global & EU market leaders

Figure 54 demonstrates EU position in different markets for the period 2019-2021. The horizontal axis shows
the 2-year average of net import change from the EU and the vertical axis shows the 2-year average of the
net import change from the rest of the world. Countries in quadrant I (above the horizontal axis and right of the
vertical axis) are considered to have a growing market (increase of imports). Countries in quadrant III (below
the horizontal axis and left of the vertical axis) have less imports.
-competitive location for the manufacturing
of all PV components throughout the entire supply chain (IEA, 2022b). It is reported that costs in China are 10 %
lower than in India, 20 % lower than in the United States and 35 % lower than in Europe. This is due to
lower energy, labour and investment costs (IEA, 2022b). In Europe, rising energy prices following the geopolitical
circumstances of years 2021-2022 widened the cost gap with China. In 2022, EU industrial energy prices are
more than triple those of China, India and the United States (IEA, 2022a).

Figure 54. EU positioning in different markets with 2-year average (2019-2020 and 2020-2021) of change in import
from the EU and ROW.

Source: JRC based on UN Comtrade data

In 2015 China accounted for 65 % and 69 % of the global PV cell and module (crystalline and thin-film)
production respectively (Survey report of Selected IEA Countries between 1992 and 2015 IEA-PVPS). In 2022,
the country increased its share to 84 % and 78 % for cell and module production respectively while Europe
accounted for only 0.2 % and 0.6 % respectively (Trends in photovoltaic applications 2023 IEA-PVPS). Vietnam
and Malaysia hold a significant and increasing share in cell and module manufacturing as countries in which
major Chinese solar cell manufacturers have built production lines in an attempt to overcome the barrier of the
USA antidumping duties and countervailing duties imposed on Chinese products (Trends in photovoltaic
applications 2023 IEA-PVPS).
The global leaders in cell and module (crystalline and thin-film) manufacturing in 2022 are presented in Table
8 (IEA-PVPS, 2023b). These leading companies are all based in China apart from Canadian Solar which is
headquartered in Canada but has most of its factories in China. These top five companies accounted for 47 %
and 52 % of the global cell and module (crystalline and thin-film) production in 2022 (IEA-PVPS, 2023b).

55
Table 8. Top five global manufacturers for cell and module manufacturing in 2022.
Cell production (GWp) Module production (GWp)
Tongwei Solar (49.2) LONGI Green Energy Technology (48.2)
LONGI Green Energy Technology (36.2) Trina Solar (45.4)
Aiko Solar (33.7) JA Solar Technology (43.9)
Trina Solar (33.6) Jinko Solar (40)
JA Solar Technologies (32.7) Canadian Solar (21.1)
Source: (IEA-PVPS, 2023b)

Other major companies in the sector are Hanwha Q CELLS (South Korea), First Solar (United States),
BrightSource Energy, Inc. (U.S.), SunPower Corporation (U.S.) 22, Yingli Solar (China), Wuxi Suntech Power Co. Ltd.
(China), Waaree Group (India), AccionaEnergia S.A. (Spain), Nextera Energy Sources LLC (U.S.), Vivaan Solar
(India), eSolar Inc. (U.S.), Tata PowerSolar Systems Ltd. (India) and Abengoa (Spain) (Fortune Business Insights,
2022).
Module shipments from 2019 until 2022 for the five leading companies are presented in Table 9.
Table 9. Top five global manufacturers for module shipments from 2019 until 2022.
Module shipments (GWp)
Companies
2019 2020 2021 2022
LONGI Green Energy Technology 8.4 24.5 38.5 46.8
Jinko Solar 14.3 18.8 22.2 44.5
Trina Solar 10.0 15.9 24.8 43.1
JA Solar Technology 10.3 15.0 25.5 39.8
Canadian Solar 8.6 11.3 14.5 21.1
Source: (IEA-PVPS, 2023b)

The inverter market has also seen a tremendous market expansion as a result of the extended PV deployment
activities. Revenues for inverters manufacturing companies have increased over the years. Global inverter
shipments grew from 98.5 GWAC in 2017 to 330 GWAC in 2022, a compound growth of 27 % (PV Magazine,
2018, 2019, 2020, 2022, 2023b, 2023c; CDS Solar, 2022). Huawei is the leading inverter supplier for the past
seventeen years. After a consecutive three-year period (2018-2020) of ranking in the 3rd and 4th position, the
two European suppliers SMA (Germany) and Power Electronics (Spain) have been surpassed by three Chinese
companies (Growatt, Ginlong Solis and GoodWe) and are placed in the 6th and 7th position respectively based on
their shipments growth in 2022 (Figure 55) (CDS Solar, 2022; PV Magazine, 2022, 2023c).

22
Total Energies acquired a 60% stake in the company (all commercial and manufacturing activities) in 2011 but it remained listed as
a US company (https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/totalenergies-buy-sunpowers-commercial-industrial-business-250-mln-
2022-02-10/).

56
 Figure 55. Global inverter shipments for the period 2018-2022.

Source: JRC analysis based on (CDS Solar, 2022; PV Magazine, 2022)

Between 2019 and 2022 inverter shipments exhibited a 38 % increase in compound growth from approximately
127 GWAC (2019) to 330 GWAC (2022). In the same period, the compound growths of the two major inverter
manufacturers Huawei and Sungrow were 49 % and 63 % respectively. Growatt, Ginlong Solis and GoodWe
have increased their shipments by 52 %, 88 % and 81 % (compound growth) and completed the top five inverter
manufacturers list. SMA and Power Electronics have exhibited a 3 % and 10 % compound growth in 2022 and
hence have been shifted outside the top five global leading manufacturers (already since 2021).
In 2022, half of the global inverter shipments were destined for the Asia-Pacific market (the largest market)
and China accounted for 78 % of the market. Europe and the United States had a 28 % and 13 % share of
global shipments in 2022 (PV Magazine, 2023b).
shipments shares, Europe exhibited its highest shipment growth in 2022 (82 %) (PV Magazine, 2023b).
ownstream value chain segments is distinctively different. The EU holds a
considerable share in the equipment and inverter manufacturing segments of the PV value chain. However, it
lags as far as large-scale production of polysilicon, wafers, cells and modules is concerned. The high labour,
energy, materials and equipment costs for the large-scale production segment are the main reason why
countries like China, where these costs are lower, dominate these segments of the value chain. The difference
in the costs is as high as 74 % (ETIP-PV, 2023). However, it has to be noted that the increasing automation in
manufacturing render energy costs a more influencing parameter.

Even though the EU is a technology leader in polysilicon, in the past years cannot compete with the large-scale
production facilities developed in China. Wacker Chemie in Germany and MEMC Merano in Italy have been in
the top ten of polysilicon manufacturer in 2004. In fact, in 2004, Wacker Chemie had the second highest
manufacturing capacity after Hemlock Semiconductor in the United States. Wacker Chemie was also the largest
polysilicon manufacturer between 2016 and 2019. In 2020, the situation has changed and the company held
the third position in the global market with 84 000 MT (18 % share of the total global production) after the
Chinese company Tongwei with 96 000 MT (20.5 % share of the total global production) and the Hong-Kong
based GCL-Poly with 90 000 MT (19 % share of the total global production). The fourth, fifth and sixth position
held again Chinese companies (Bernreuter Research, 2023b).
Between 2019 and 2022, the EU domestically produced PV modules could not compete with the Chinese ones.
Despite the announcement of several energy policies, such as the Green Deal Industrial Plan (GDIP) and the Net
Zero Industry Act (NZIA), that aim to boost the domestic manufacturing and decrease dependency on China, the
EU imported from China a 87 GWp capacity of PV modules between 2021 and 2022 (112 % increase of imports)
but managed to install less than half, remaining therefore with 47 GW p of PV module stacked in warehouses.
The projections for 2023 show that the imports will reach 120 GWp of which almost 60 GWp will be kept unused
(RystadEnergy, 2023). Bloomberg draws attention to the fact that, despite the accelerating pace of PV
installations, the manufacturing boom in China (Table 6) will further lower the costs, decrease the profit margins
and create an overcapacity that may put at risk of bankruptcy several Chinese companies (Bloomberg, 2023).
At the same time, the created oversupply and continuous lowering prices of Chinese PV modules threaten the
coveted European re-build of PV manufacturing. Concerns regarding the potential bankruptcies following that

57
of Norwegian Crystal due to the intensification of the competition from China have risen significantly lately. In
September 2023, the European Solar PV Alliance released a document with recommendations regarding the
financial mechanisms to fill the cost gap and restore the PV industry in Europe (ESMC, 2023b).

China is the leader in the polysilicon, ingot, wafer, cell and module manufacturing segments of the value chain
with a share of 63 %, 95 %, 97 % (96 % in 2021), 79 % and 71 % (78 % in 2021) of these global markets
respectively (IRENA and ILO, 2022). The EU was a leader in equipment and inverter manufacturing as it is more
knowledge-intensive and the EU has a highly skilled workforce and research infrastructure (Bolscher et al.,
2017)
manufacturing it was 20 % of the global turnover. Its share in the other value chain segments was less than
10 % (Bolscher et al., 2017). However, in more recent years, the situation has changed as one of the strongest
EU-based inverter manufacturer, SMA (Germany), has gradually seen its market share being reduced (from 8 %
in 2018 to 3 % in 2022) while China-based companies increased their share in the segment. The 2nd European
inverter manufacturing company in the global top ten inverter shipments is Power Electronics (Spain) which has
also seen its market share decrease from 6 % in 2018 to 3 % in 2022. Apart from SMA and Power Electronics,
other important EU inverter manufacturers at global level are Fronius, Ingeteam and Fimer. In other BoS
activities, Soltec is a strong global competitor in the field of trackers. EU companies are also strong competitors
in downstream activities (EPC, O&M and recycling).

The value chain disruptions experienced in the previous years as well as the concentration of supply in China
has led major economies to adopt manufacturing policies in an effort to diversify their supply chain and boost
their domestic manufacturing capabilities. The United States Inflation Reduction Act (IRA),

capabilities outside China and reduce PV production costs that will render manufacturing outside China (and
Asia) competitive. In
80 % - 95 % (depending on the segment) to 75 % - 90 % (depending on the segment) by 2027 (IEA, 2022a).
Additional trade-related policies supporting domestically and low carbon manufactured products can reduce
- 75 % by 2027 (IEA, 2022a). An EMBER report projects that
manufacturing capacity will reach 931 GWp/year in 2023 30 GWP/year. In the
United States, the IRA is bringing forward investments of 85 GWP/year of PV manufacturing capacity and India,
through PLI, aims to reach a manufacturing capacity of 110 GWP/year by 2026 (Hawkins, 2023).

4.2 Trade (Import/export) and trade balance

International trade is monitored using six-digit codes of the Harmonised System (HS) classification. In 2022,
the HS nomenclature was revised, and the codes used for photovoltaics (PV) are affected. More specifically, the
previously used 854190 (Photosensitive semiconductor devices, incl. photovoltaic cells) has been restructured
Photosensitive semiconductor devices, incl.
photovoltaic cells whether or not assembled in modules or made up into panels; light emitting diodes (excl.
photovoltaic generators)) was discontinued and substituted by four new codes: 854141 (Light-emitting diodes
(LED)), 854142 (Photovoltaic cells not assembled in modules or made up into panels), 854143 (Photovoltaic
cells not assembled in modules or made up into panels) and 854149 (Other). The new nomenclature is effective
as of January 1st 2022, and does not apply to the previous years. For the purposes of this study, codes 854190
and 854140 are used until 2021 and 854142 and 854143 as of 2022. In some cases, 854149 could not be
excluded from 2022 calculations. However, the data analysis showed that it had a consistently low share for
both imports (1 %) and exports (7 %) in both versions of the nomenclature. When all new codes are considered,
assembled PVs (854143) represented 28 % of the extra-EU exports and 87 % of the extra-EU imports, while
non-assembled PV cells (854142) represented 1 % in both trade flows. Therefore, the new nomenclature allows
the elimination of non-relevant products in the dataset as of 2022.
The EU presence as an importing partner in the global market is intensifying as, in 2022, imports almost
doubled, and exports more than halved compared to the previous year, resulting in a trade deficit of almost
EUR 22 billion (Figure 56). However, assuming that the new HS nomenclature allows for a filtering out of the
non-relevant elements in previous years, we may say that extra-EU exports are almost stable, since LED were
25 % and semiconductors 40 % of the importing streams. 2022 includes only the new codes. The extra-EU
share in global exports remained low (3 %) for 2020-2022.

58
 Figure 56. Extra-EU trade for the period 2012-2022.

Source: JRC based on COMEXT data

Figure 57. Top countries (a) importing from and (b) exporting to the EU for the period 2020-2022.

Source: JRC based on COMEXT data

While importing flows from the other top exporters to the EU (seemingly) decreased in 2022, imports from
China more than doubled, reaching almost EUR 22 billion with the main imported product being assembled PV
cells (Figure 58a and b). According to an EMBER report, exports of solar modules from China increased by 34 %
in the first half of 2023 compared to the same period last year (Hawkins, 2023).
The intra-EU imports remained at the same level (32 % in 2020-2022). China remained the main partner for
EU imports holding 83 % of total extra-EU imports (
Figure 57a and b), much higher than the 65 % limit set by NZIA 23. Netherlands, Germany and Spain, the top EU
importers for 2020-2022, imported respectively 84 %, 73 % and 97 % of their extra-EU imports from China. In
2022, the EU imports from Malaysia, Taiwan and the United States decreased by -54 %, -32 % and -56 %
compared to the previous year, and the main imported product was assembled PV cells (97 %, 88 % and 76 %
respectively). Imports from Japan shrunk by 94 %, and the main imported product was parts (64 %). However,
given the HS distribution for 2022, LED and semiconductors must account for an important share of the
previously observed imports.

23
COM(2023) 161 final & SWD(2023) 68, 16th March 2023. Net Zero Industry Act

59
 Figure 58. (a) EU trade and (b) share of traded goods with China for 2022.

Source: JRC based on COMEXT data

In 2022, EU exports fell to under EUR 0.8 billion, but the decrease is mainly due to fact that the new HS
nomenclature has cleared the data from irrelevant LED and semiconductors. Netherlands, Germany and France
were the top EU exporters for 2020-2022. More than %) went to the
%) to Singapore, while Germany had a more diversified portfolio of export customers. In
2022, EU exports to the UK and Switzerland increased by respectively 47 % and 38 % compared to the previous
year (Figure 59a and b), and the main trading product was assembled PV cells. Exports to Singapore and China
were minor and consisted mainly by parts. Exports to the United States dropped by -72 % and consisted of
51 % assembled PV cells and 44 % parts.

Figure 59. EU trade with (a) the UK and (b) Switzerland.

Source: JRC based on COMEXT data

The EU maintained its presence amongst the top ten global exporters and importers (Figure 60a and b).
Germany fell two ranks among the top exporters but kept its position in the top importers ranking. The
Netherlands advanced one position among the top exporters and two among the top importers. Spain also
appeared among the top global importers.

Figure 60. Top global (a) importers and (b) exporters for the period 2020-2022.

Source: JRC based on COMEXT and COMTRADE data

60
Among non-EU growing markets in terms of their imports24 during 2019-202125, EU companies managed
significant exports only to the UK, with a 36 % share of imports in this country coming from the EU (Table 10).
Table 10. Non-EU growing markets based on a 2-year average of net import change.
Total import (2019-2021) % import from 2-year average of
Country
[EUR Million] the EU net import change

United States 25 645 4% 1 654

Singapore 6 248 13 % 1 362

Australia 3 634 1% 1 288

Vietnam 10 714 0% 1 074

Hong Kong 14 049 3% 689

Other Asia, nes 2 788 6% 396

India 7 107 1% 381

Brazil 4 368 1% 340

Ukraine 1 564 2% 230

Israel 864 14 % 169

Pakistan 1 096 0% 146

United Kingdom 1212 36 % 128

China 29 671 7% 44
Source: JRC based on COMTRADE data

An interesting result from the analysis is that the Netherlands, Spain, Germany, Poland, France, Greece and Italy
appear to be concentration points of the extra-EU imports and re-distributing points for the intra-EU trade. Italy
has exporting relation with Africa, while Sweden, Denmark and Greece with South America (ESMC, 2023a).

4.3 Resource efficiency and dependence in relation to EU competitiveness

The consumption of raw materials for PV panel manufacturing is expected to increase drastically in the next
years due to the massive deployment of the photovoltaic technology. However, projections regarding the raw
materials demand in 2030 and 2050 are difficult to perform and they are strongly dependent on the generation
capacity and lifetime of the deployed infrastructure, the market share of each sub-technology and the material
usage intensity.
The European Commission Critical Raw Materials Act (CRMA) (European Commission, 2023c),
identifies and distinguishes between strategic raw materials (SRMs), that are essential according to the demand
projections, and the critical raw materials (CRMs), that pose a high risk of supply disruption and are considered

The
for critical materials used in the PV value chain must be taken seriously into consideration.
The materials that have a high supply risk and are defined as CRMs for the EU are silicon metal, gallium, and
borates while copper, cadmium, selenium, silver, aluminium, indium and tellurium are considered materials with
a lower supply risk (Carrara et al., 2023). In the same report, the authors identify the supply risk for the
processed materials as tion and as lower for the thin-

24
Calculated as 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = [(𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡2020 − 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡2019 ) + (𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡2021 − 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡2020 )]⁄2
25
Latest year data (2022) may be incomplete for COMTRADE, because it does not provide estimates for the missing values as COMEXT
does.

61
film technologies. The components segment is characterised by the highest supply risk and in fact, the EU is
importing over 90 % of the main components of solar modules, mainly wafers and solar cells (PVEurope, 2022).
The final assembly is characterised by higher risk for the crystalline silicon than for the thin-film modules
(Carrara et al., 2023).
However, the above-mentioned analysis that identifies a high-risk supply of primary raw materials does not
directly influence the EU since it is currently importing the final product (e.g. cadmium telluride) rather than the
primary raw materials (e.g. tellurium). However, it will become crucially relevant in the short-term given the
planned large-scale EU domestic PV manufacturing.

boron, molybdenum, phosphorus, tin and zinc (European Commission, 2022d).

As far as the future consumption of raw primary materials is concerned, the projections for 2050 show a
variation between the different materials depending on the scenarios (low and high demand) and the market
share of each technology. Taking into account that the crystalline technology will remain the dominant PV
technology in the forthcoming years, the projections for 2030 report that the silicon and silver demand will
increase 1.8 times compared to 2020. The increase in demand in 2050 (compared to 2020) will be 1.4 times
for silicon and silver, reflecting the accomplished material efficiency (Carrara et al., 2023). Copper demand will
increase by 2 and 2.3 times compared to 2020 in the years 2030 and 2050 respectively. Other projections
report that the demand for silicon, for the Net Zero emissions by 2050 scenario, will be 1.7 times the 2022
demand. For copper, the respective demand for 2050 will be 2.5 times the 2022 demand (IEA, 2023a).
The use of silver for connections has been identified as a potential concern. The expected large-scale
manufacturing activity in the next few years may render this concern more concrete and therefore there is
continuous R&D for the minimisation of silver use as well as material substitution like copper. In addition, even
though crystalline silicon will remain a key component of solar technology in the coming years, the possibility
to resort to alternative technologies to achieve higher efficiencies and/or substitute currently critical materials
should be assessed with perspicacity in order to avoid favouring one material over the other and creating other
material dependencies (for example the current supply availability of tellurium, indium and germanium may
get into distress in the future if we deliberately choose to favour thin-film technologies over silicon-based
technologies for material dependency reasons (European Commission, 2022h).
Particular attention is needed regarding PV glass that is lacking in the EU and has to be imported in massive
volumes. A major exporter of PV glass to the EU is China and the cost is high due to the custom duties. In
addition, the manufacturing of solar glass is particularly energy-intensive and therefore also costly and this
may limit investment initiatives from companies already in the sector or new players attempting to enter the
market.

62
5 Conclusions

Photovoltaics (PV) has been the fastest-growing technology for electricity generation from renewable energies
in the past decade. It is an already mature technology, indispensable in achieving the targets set by the

transition.
The global cumulative PV installed capacity exceeded 1 TW p in March 2022 and estimations for 2023 are above
1.5 TWp. The EU alone reached a cumulative installed PV capacity of over 211 GWp at the end of 2022 and a
cumulative electricity generation of 196 TWh from PV systems. According to projections, the EU capacity will
increase to 328 GWp in 2025, between 500 GWp and 1 TWp in 2030 and between 7 TWp and 8.8 TWp in 2050,
whereas the projected global installed capacity will increase between 22 TW p and 60 TWp.
The average PV module efficiency has increased from 9.0 % in 1980 to 14.7 % in 2010 and 21.1 % in 2022.
In the next few years, silicon-based PV technology will remain the predominant technology with module
efficiencies reaching 24.0 % and over. As a possible future alternative to silicon, perovskite technology has
developed rapidly and has the potential to achieve comparable costs (current module efficiency is 18.6 % while
the record cell efficiency is 24.35 ± 0.5 %). Two of the most promising and efficient technologies are silicon-
based tandems with III-V top material (currently at 32.65 ± 0.7 % module efficiency) and perovskite-silicon

tendency towards the replacement of Passivated Emitter and Rear Contact (PERC) architecture (currently at
~21.0 % module efficiency with projections reaching 23 % in 2033) by the n-type Tunnel Oxide Passivated
Contact (TOPCon) (currently at 22 % module efficiency with projections reaching 24.0 % in 2033) is bringing
further efficiency increases towards 25.0 % in 2033. Continuous research and improvement are required to
achieve such higher efficiencies, combined with lower material consumption and lower costs.
The Energy Payback Time (EPBT) of a PV system in Southern Europe is one year, whereas in Northern Europe
less than a year and a half. Nonetheless, it is also of paramount importance that the PV sector further reduces
its environmental footprint and becomes more sustainable and circular along the entire PV value chain.
The Levelised Cost of Electricity (LCoE) from photovoltaics and electricity storage has decreased significantly
in the past years. The global weighted-average LCoE for utility-scale projects fell by 88 % between 2010 and
2022 from USD 0.417/kWh to USD 0.045/kWh. Projections for the EU indicate that it will further decrease from
the 2020 values of EUR 0.050/kWh (Northern Europe) and EUR 0.020/kWh (Southern Europe) to EUR 0.020/kWh
(Northern Europe) and EUR 0.010/kWh (Southern Europe) in 2050, rendering PV technology as a competitive
renewable energy technology.
EU PV companies are facing considerable competition, especially from China, which has a leading market in PV
and exhibits minimal dependence on the EU. Most of the leading solar cell and module production companies
are Chinese and they dominate the PV module shipments. In 2022, China accounted for over 84 % of the total
global cell (crystalline and thin-film) production, whereas the top five cell (crystalline and thin-film)
manufacturers (all Chinese companies) accounted for almost half of the global production. In module production
China accounted for 78 % of the global production (crystalline and thin-film) with four of the top five companies
being based in China and producing 52 % of the global PV modules. Vietnam and Malaysia (countries where
Chinese companies have built manufacturing plants) accounted for 5 % each of the global PV cell production
and 6.5 % and 2.8 % of the global PV module production respectively. Additionally, according to the IEA, the
costs for PV manufacturing in China are considerably lower than in Europe. Costs in China are 10 % lower than
in India, 20 % lower than in the Unit
regarding the inverter market has suffered a considerable hit in 2022 as more Chinese companies have entered
the market and surpassed the European companies in market share. The top two European companies reduced
their combined market share from 14 % in 2018 to 7 % in 2022. There are two important enablers for this
development in China: first, better access to the capital needed for capacity expansions and second, faster
permitting for new factories as well as faster construction and ramp-up times.
The EU hosts almost one-fourth of the innovators in the field of PV and is leading in high-value patents and
produces highly cited publications.
Recent scientific findings suggest that global w and therefore more
ambitious decarbonisation and renewable energy targets are needed. The current ambitions for PV in the EU
are not sufficient enough to effectively contribute to the necessary future renewable energy supply. PV
deployment to achieve these ambitions needs to come through innovative forms of deployment (agrivoltaics,

63
vehicle integrated photovoltaics, floating photovoltaics, etc.) in addition to traditional deployment (utility-scale
and rooftop).
The alrea
domestic manufacturing capacities and rebuilt its competitiveness in the global PV value chain, are encouraging,
but not in line with the global market growth (projections refer to over 5.8 TWp of PV installed capacity by 2030).
It is of primary importance the establishment of a resilient supply chain in connection to the EU PV
manufacturing base. Last, but certainly not least, the political interest and promotion for manufacturing
expansion will play a significant role.
The current trend of the EU market shows that it is growing faster than required to reach the new PV system
capacity installations between 2021 and 2030 as described in the recent EU European Solar Strategy
communication. As the overall global demand for PV components is growing even faster than in the EU and
trade frictions can occur, precaution has to be taken to avoid a fallout of international supply chain disruptions
on the deployment of PV in the EU. To hedge such a risk, the EU value chain should be able to supply at least
25-35 % of the EU market. At the moment, this is possible for the production of polysilicon, backsheets, contact
materials, inverters and balance of system components. Additional new capacities for wafers, cells and solar
glass production are needed.
The current geo-
and together with the promising market grow will give the EU PV industry the opportunity to re-emerge more
competitive in the next years and possibly play a leading role in international PV markets.

64
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List of definitions
General
BoS Balance of System
CAPEX Capital Expenditure
CCS Carbon Capture and Sequestration
CIndECS European Climate Neutral Industry Competitiveness Scoreboard
Comext Statistical database on trade of goods managed by Eurostat
CPC Cooperative Patent Classification
CRM Critical Raw Material
CSP Concentrated Solar Power
EC European Commission
EGD European Green Deal
EMPIR European Metrology Programme for Innovation and Research
EPC Engineering, Procurement and Construction
EPBT Energy Payback Time
ERC European Research Council
EROC Energy Return On Carbon invested
EROI Energy Return On energy Invested
ESIA European Solar Industry Alliance
ETIP-PV European Technology and Innovation Platform for Photovoltaics
EU European Union
EU ETS European Union Emission Trading System
Extra-EU Transactions with all countries outside of the European Union
FTE Full-Time Equivalent
FWCI Field Weighted Citation Impact
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GDIP Green Deal Industrial Plan
GHG Greenhouse Gases
GVA Gross Value Added
H2020 Horizon 2020 funding programme
IF Innovation Fund
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
ITRPV International Technology Roadmap for Photovoltaic
Intra-EU Transactions within the European Union
IRENA International Renewable Energy Agency
IWG Implementation Working Group
JRC Joint Research Centre
LCA Life-Cycle Analysis
LCEO Low Carbon Energy Observatory

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LCoE Levelised Cost of Electricity
MS Member State
NREPBT Non Renewable Energy Payback Time
NZIA Net Zero Industry Act
O&M Operation and Maintenance
OPEX Operational Expenditure
Prodcom Production Communautaire (Community Production)
PV Photovoltaics
RED Renewables Energy Directive
R&D Research and Development
R&I Research and Innovation
SET-Plan Strategic Energy Technology Plan
SME Small and medium-sized enterprise
SPE SolarPower Europe
SRIA Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda
SRM Strategic Raw Material
STEM Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics
TIM Tools for Information Monitoring
TRL Technology Readiness Level
TWG Temporary Working Group
UN Comtrade United Nations International Trade Statistics Database
VC Venture Capital
WACC Weighted Average Costs of Capital

Technical
AC Alternating current
a-Si Amorphous silicon
CdTe Cadmium Telluride
CI(G)S Copper Indium (Gallium) Selenide
CO2eq Carbon dioxide equivalent
DC Direct current
gCO2eq Grams of CO2 equivalent
HJT Heterojunction technology
mono c-Si Mono-crystalline silicon
MT Mega tonne
OPV Organic Photovoltaics
PERC Passivated Emitter and Rear Contact
PERT Passivated Emitter Rear Totally diffused

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Pks Perovskites
poly c-Si Poly-crystalline Silicon
TOPCon Tunnel Oxide Passivated Contact
TWp Terra Watt peak
TWh Terra Watt hour
W Watt
WAC Watt alternating current
WDC Watt direct current
Wp Watt peak
Wh Watt hour

75
List of boxes
Box 1. Uncertainty in reported capacity numbers. .................................................................................................................................... 16
Box 2. Differences in EU and global PV employment data. ................................................................................................................ 48

76
List of figures
Figure 1. Global cumulative photovoltaic installations from 2010 to 2022 with an estimate for 2023. ................9
Figure 2. Technology targets, research priorities and respective TRLs for the monocrystalline and
polycrystalline silicon PV modules. ...................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Figure 3. Technology targets, research priorities and respective TRLs for the thin-film PV modules. ................... 11
Figure 4. Technology targets, research priorities and respective TRLs for the perovskite PV modules................. 12
Figure 5. Technology targets, research priorities and respective TRLs for the multi-junction PV modules. ....... 12
Figure 6. Global and EU cumulative PV electricity production with EU share for the period 2012-2022. .......... 16
Figure 7. EU PV cumulative electricity generation per country for the period 2012-2022. .......................................... 17
Figure 8. Cumulative global and EU PV installed capacity with EU share for the period 2012-2022. .................. 17
Figure 9. EU PV cumulative installed capacity per country for the period 2012-2022. .................................................. 18
Figure 10. Projections of gross installed capacity and electricity generation in the EU until 2050. ....................... 19
Figure 11. Global overnight investment cost and gross capacity for small/residential and utility-scale............. 19
Figure 12. Gross electricity production for small/residential and utility-scale and share of gross electricity
production. ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 20
Figure 13. Spot market price trends for poly-Si, mono-Si wafers, cells and modules between 2018 and 2022.
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 21
Figure 14. Large-scale system component costs in 2022 and projections. ............................................................................ 23
Figure 15. Capital cost projections for rooftop and utility-scale PV installations for the period 2020-2050. . 23
Figure 16. PV LCoE at six European locations with different nominal WACCs for 5 kW p residential rooftop PV
installation. .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 24
Figure 17. PV LCoE at six European locations with different nominal WACCs for 50 kW p commercial rooftop
PV installation. .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 25
Figure 18. PV LCoE at six European locations with different nominal WACCs for 1 MW p industrial PV
installation. .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 25
Figure 19. PV LCoE six European locations with different nominal WACCs for 100 MW p utility-scale PV
installation compared and average spot market electricity price in 2019................................................................................. 26
Figure 20. LCoE as a function of solar irradiance and retail prices in key markets. .......................................................... 26
Figure 21. (a) EU and global public investment in Solar and PV R&D, (b) EU and (c) global allocation of solar
energy technologies for the period 2010-2019.......................................................................................................................................... 27
Figure 22. (a) EU public investment per MS and (b) EU public investment and % of GDP in Solar and R&D for
the top five MS. ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 27
Figure 23. (a) Global public investment per country and (b) global public investment and % of GDP in Solar
and R&D for the top five countries. ..................................................................................................................................................................... 28
Figure 24. EU and global private investment in PV for the period 2010-2019. .................................................................. 29
Figure 25. EU and global cumulative private investment in PV for the period 2010-2019. ........................................ 29
Figure 26. (a) EU cumulative private investment in PV per MS and (b) global cumulative private investment in
PV EU and top five countries for the period 2010-2019. ..................................................................................................................... 30
Figure 27. EU and global total Venture Capital investments for the period 2011-2022. .............................................. 30
Figure 28. Top ten countries total Venture Capital investments for all stages for the periods 2011-2016 and
2017-2022. ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 31

77
Figure 29. Number of inventions and share of high-value and international activity for the period 2018-
2020. ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 32
Figure 30. Number of high-value Inventions and (b) Top ten countries with high-value inventions for the
period 2018-2020. ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 33
Figure 31. International protection of high-value inventions for the period 2018-2020. ............................................. 35
Figure 32. EU publications on PV (a) technologies, (b) systems and (c) applications for the period 2012-2022.
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 36
Figure 33. Global publications on perovskites for the period 2012-2022. .............................................................................. 36
Figure 34. Global highly cited publications on perovskites and EU position for the period 2012-2022. ............. 37
Figure 35. EU turnover in PV for the period 2015-2021. ................................................................................................................... 39
Figure 36. EU turnover in PV for the top EU countries in 2019, 2020 and 2021. .............................................................. 39
Figure 37. Turnover in PV for the top five EU countries for the period 2015-2021. ........................................................ 40
Figure 38. (a) Absolute and (b) share of turnover along the upstream (polysilicon to module) value chain for
major economies in 2022.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 40
Figure 39. Breakdown of GVA throughout the solar PV value chain. .......................................................................................... 41
Figure 40. Gross Value Added in PV for the top ten EU countries in 2019, 2020 and 2021. ..................................... 41
Figure 41. Carbon footprint of different PV module configurations in different countries. ......................................... 42
Figure 42. Value chain structure. ........................................................................................................................................................................ 43
Figure 43. PV manufacturing capacities in the EU in September 2023. ................................................................................... 44
Figure 44. PV manufacturing capacity expansions until 2025. ....................................................................................................... 45
Figure 45. Innovating companies in the period 2017-2022. ............................................................................................................ 47
Figure 46. Global direct and indirect PV jobs and EU share between 2018 and 2022. .................................................. 49
Figure 47. (a) Employment in PV value chain segments and (b) employment in manufacturing segment share
in 2022. ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 49
Figure 48. EU direct and indirect PV jobs between 2015 and 2021............................................................................................ 50
Figure 49. Energy Return on Investment of different technology PV systems, under three irradiation levels in
different global locations. .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 52
Figure 50. Energy Pay Back Times of different technology PV systems, assuming three irradiation levels in
different global locations. .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 52
Figure 51. PV labour productivity in the EU in 2019, 2020 and 2021. ...................................................................................... 53
Figure 52. EU production value per commodity for the period 2011-2022. .......................................................................... 54
Figure 53. Top five EU PV producers for the period 2011-2022. .................................................................................................. 54
Figure 54. EU positioning in different markets with 2-year average (2019-2020 and 2020-2021) of change
in import from the EU and ROW. ........................................................................................................................................................................... 55
Figure 55. Global inverter shipments for the period 2018-2022. ................................................................................................. 57
Figure 56. Extra-EU trade for the period 2012-2022. .......................................................................................................................... 59
Figure 57. Top countries (a) importing from and (b) exporting to the EU for the period 2020-2022. .................. 59
Figure 58. (a) EU trade and (b) share of traded goods with China for 2022. ........................................................................ 60
Figure 59. EU trade with (a) the UK and (b) Switzerland. ................................................................................................................... 60
Figure 60. Top global (a) importers and (b) exporters for the period 2020-2022. ............................................................ 60

78
List of tables
Table 1. CETO SWOT analysis for the competitiveness of photovoltaics. .....................................................................................6
Table 2. Yearly average module efficiencies for the period 2010-2022. ................................................................................. 10
Table 3. EU spot market module prices by technology in September 2023. .......................................................................... 22
Table 4. Global top ten entities with high-value inventions in PV for the period 2018-2020. .................................... 33
Table 5. EU top ten entities with high-value inventions in PV for the period 2018-2020. ............................................ 34
Table 6. Global PV manufacturing expansion announcements........................................................................................................ 46
Table 7. Prodcom codes as a proxy for PV production. ......................................................................................................................... 53
Table 8. Top five global manufacturers for cell and module manufacturing in 2022. .................................................... 56
Table 9. Top five global manufacturers for module shipments from 2019 until 2022. ................................................. 56
Table 10. Non-EU growing markets based on a 2-year average of net import change. ................................................. 61

79
Annexes

80
Annex 1 Summary Table of Data Sources for the CETO Indicators
Indicator Main data source
Theme

Technology maturity Technology readiness level ITRPV, IEA-PVPS, Fraunhofer ISE, SNETP,
status, development and scientific publications, EC reports, various
trends

Installed capacity & energy Eurostat, IRENA, Ember, JRC, IEA-PVPS

production

Technology costs IRENA, ITRPV, ETIP-PV, Bernreuter Research, JRC,

various

Public and private RD&I funding IEA, JRC

Patenting trends EPO Patstat, JRC

Scientific publication trends JRC

Assessment of R&I project CINEA, DG RTD

developments

Value chain analysis Turnover IEA-

Gross Value Added

Environmental and socio- Scientific publications, JRC, various

economic sustainability

EU companies and roles Pitchbook, Fraunhofer, various

Employment
Fraunhofer ISE, scientific publications, IEA-PVPS

Energy intensity and labour Scientific publications, various

productivity

EU industrial production Prodcom, JRC

Global market growth and Various

Global markets and EU
relevant short-to-medium term
positioning
projections

EU market share vs third Comtrade, IEA-PVPS, various

countries share, including EU
market leaders and global
market leaders

EU trade (imports, exports) and ESMC, Comext, UN Comtrade, JRC

trade balance

Resource efficiency and JRC, various

dependencies (in relation EU
competiveness)

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Annex 2 Countries, regions and continents coding
EU WORLD
CODE COUNTRY CODE COUNTRY
AT Austria BR Brazil
BE Belgium CA Canada
BG Bulgaria CN China
HR Croatia CH Switzerland
CY Cyprus EU European Union
CZ Czech Republic HK Hong Kong
DK Denmark IL Israel
EE Estonia IN India
FI Finland JP Japan
FR France KR South Korea
DE Germany MY Malaysia
EL Greece RoW Rest of World
HU Hungary SG Singapore
IE Ireland TW Taiwan
IT Italy UK United Kingdom
LV Latvia US United States of America
LT Lithuania VN Vietnam
LU Luxembourg
MT Malta
NL Netherlands
PL Poland
PT Portugal
RO Romania
SK Slovakia
SI Slovenia
ES Spain
SE Sweden

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Annex 3 Energy System Models and Scenarios: POTEnCIA and POLES-JRC
This annex provides an overview of the energy system models and scenarios used in CETO to support the
technology development assesment and the strategic oveview on clean energy technologies.
A3.1 POTEnCIA Model Overview
The Policy Oriented Tool for Energy and Climate Change Impact Assessment (POTEnCIA) is an energy system
simulation model designed to compare alternative pathways for the EU energy system, covering energy supply
and all energy demand sectors (industry, buildings, transport, and agriculture). Developed in-house by the
r the joint
evaluation of technology-focused policies, combined with policies addressing the decision-making of energy
users. To this end:
● By simulating decision-making under imperfect foresight at a high level of techno-economic detail,
POTEnCIA realistically captures the adoption and operation of new energy technologies under
different policy regimes;
● By combining yearly time steps for demand-side planning and investment with hourly resolution
for the power sector, POTEnCIA provides high temporal detail to suitably assess rapid structural

● By tracking yearly capital stock vintages for energy supply and demand, POTEnCIA accurately
represents the age and performance of installed energy equipment, and enables the assessment
of path dependencies, retrofitting or retirement strategies, and stranded asset risks.
The core modelling approach of POTEnCIA (Figure A3-1; detailed in the (Mantzos et al., 2017, 2019)) focuses
on the economically-driven operation of energy markets and corresponding supply-demand interactions, based
on a recursive dynamic partial equilibrium method. As such, for each sector of energy supply and demand, this
approach assumes a representative agent seeking to maximize its benefit or minimize its cost under constraints
such as available technologies and fuels, behavioural preferences, and climate policies. This core modelling
approach is tailored to each sector, for instance to represent different planning horizons and expectations about
future technologies under imperfect foresight. In particular, power dispatch modelling uses a high time
resolution with full-year hourly dispatch to suitably depict the increasing need for flexibility from storage and
demand response, and the changing role of thermal generation in a power system dominated by variable
renewable energy sources. Within this sector modelling framework, investment decisions of the representative
agents are simulated with discrete-choice modelling. The model then finds an overall equilibrium across
different sectors using price signals for resources such as traditional and renewable energy carriers while
accounting for efficiency and environmental costs.
This core modelling approach is implemented individually for each EU Member State to capture differences in
macroeconomic and energy system structures, technology assumptions, and resource constraints. The national
model implementation is supported by spatially-explicit analyses to realistically define renewable energy
potentials and infrastructure costs for hydrogen and CO2 transport. Typical model output is provided in annual
time steps over a horizon of 2000-2070; historical data (2000-2021) are calibrated to Eurostat and other
official EU statistics to provide accurate initial conditions, using an updated version of the JRC Integrated
Database of the European Energy System (JTRC-IDEES) (Mantzos et al., 2018). JRC-IDEES has been developed

base-year conditions and to support further research by external stakeholders.

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 Figure A3-1. The POTEnCIA model at a glance.

Source: Adapted from (Mantzos et al., 2019)

A3.2 POTEnCIA CETO Climate Neutrality Scenario Overview

The technology projections provided by the POTEnCIA model are obtained under a Climate Neutrality Scenario
aligned with the broad GHG reduction objectives of the European Green Deal. As such, this scenario reduces net
EU GHG emissions by 55 % by 2030 ver climate neutrality by 2050 under
general assumptions summarized in Table A3-1. To suitably model technology projections under these
overarching GHG targets, the scenario includes a representation of general climate and energy policies such as
emissions pricing under the Emissions Trading System, as well as key policy instruments that have a crucial
impact on the uptake of specific technologies. For instance, the deployment of bioenergy and renewable power
generation technologies to 2030 is consistent with the EU's Renewable Energy Directive target (42.5 % share
of renewables in gross final energy consumption by 2030). Similarly, the adoption of alternative powertrains
and fuels in transport is also promoted by a representation of updated CO 2 emission standards in road transport
and by targets of the ReFuelEU Aviation and FuelEU Maritime proposals.
Table A3-1. General assumptions of the POTEnCIA CETO Climate Neutrality Scenario.
General scenario assumptions Modelled scenario and policy assumptions

GDP projections based on EU Reference Scenario 2020, with

GDP growth by Member State
updates to 2024 from DG ECFIN Autumn Forecast 2022.

Population projections based on EU Reference Scenario 2020, with

Population by Member State
updates to 2032 from EUROPOP 2019.

Natural gas import projections consistent with REPowerEU targets

International energy markets for supply diversification and demand reduction. International fuel
price projections to 2050 aligned with REPowerEU.
Source: JRC

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A3.3 POLES-JRC Model
POLES-JRC (Prospective Outlook for the Long term Energy System) is a global energy model well suited to
evaluate the evolution of energy demand and supply in the main world economies with a representation of
international energy markets. POLES-JRC is hosted at the JRC and is particularly adapted to assess climate and
energy policies.
POLES-JRC covers the entire energy system, from primary supply (fossil fuels, renewables etc.) to
transformation (power, biofuels, hydrogen) and final sectoral demand (Figure A3-2). International markets and
prices of energy fuels are simulated endogenously. Its high level of regional detail (66 countries & regions
covering the world with full energy balances, including all OECD and G20 countries) and sectoral description
allows assessing a wide range of energy and climate policies in all regions within a consistent global framework:
access to energy resources, taxation policy, energy efficiency, technological preferences, etc. POLES-JRC
operates on a yearly basis up to 2050 and is updated yearly with recent data and model updates.
The POLES-JRC model is used to assess the impact of European and international energy and climate policies
on energy markets and GHG emissions, by DG CLIMA in the context of international climate policy negotiations
and by DG ENER in the context of the EU Energy Union.
POLES-JRC has also been applied for the analyses of various Impact Assessments in the field of climate change
Proposal for a revised energy efficiency Directive 0761 final) and
The Paris Protocol A blueprint for tackling global climate change beyond 2020
Moreover, POLES-JRC provided the global context to the EU Long-Term Strategy (COM(2018) 773) and formed
the energy/GHG basis for the baseline to the CGE model JRC-GEM-E3.
POLES-JRC forms part of the Integrated Assessment Modelling Consortium (IAMC) and participates in inter-
model comparison exercises with scenarios that feed into the IPCC Assessment Reports process.
POLES-JRC results are published within the series of yearly publications "Global Climate and Energy Outlooks
GECO". The GECO reports along with detailed country energy and GHG balances and an on-line visualisation
interface can be found at (European Commission, 2022g).

A3.3.1 Power system

POLES-JRC considers 37 power generating technologies, covering existing technologies as well as emerging
technologies. Each technology is characterised by its installed capacity, cost parameters (overnight investment
cost, variable & fixed operating and maintenance cost), learning rate and other techno-economic parameters
(e.g. efficiencies). The cost evolution over time is taken into account by technology learning driven by
accumulated capacity.
For renewable technologies maximum resource potentials are taken into account. Similarly, the deployment of
carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies is linked to region-specific geological storage potential. In
addition to these technical and economic characteristics, non-cost factors are applied to capture the historical
relative attractiveness of each technology, in terms of investments and of operational dispatch.
With regard to the clean energy technologies covered by CETO, the model includes power generation using
photovoltaics (utility and residential), concentrated solar power (CSP), on-shore and off-shore wind , ocean
energy, biomass gasification and steam turbines fuelled by biomass, geothermal energy as well as hydropower.
CCS-equipped combustion power technologies are considered as well. Moreover, electricity storage technologies
such as pumped hydropower storage and batteries are also included.

85
 Figure A3-2. Schematic representation of the POLES-JRC model architecture.

Source: JRC

A3.3.2 Electricity demand

The total electricity demand is computed by adding the electricity demand from each sector (i.e. residential,
services, transport, industry and agriculture). The evolution over time of the sectoral electricity demand is driven
by the activity of each sector and competition between prices for electricity and other fuels.
POLES-JRC uses a set of representative days with an hourly time-step in order to capture load variations as
well as to take into account the intermittency of solar and wind generation. The usage of representative days
also allows to capture hourly profiles by sector and end-uses.
With a view to other CETO technologies influencing electricity consumption, the model includes heat pumps in
the residential and service sector, batteries for electric vehicles and electrolysers.

A3.3.3 Power system operation and planning

The power system operation assigns the generation by technology to each hour of each representative day. The
supplying technologies and storage technologies must meet the overall demand.
The capacity planning considers the existing structure of the power mix (vintage technology), the expected
evolution of the demand, and the production cost of technologies.

A3.3.4 Hydrogen
POLES-JRC takes into account several hydrogen production routes: (i) low temperature electrolysers using power
from the grid or power from solar and wind, (ii) steam reforming of natural gas (with and without CCS), (iii)
gasification of coal and biomass (with and without CCS), (iv) pyrolysis of coal and biomass as well as high
temperature electrolysis using nuclear power.
Hydrogen can used as fuel in all sectors. Moreover, hydrogen is used to produce fertilisers as well as to produce
fuels used in the transport sector (i.e. gaseous and liquid synfuels and ammonia). POLES-JRC models global
hydrogen trade and considers various means of hydrogen transport (pipeline, ship, truck, refuelling station).

86
A3.3.5 Bioenergy
POLES-JRC receives information on land use and agriculture through a soft-coupling with the GLOBIOM model26.
This approach allows to model bioenergy demand and supply of biomass adequately by taking into account
biomass potential, production cost and carbon value. Moreover, the emissions from land use and forestry (CO 2)
as well as agriculture (CH4 and N2O) are derived from GLOBIOM.
Power generating technologies using biomass are biomass gasification (with and without CCS) and biomass
fuelled steam turbines.
Hydrogen can be produced from biomass via gasification and pyrolysis. Moreover, the production of 1st and
2nd generation biofuels for gasoline and diesel is considered.

A3.3.6 Carbon Capture Utilisation and Storage (CCUS)

POLES-JRC takes into account CCUS technologies for:
 Power generation: advanced coal using CCS, coal and biomass gasification with CCS, and gas
combined cycle with CCS;
 Hydrogen production: Steam reforming with CCS, coal and biomass gasification with CCS, and coal
and biomass pyrolysis;
 Direct air capture (DAC) where the CO2 is stored or used to produce synfuels (gaseous or liquid);
 CO2 storage in geological sites.

A3.3.7 Model documentation and publications

A detailed documentation of the POLES-JRC model and publications can be found at:
 https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/handle/JRC113757
 https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/poles

A3.4 POLES-JRC CETO Global 2˚C Scenario

The global scenario data presented in this CETO technology report refers to a 2 °C scenario modelled with the
POLES-JRC model. The 2 °C scenario assumes a global GHG trajectory consistent with a likely chance of meeting
the long-term goal of limiting the temperature rise over pre-industrial period to 2 °C in 2100.
The 2 °C scenario was designed with a global carbon budget over 2023-2100 (cumulated net CO2 emissions)
of approximately 1 150 GtCO2, resulting in a 50 % probability of not exceeding the 2 °C temperature limit in
2100. A single global carbon price for all regions is used in this scenario, starting immediately (2023) and
strongly increasing. The 2 °C scenario is therefore a stylised representation of an economically-efficient
pathway to the temperature targets, as the uniform global carbon price ensures that emissions are reduced
where abatement costs are lowest. This scenario does not consider financial transfers between countries to
implement mitigation measures.
The POLES-JRC model has been updated with the latest technologies costs from recent literature. Most of the
historic data used in the 2 °C scenario refers to data used in the GECO 2022 scenarios (energy balances, energy
prices, capacities) (European Commission, 2022f).

26
Global Biosphere Management Model (GLOBIOM) model description. International Institute for Applied Statistical Analysis, Laxenburg,
Austria. http://www.globiom.org

87
Annex 4 PV topics in Horizon Europe Work Programmes (WP) 2021-2022 and 2023-
2024, the ongoing projects of the 2021-2022 PV calls and ongoing Innovation Fund
projects
WP 2021-2022

HORIZON-CL5-2021-D3-02-04: Novel tandem, high efficiency Photovoltaic technologies targeting low

cost production with earth abundant materials

HORIZON-CL5-2021-D3-03-07: Stable high-performance Perovskite Photovoltaics

HORIZON-CL5-2021-D3-03-10: Innovative foundations, floating substructures and connection systems

for floating PV and ocean energy devices

HORIZON-CL5-2021-D3-03-13: Demonstration pilot lines for alternative and innovative PV technologies

(Novel c-Si tandem, thin film tandem, bifacial, CPV, etc.)

HORIZON-CL5-2022-D3-01-03: Advanced manufacturing of Integrated PV

HORIZON-CL5-2022-D3-01-06: Novel Agro-Photovoltaic systems

HORIZON-CL5-2022-D3-03-05: Novel Thin Film (TF) technologies targeting high efficiencies

HORIZON-CL5-2022-D3-03-09: Recycling end of life PV modules

WP 2023-2024

HORIZON-CL5-2023-D3-01-02: PV integration in buildings and in infrastructure

HORIZON-CL5-2023-D3-01-03: Floating PV Systems

HORIZON-CL5-2023-D3-01-04: Solar Systems for Industrial Process Heat and Power

HORIZON-CL5-2023-D3-02-11: Advanced concepts for crystalline Silicon technology

HORIZON-CL5-2023-D3-02-12: Large Area Perovskite solar cells and modules

HORIZON-CL5-2023-D3-02-13: Operation, Performance and Maintenance of PV Systems

HORIZON-CL5-2024-D3-01-01: Alternative equipment and processes for advanced manufacturing of PV

technologies

HORIZON-CL5-2024-D3-01-02: Low-power PV

HORIZON-CL5-2024-D3-02-05: PV-integrated electric mobility applications

HORIZON-CL5-2024-D3-02-06: Innovative, Community-Integrated PV systems

HORIZON-CL5-2024-D3-02-07: Resource Efficiency of PV in Production, Use and Disposal

88
Ongoing projects of the 2021-2022 PV calls

NEXUS NEXUS

SuPerTandem Sustainable materials and manufacturing processes for the development of high
efficiency, flexible, all-Perovskite Tandem photovoltaic modules with low CO2 footprint

SITA Stable Inorganic TAndem solar cell with superior device efficiency and increased durability

TRIUMPH Triple junction solar modules based on perovskites and silicon for high performance, low-
cost and small environmental footprint

VALHALLA Perovskite solar cells with enhanced stability and applicability

SUREWAVE STRUCTURAL RELIABLE OFFSHORE FLOATING PV SOLUTION INTEGRATING CIRCULAR

CONCRETE FLOATING BREAKWATER

PLOTEC PLOCAN Tested Optimised Floating Ocean Thermal Eenergy Conversion Platform

PILATUS Digitalised pilot lines for silicon heterojunction tunnel interdigitated back contact solar
cells and modules

DIAMOND Ultra-stable, highly efficient, low-cost perovskite photovoltaics with minimised

environmental impact

PEPPERONI Pilot line for European Production of PEROvskite-Silicon taNdem modules on Industrial
scale

IBC4EU Piloting novel cost-competitive bifacial IBC technology for vertical integrated European
GW scale PV production value chain

NATURSEA-PV NOVEL ECO-CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS FOR DURABLE, COMPETITIVE,

AND BIO-INSPIRED OFFSHORE FLOATING PV SUBSTRUCTURES

SUNREY Boosting SUstaiNability, Reliability and EfficiencY of perovskite PV through novel materials
and process engineering.

REGACE Crop Responsive Greenhouse Agrivoltaics System with CO2 Enrichment for Higher Yields

SEAMLESS-PV Development of advanced manufacturing equipment and processes aimed at the

seamless integration of multifunctional PV solutions, enabling the deployment of IPV
sectors

MC2.0 Mass customization 2.0 for Integrated PV

SYMBIOSYST Create a Symbiosis where PV and agriculture can have a mutually beneficial relationship

PV4Plants AgriPV system with climate, water and light spectrum control for safe, healthier and
improved crops production

Flex2Energy Automated Manufacturing Production Line for Integrated Printed Organic Photovoltaics

89
Innovation Fund

SUN2HY First Small-Scale Deployment of a Pre-Commercial Plant Based on

Photoelectrocatalytic Technology for Hydrogen Production
Location: Puertollano (ES)
Coordinator: SUN2HY
Start date: 1 January 2022
Expected entry into operation date: 1 April 2025

Summary
The aim of the SUN2HY project is to design, implement and validate a pre-commercial
stage production plant to generate green hydrogen via photoelectrocatalysis (PEC), an
innovative technology which directly converts solar energy to chemical energy by splitting
water into hydrogen and oxygen with no external energy input. The produced hydrogen
will supply refuelling stations serving the transport sector (i.e. freight buses, trucks and
light duty vehicles (LDVs)). The project has the potential to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions by 94% compared to conventional electricity production.

Status of implementation
The project is progressing according to schedule. The consortium has carried out the front-
end engineering studies and it is in the process of obtaining the relevant permits from the
authorities to reach financial close.

The main key achievements up to date

The project is still in its early phases of implementation and has not achieved/delivered
significant milestones/results yet.

CO2-FrAMed Free Agriculture for the Mediterranean region

Location: Ebro River Valley (ES)
Coordinator: Acciona Generacion Renovable S.A.
Start date: 1 January 2022
Expected entry into operation date: 1 July 2024

Summary
The CO2-FrAMed project will build approximately 12 stand-alone large-power
photovoltaic irrigation systems (PVI) that do not require back-up batteries and significantly
reduce risks related to the integrity of the water distribution infrastructure. This solution
is a suitable alternative to conventional electric and diesel-based pumping systems. It
brings environmental benefits in terms of CO2 emission reduction and economic benefits
in terms of lower costs for farmers. Overall, the project will reduce Greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions compared to a conventional technology by 100% and farmers will benefit from
zero carbon irrigation at a competitive price.

Status of implementation
The project has not achieved significant milestones yet.

The main key achievements up to date

The project is still in its early phases of implementation and has not achieved/delivered
significant milestones/results yet

HELEXIO Line Demonstrating the manufacture of innovative building integrated photovoltaics

roof components
Location: Contrisson (FR)
Coordinator: ArcelorMittal Construction
Start date: 1 October 2021
Expected entry into operation date: 1 November 2024

90
 Summary
The objective of the Helexio® line project is to develop the first full-scale plant to
plug- Integrated-Photovoltaic roofing steel envelope
for the European non-residential buildings market. This unique technology combining in
one component steel roof + photovoltaic (PV) solutions brings lightweight, flexible and
easy-to-implement solutions adaptable to all types of roof, there by addressing key
market barriers in this sector, while being economically viable. These innovative
components once implemented in buildings will replace significant grid electricity by solar
electricity, leading to significant reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.

Status of implementation
The project is progressing according to schedule, with the pre front end engineering and
design analysis finalised.

The main key achievements up to date

The project is still in its early phases of implementation and has not achieved/delivered
significant milestones/results yet.

DMC Renewable heat for large-scale decarbonisation of the malt production process
in Croatia
Nova Gradiska (HR)
Coordinator: NEWHEAT
Start date: 1 December 2021
Expected entry into operation date: 1 December 2024

Summary
The DECARBOMALT project will build a solar thermal heating plant, heat pumps and a
storage facility to provide renewable heat to an energy-intensive malt production process
in Croatia. The flagship industrial project will bring existing technologies together for the
first time at such a scale so as to deliver more than 50% of the total process heat needs
of the site at a competitive price.

Status of implementation
The project is in the phase of obtaining the relevant permits from the Croatian authorities.
The consortium is constantly working on mitigating the impacts of the price increase on
raw materials and the high costs required for connecting to the electrical grid.

The main key achievements up to date

The project is still in its early phases of implementation and has not achieved/delivered
significant milestones/results yet.

TANGO ITaliAN PV Giga factory

Location: Catania (IT)
Coordinator: 3SUN S.R.L.
Start date: 1 January 2021
Expected entry into operation date: 1 September 2023

Summary
The TANGO project will develop an industrial-scale pilot line in the South of Italy for the
manufacture of innovative, high-performance photovoltaic (PV) modules, increasing
production capacity by 15 times, from 200 MW to 3 GW per year. Production will include
bifacial heterojunction (B-HJT) PV cells, which offer a very important effective efficiency
improvement of up to 20%, relative to current state-of-the-art cells, and an innovative

have the potential to generate 5 445 GWh of renewable electricity per year. Once installed,
all the modules produced over the first ten years of operation have the potential to avoid
up to 25 Mt CO2eq emissions. The main innovation lies in scaling up production of these
cells to a gigawatt scale a key goal for the European PV industry. The gigawatt-scale

91
 factory will foster European technology leadership in the manufacture of next-generation
PV modules, thereby contributing to the reduction of energy dependency in Europe and
improving European competitiveness in PV manufacturing.

Status of implementation
The project has reached Financial Close in January 2023. The construction of the factory
is progressing according to schedule, with the aim to enter into operation in September
2023. Moreover, the coordinator has changed to a newly created entity, 3SUN S.r.l. (3Sun).
3Sun has received the TANGO activities from ENEL Green Power Italia including the
construction and operation of the gigafactory under development.

The main key achievements up to date

The project has reached the first milestone of Financial Close with the Final Investment
Decision taken by Enel Green Power Italia.

AGRIVOLTAIC The Brounchy Agrivoltaic Canopy An acceleration toward energy transition

CANOPY Location: Somme (FR)
Coordinator: TSE
Start date: 1 September 2022
Expected entry into operation date: 1 January 2024

Summary
The Brouchy project will be an innovative agrivoltaic canopy to answer the critical dual
need of the agricultural and energy sectors. The project aims to enhance agricultural
production and develop new renewable energy capacities. Its breakthrough technical
feature is a 5-metre-high shade house structure on steel cables, held in place by poles

will expand the market potential of agrivoltaics at a large scale, contributing to the
decarbonisation of the energy mix and improve food security as it delivers 100% relative
greenhouse gas emission reduction compared to the reference scenario.
Status of implementation
The consortium is in the phase of obtaining the relevant permits from the authorities. In

The main key achievements up to date

The project is still in its early phases of implementation and has not achieved/delivered
significant milestones/results yet.

92
Annex 5 Upstream c-Si technology sector and downstream utility-scale installation
sector

Source: (IEA-PVPS, 2023b)

93
Annex 6 Sustainability Assessment Framework
Parameter/Indicator Input
Environmental
LCA standards, PEFCR  At international level the IEA PVPS Task 12 group issued methodology
or best practice, LCI guidelines on PV-specific parameters used as inputs in LCA
databases (Frischknecht et al., 2016).

systems27, developed by the European Commission in the framework
of the Product Environmental Footprint initiative pilot phase. The
results for all the 16 impact categories based on the Environmental
Footprint method are available in the PEFCR document (European
Commission, 2019).
 Italy's LCA legislation Promotion of the Green Economy - Legislation
fully based on the Environmental Footprint methods. Voluntary "Made
Green in Italy" label.
 France's public tenders for utility-scale PV plants - ADEME guidelines.
 Country-specific Product Category Rules (Italy, France, Norway,
Finland, Netherlands) based on EN 15804.
 NSF/ANSI 457 Sustainability Leadership Standard for PV Modules and
PV Inverters.
GHG emissions PV systems
A recent study from IEA PVPS indicates that, through their lifetime, mono c-Si
systems emit 42.5 gCO2/kWh, poly c-Si systems emit 42.3 gCO2/kWh, CIS
systems emit 36.3 gCO2/kWh and CdTe systems emit 26.5 gCO2/kWh
(Frischknecht and Krebs, 2021)28.
PV modules
In terms of technologies, thin-film modules have the lowest emissions, followed
by poly c-Si and then mono c-Si. There is considerable scope to reduce these
values, and projections for 2050 indicate that life cycle emissions for PV can
drop to 10 gCO2eq/kWh and below (Pehl et al., 2017).
Carbon footprint values corresponding to the Climate Change impact category,
calculated as per the PEFCR (European Commission, 2019):
Life cycle excl. use stage Use stage
PV technologies Climate change Climate change
(gCO2eq/kWh) (gCO2eq/kWh)
Representative (virtual)
59.3 0.0105
product
CdTe 19.9 0.0107
CIGS 35.9 0.0139
Micromorphous silicon 43.0 0.0150
Polycrystalline silicon 48.8 0.0102
Monocrystalline silicon 80.4 0.0099
The partial adjustment of some technical parameters for PV modelling based
on LCI and LCA outdated datasets leads to significant overestimation of the
environmental impacts of PV technologies. For this reason a careful and in
depth examination and update is crucial to obtain realistic results. The amount
of silicon use in the production of c-Si modules, the wafer thickness and the

able silicon usage reduction

from 7 g/Wp in 2010 to 2.5 g/Wp in 2021, contributed to a lower carbon
footprint (Fraunhofer ISE, 2022a). New approaches indicate that the carbon

27
https://ec.europa.eu/environment/eussd/smgp/pdf/PEFCR_PV_electricity_v1.1.pdf
28
Average residential PV system: 1 kWh AC energy, produced with a 3 kWp roof-mounted PV system in Europe (included PV panel,
cabling, mounting structure, inverter and system installation), 975 kWh/kWp annual production, linear degradation 0.7% per year,
service life: panel 30 years, inverter 15 years. Module efficiencies assumed: mono c-Si: 19.5 %, poly c-Si: 18 %, CIS: 16 % and CdTe:
18 %.

94
 footprint of crystalline technology may be notably lower and between 13 and
30 gCO2eq/kWh (Müller et al., 2021).
Energy balance The Energy Payback Time of PV systems is dependent on the geographical
location: PV systems in Northern Europe need around 1.2 years to balance the
input energy, while PV systems in the South equal their energy input after 1 year
and less, depending on the technology installed and the grid efficiency
(Fraunhofer ISE, 2022b).
According to the IEA PVPS Task 12, the Non Renewable Energy Payback Time
(NREPBT)29 for mono c-Si, poly c-Si, CIS and CdTe technology PV system is 1.2,
1.2, 1.3 and 0.9 years respectively (Frischknecht and Krebs, 2021).
For low irradiation locations (1 000 kWh/m2/year), mono c-Si module
installations have an EPBT of 1.3 years and poly c-Si module installations of
1.5 years. For high irradiation locations, the EPBT is 0.6 years (Fthenakis and
Leccisi, 2021).
Ecosystem and The European Commission has published a report on the potential impacts of
biodiversity impact PV applications on the ecosystem and the biodiversity (Lammerant, Laureysens
and Driesen, 2020).
The EU biodiversity strategy specifically mentions solar-panel farms providing
biodiversity-friendly soil cover as a win-win solution for energy and biodiversity.
Any intervention on water bodies must respect the conditions set out in the
Water Framework Directive and the Marine Strategy Framework Directive
(European Commission, 2020a).
Water use PV modules
The available reported water consumption of PV module technologies in studies
is considered outdated due to the rapid technological advancements of PV.
Therefore, the reported values of water consumption must be used with caution.
Results for the impact category water use are available also in the PEFCR for
PV panels (European Commission, 2019):
Life cycle excl. use stage Use stage
PV technologies Water use Water use
(l worldeq/kWh) (l worldeq/kWh)
Representative (virtual)
22.8 0.158
product
CdTe 4.30 0.161
CIGS 6.27 0.209
Micromorphous silicon 11.2 0.226
Polycrystalline silicon 19.6 0.154
Monocrystalline silicon 31.7 0.150
A 2017 IEA PVPS report, based on LCIs from 2010 and 2013, reports that the
share of consumptive water use during the life cycle of mono c-Si and CdTe
rooftop systems, defined as the amount of water consumed divided by the
volume of water withdrawn, is 20 % and 34 % respectively (Stolz et al., 2017).
According to the most recent IEA PVPS report on water use of PV module
systems over their lifetime, systems with mono c-Si modules consume
7.49 l/kWh, systems with poly c-Si modules consume 6.71 l/kWh while systems
with CIS modules consume 6.27 l/kWh and systems with CdTe modules
3.08 l/kWh (Frischknecht and Krebs, 2021)30.
PV system operation
Water consumption for the operation of PV systems has been reported to be
0.08 l/kWh for utility-scale PV installations and 3.3 l/kWh for Concentrated Solar
Power (CSP) installation in the US (Solar Energy Industries Association, 2022).
PV systems withdraw and consume between 2 % and 15 % of the water
consumed by coal or nuclear plants for 1 MWh of generated electricity
(Lohrmann et al., 2019).

29
Non renewable energy payback time (NREPBT) is defined as the period required for a renewable energy system to generate the same
amount of energy (in terms of non renewable primary energy equivalent) that was used to produce the system itself.
30
Average residential system as described above in footnote 12.

95
 Air quality In the case of thin film PV module technologies, there are some hazards that
need to be taken into consideration. These hazards include the toxicity and
explosiveness of specific gases. Health issues for workers (and public health in
extreme cases) from accidents or elusive air emissions may arise if proper
measures are not taken. However, the proper manufacturing procedures
together with the use of less toxic materials ensure the avoidance of accidental
releases of toxic gases and vapors that may potentially put in danger the health
of humans and the air quality (Tchognia Nkuissi et al., 2019).
Land use 1.9 hectares/MW (IRENA, 2020c).
1-2 hectares/MWp (IFC, 2015).
Soil health Soil health may be influenced in a negative way by manual and automated
cleaning that uses mostly water to remove debris that accumulates on the
surface of the PV panels (Tawalbeh et al., 2021).
Hazardous materials There are materials used in the manufacturing procedure covered by
dispositions under the REACH regulation (lead in c-Si and perovskites, cadmium
in CdTe, etc.) (Tchognia Nkuissi et al., 2019; Gebhardt et al., 2022).
Also, chemicals and solvents are used throughout the manufacturing processes
of different PV technologies (Tawalbeh et al., 2021).
The back-sheet layer of the PV panel may contain halogenated plastic layer
that can pose potential waste management problems (Latunussa et al., 2016;
Ardente, Latunussa and Blengini, 2019).
Economic
LCC standards or best
practices
Cost of energy See 2.3 Technology Cost Present and Potential Future Trends
Critical raw materials Some of the raw materials used to manufacture solar cells are critical, such as
borates, silicon metal, germanium, indium, and gallium (Bobba et al., 2020).
These materials are characterized as CRMs for the EU (Dodd et al., 2020).
Copper, cadmium, selenium, silver and tellurium are raw materials used in the
PV industry with a low supply risk (Bobba et al., 2020).
Other studies suggest that also boron, molybdenum, phosphorus, tin and zinc
are raw materials that should be closely monitored (European Commission,
2022d).
Resource efficiency In the EU, the treatment of end-of-life PV modules must comply with the WEEE
and recycling Directive since 2012. Several organisations have developed recycling processes.
Several sustainability aspects are being addressed in the framework Ecodesign
(European Commission, 2022c).
The assessment of the resource efficiency and related environmental benefits
and burdens of a pilot PV waste recycling processes showed the advantages of
an innovative PV recycling process, compared to current recycling processes.
The benefits are even more evident with regard to the recovery of silver and
silicon (critical raw materials). Overall, recycling processes with high efficiency
can recycle up to 83 % of the waste panel (Ardente, Latunussa and Blengini,
2019).
An ongoing EU-funded project called PHOTORAMA31 is currently working to
improve the recycling of Photovoltaic (PV) panels and recovery of Raw Materials
(RM). This project is implemented by a consortium of 13 organisations in the
period 2021-2024.
Industry viability and For market data see section 4.1
expansion potential
Trade impacts For trade data see section 4.2
Market demand For market data see section 4.1
Technology lock‐
in/innovation lock-out

31
https://www.photorama-project.eu/

96
Tech-specific
permitting
requirements
Sustainability
certification schemes
Social
S-LCA standard or best
practice
Health
Public acceptance Photovoltaics are generally accepted by the public as public awareness has
increased the in last years (oppositions are expressed mostly for aesthetical
reasons). However, there are still oppositions regarding mainly emerging
applications like agrivoltaics and floating photovoltaics (competition to
agricultural use of land and fishing, biodiversity and environmental impact
concerns).
Education
opportunities and
needs
Employment and For employment data see section 3.5
conditions
Contribution to GDP
Rural development
impact
Industrial transition
impact
Affordable energy
access (SDG7)
Safety and
(cyber)security
Energy security
Food security
Responsible material
sourcing

97
Annex 7 List of EU companies for polysilicon, ingot, wafer, cell and module
production equipment and for module components, tracking systems and inverters

Segment Company (Country)

Polysilicon production equipment ECM Technologies (FR)

Ingot production equipment Arnold Group (DE)

Wafer production equipment R2D Automation (FR)

Siemens (DE)

Jonas & Redmann (DE)

Schmid-Group (DE)

ZS Handling (DE)

Decker (DE)

Hennecke Systems (DE)

Von Ardenne (DE)

PSS/Lapmaster Wolters (DE)

Cell production equipment ECM GREENTECH S.A.S. (FR)

Singulus (DE)

Siemens (DE)

Centrotherm (DE)

Schmid-Group (DE)

Jonas & Redmann (DE)

RENA (DE)

Module production equipment Mondragon Assembly (ES)

Solean (FR)

Ecoprogetti (IT)

Teknisolar (IT)

Eurotron (NL)

SM-InnoTech (DE)

PVA Tepla (DE)

98
 J.v.G. Technology GmbH (DE)

Siemens (DE)

M10 Solar equipment (DE)

Team Technik (DE)

Schmid-Group (DE)

Burkle (DE)

Schiller-automation (DE)

Manz (DE)

Module components Viasolis (LT)

Sunified (NL)

Interfloat (DE)

Dunmore (DE)

Satinal (IT)

Coveme (IT)

Tracking systems Mounting Systems GmbH (DE)

DEGER ENERGIE GMBH & CO. KG (DE)

Ideematec Deutschland GmbH (DE)

Schletter Solar GmbH (DE)

Soltigua S.r.l (IT)

Comal (IT)

Convert Italia (IT)

Optimum Tracker (FR)

Nexans Solar Technologies (FR)

Arcellor Mittal Exosun (FR)

Deger Iberica (ES)

Stansol Energy (ES)

STI Norland S.L. (ES)

99
 PVH PV Hardware Solutions S.L. (ES)

Axial Structural Solutions (ES)

Soltec Energías Renovables S.L. (ES)

Esasolar (ES)

Deger Iberica (ES)

Inverters Fimer (IT)

Fronius (AT)

Ingeteam (ES)

Power Electronics (ES)

Kostal (DE)

SMA (DE)

Kaco (DE)

Refu (DE)

Steca (DE)

Sungrow Repair centre (DE)

Source: SolarPower Europe

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GETTING IN TOUCH WITH THE EU

In person
All over the European Union there are hundreds of Europe Direct centres. You can find the address of the centre nearest you online
(european-union.europa.eu/contact-eu/meet-us_en).
On the phone or in writing
Europe Direct is a service that answers your questions about the European Union. You can contact this service:
by freephone: 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (certain operators may charge for these calls),
at the following standard number: +32 22999696,
via the following form: european-union.europa.eu/contact-eu/write-us_en.

FINDING INFORMATION ABOUT THE EU

Online
Information about the European Union in all the official languages of the EU is available on the Europa website (european-
union.europa.eu).
EU publications
You can view or order EU publications at op.europa.eu/en/publications. Multiple copies of free publications can be obtained by
contacting Europe Direct or your local documentation centre (european-union.europa.eu/contact-eu/meet-us_en).
EU law and related documents
For access to legal information from the EU, including all EU law since 1951 in all the official language versions, go to EUR-Lex (eur-
lex.europa.eu).
Open data from the EU
The portal data.europa.eu provides access to open datasets from the EU institutions, bodies and agencies. These can be downloaded
and reused for free, for both commercial and non-commercial purposes. The portal also provides access to a wealth of datasets
from European countries.
The portal data.europa.eu provides access to open datasets from the EU institutions, bodies and agencies. These can be downloaded
and reused for free, for both commercial and non-commercial purposes. The portal also provides access to a wealth of datasets
from European countries.
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