LCEO Photovoltaics Technology Development Report 2018: EUR 29916 EN

LCEO Photovoltaics Technology Development Report 2018
EUR 29916 EN
This publication is a Technical report by the Joint Research Centre (JRC), the European Commission’s
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Contact information
Name: Nigel TAYLOR

Address: European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Ispra, Italy
Email: [email protected]
Name: Maria GETSIOU

Address: European Commission DG Research and Innovation, Brussels, Belgium
Email: [email protected]
EU Science Hub
https://ec.europa.eu/jrc
JRC118300
EUR 29916 EN
ISSN 2600-0466
PDF ISBN 978-92-76-12541-9 doi:10.2760/373667
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Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2019
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Table of contents
Foreword on the low carbon energy observatory ............................................................................................
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................................... i
Abbreviations and definitions ......................................................................................................................... ii
1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Main Characteristics of the Technology ......................................................................................... 1
1.2 Current Market Status .................................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Methodology and data sources ...................................................................................................... 2
2 State of the art ........................................................................................................................................ 5
2.1 PV Technologies .............................................................................................................................. 5
2.1.1 Wafer-based crystalline silicon ................................................................................................. 5
2.1.2 Thin-film Photovoltaics ............................................................................................................. 9
2.1.3 Tandem PV .............................................................................................................................. 11
2.1.4 Concentrating Photovoltaics (CPV) ......................................................................................... 12
2.2 Power conversion equipment ....................................................................................................... 12
2.3 Cross-Cutting Aspects ................................................................................................................... 13
2.3.1 Standards ................................................................................................................................ 13
2.3.2 Critical Raw Materials ............................................................................................................. 14
2.3.3 Sustainability ........................................................................................................................... 14
2.3.4 Performance, operation, reliability and lifetime .................................................................... 15
3 R&D Overview....................................................................................................................................... 17
3.1 Global and European Trends ........................................................................................................ 17
3.1.1 Scientific Publications ............................................................................................................. 17
3.1.2 Patents .................................................................................................................................... 20
3.2 EU Policy and Programmes ........................................................................................................... 23
3.2.1 Energy Union and the SET-Plan............................................................................................... 23
3.2.2 Horizon 2020 ........................................................................................................................... 23
3.2.3 SOLAR- ERA.NET ...................................................................................................................... 24
3.2.4 European Cooperation in Science and Technology (COST) ..................................................... 25
3.2.5 EIT Innoenergy ........................................................................................................................ 25
3.2.6 InnovFin .................................................................................................................................. 25
3.2.7 NER-300 .................................................................................................................................. 25
3.3 Other R&D Programmes ............................................................................................................... 26
3.3.1 EU Member States .................................................................................................................. 26
3.3.2 IEA Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme ......................................................................... 26
3.3.3 USA.......................................................................................................................................... 26
3.3.4 China ....................................................................................................................................... 27
3.3.4.1 Top Runner Programme ................................................................................................. 27

3.3.4.2 PV Technology R&D........................................................................................................ 28
3.3.5 Japan PV Technology R&D ...................................................................................................... 29
4 Assessmetn of R&D Projects with EU Co-Funding ................................................................................ 31
5 Technology development Outlook ....................................................................................................... 38
5.1 Cost Trends ................................................................................................................................... 38
5.2 Future Deployment Scenarios ...................................................................................................... 41
5.3 Challenges ..................................................................................................................................... 44
6 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................................... 47
7 References ............................................................................................................................................ 49
Appendix 1 – Listing of EU-Supported R&D Projects relating to PV ............................................................. 51

FOREWORD ON THE LOW CARBON ENERGY OBSERVATORY
The LCEO is an internal European Commission Administrative Arrangement being executed by the Joint
Research Centre for Directorate General Research and Innovation. It aims to provide top-class data, analysis
and intelligence on developments in low carbon energy supply technologies. Its reports give a neutral
assessment on the state of the art, identification of development trends and market barriers, as well as best
practices regarding use private and public funds and policy measures. The LCEO started in April 2015 and runs
to 2020.
Which technologies are covered?
• Wind energy • Hydropower

• Photovoltaics • Heat and power from biomass
• Solar thermal electricity • Carbon capture, utilisation and storage
• Solar thermal heating and cooling • Sustainable advanced biofuels
• Ocean energy • Battery storage
• Geothermal energy • Advanced alternative fuels
How is the analysis done?
JRC experts use a broad range of sources to ensure a robust analysis. This includes data and results from EU-
funded projects, from selected international, national and regional projects and from patents filings. External
experts may also be contacted on specific topics. The project also uses the JRC-EU-TIMES energy system
model to explore the impact of technology and market developments on future scenarios up to 2050.
What are the main outputs?
The project produces the following report series:

 Technology Development Reports for each technology sector
 Technology Market Reports for each technology sector
 Future and Emerging Technology Reports (as well as the FET Database).
How to access the reports
Commission staff can access all the internal LCEO reports on the Connected LCEO page. Public reports are
available from the Publications Office, the EU Science Hub and the SETIS website.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank DG RTD colleagues Maria Getsiou and Fabio Belloni for their review and valuable
comments.
We would also like to thank a number of JRC.C colleagues who contributed to this report:
- C.2 experts on photovoltaics, in particular Tony Sample
- The C.7 JRC-EU-TIMES team for energy modelling: Wouter Nijs, Pablo Ruiz Castello, Ioannis
Tsiropoulos, Dalius Tarvydas
- Data on patent statistics and R&I investments at EU, national and corporate level have been
provided by the C.7 SETIS R&I team: Alessandro Fiorini, Francesco Pasimeni and Aliki Georgakaki.

ABBREVIATIONS AND DEFINITIONS
General
CAPEX Capital expenses
EC European Commission
EERA European Energy Research Alliance
EIT European Institute of Innovation and Technology
EPBT Energy Pay Back Time
EPC Engineering, Procurement and Construction
ETIP PV European Technology innovation Platform for Photovoltaics
ETS Emissions Trading Scheme
EU European Union
EUPVSEC European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference
FIOM Fixed installation, operating and maintenance [costs]
FP4/5/6/7 Fourth/Fifth/Sixth/Seventh Framework Programme (EU R&D programmes)
H2020 2013-2020 EU R&D Framework Programme
KPI Key Performance Indicator
LCA Life-Cycle Analysis
LCoE Levelised Cost of Electricity
NER New entrant Reserve
NREAP National Renewable Energy Action Plan
O&M Operation and Maintenance
OPEX Operational expenses (running costs)
R&D Research and Development
R&I Research and Innovation
SETIS Strategic Energy Technologies Information System
SET-Plan European Strategic Energy Technology Plan
SPE Solar Power Europe
Technical and Theme-Related:

a-Si Amorphous silicon
AZO Aluminum-doped zinc oxide
CdTe Cadmium telluride
CIGS Copper Indium Gallium Diselenide
CPV Concentration Photovoltaics
c-Si Crystalline silicon
CVD Chemical Vapour Deposition
CZTS/Se Copper Zinc Tin Sulphide/Selenide (kesterites)
DSC Dye-Sensitized Cell

ED Electro-Deposition
HJT Heterojunction Technology
ITO Indium tin oxide (used as a TCO on cells)
ITRPV International Technology Roadmap for Photovoltaics
LID Light-Induced Degradation
LeTID Light and elevated Temperature-Induced Degradation
Mo Molybdenum
OPV Organic solar cell
PERC Passivated Emitter Rear Contact
PERT Passivated Emitter Rear-Totally Diffused
PID Potential-Induced Degradation
PK Perovskite (solar cell)
PV Photovoltaic(s)
PSC Perovskite solar cell
R2R Roll-to-roll (production process)
SPC Solid Phase Crystallisation
SPS Spark Plasma Sintering
TCO Transparent Conductive Oxide
TF Thin-film

1 INTRODUCTION
Over the past decade PV electricity has become a significant player in energy supply and a truly global
industry. It is characterised by rapid innovation and increasing cost-competitiveness. As such it is uniquely
positioned to help achieve the EU's energy transition [1], to support EU jobs and economic growth, and to
contribute to meeting the commitments made in the COP-21 Paris Agreement of December 2015 [2].
This LCEO Technology Development Report aims to provide unbiased assessments of the state of the art,
development trends, targets and needs, technological barriers, as well as techno-economic projections until
2050. Particular attention is paid to how EC funded projects contributed to technology advancements. It
follows the structure and methodology set out in LCEO Work Programme, as revised in 2017. A companion
LCEO Technology Market Report is due in the second half of 2018. Both reports build on previous editions,
released in 2016.
1.1 Main Characteristics of the Technology

Photovoltaics is a solar-power technology for generating electricity using semiconductor devices called solar
cells. Connected together, a number of solar cells form a solar ‘module’ or ‘panel’, which can then be
combined in a solar power system. These range in power from a few watts of electricity output to multi-
megawatt power stations.
PV devices can be broadly classified as "commercial", i.e. in mass production, "emerging" i.e., small production
volumes and "novel", i.e. concept or early laboratory stage. Commercial technologies include wafer-based
crystalline silicon (c-Si) PV, as well as the thin-film technologies of copper indium/gallium disulfide/diselenide
(CIGS) and cadmium telluride (CdTe) (see Figure 1). Thin-film silicon PV (amorphous and microcrystalline
silicon) and high concentrating photovoltaics (multijunction technology using III-V semiconductors, e.g., GaAs
and InGaP) have lost market shares due to their lack of efficiency improvements or problems with overall
system cost reductions respectively. Some organic and dye-sensitized solar PV devices have been
commercialised up to now, but for the most part this sub-technology remains in the novel and emerging
categories. In terms of current market share, silicon wafer based photovoltaics are by far the dominant
technology on the global market, with a 2018 share of about 95 %. This report focuses on the commercial and
emerging technologies, while the novel approaches (technology readiness level < 4) are addressed in the LCEO
future and emerging technologies reports.
Figure 1 Overview of photovoltaic technologies (source: http://pvthin.org/).
1
1.2 Current Market Status
At the end of 2018 global installed capacity stood at 518 GW, after an annual growth of over 100 GW. This
reflected booming demand in Chinese, India and the Americas [3]. Although PV provided just a 2.5 % share of
total electricity generation, its importance for our future energy mix is now acknowledged. .
An annual market at the hundred GW level makes reaching the IEA's [4] Sustainable Development Scenario of
3 246 GW by 2040 look very feasible. Taking a more ambitious view (arguably needed to meet the 2015 Paris
Climate Agreement goals), the new IRENA roadmap for 2050 [5] foresees 7 122 GW of solar PV. Both scenarios
assume that the cost of PV electricity will continue to decrease. For this to happen, R&D is needed on a broad
spectrum of issues relating to the energy conversion technology itself, production processes and a range of
other factors including operation, integration and sustainability.
The EU reached a cumulative capacity of 117 GW at the end of 2018. This represented a welcome rebound
after several years stagnation - new installations in 2017 amounted to just 5.2 GW1 [3, 6]. There is guarded
optimism that the annual market can continue to grow Indeed to reach the EU's proposed 2030 target of 32 %
renewables, installed PV should reach 300- 320 GW implying an annual market of at least 15 GW.
There two main PV market segments:
a) Ground-mounted PV power plants (utility-scale or industrial) that feed their entire electricity
generation into the grid. The plant itself is either owned or contracted by a utility company or large
consumer. The electricity price is mainly determined either by direct power purchase agreements
(PPAs) between the PV plant owner and the electricity off-taker, or by public auctions or tenders.
b) Rooftop PV systems (commercial or residential), in which part or all of the electricity produced is used
directly on site, and part is feed into the grid.
In the EU utility-scale ground mounted plants accounted for one third of the market and rooftop for two thirds
of the total installed solar PV power, according to the European industry association Solar Power Europe. The
business models are distinct for both cases. Nonetheless, storage (on-site or as a virtual service) is expected
play an increasing role in the development of both segments.
1.3 Methodology and data sources

The methodology for the technology development reports is based on three main pillars:
• JRC peer review and expert judgement;
• Monitoring, data compilation; definition and use of indicators;
• Modelling relevant to long-term deployment trends, using the JRC-EU-TIMES model.
The data sources are divided as follows:
i) R&D projects: the analysis includes:
- most relevant EU-funded projects in H2020;
- recently completed FP7 projects;
- SOLAER-ERA-NET projects;
- EIT InnoEnergy projects;
- COST programme;
- NER-300;
- InnovFin Energy Demo Projects;
- Member States' activities based on information from the respective SET Plan Temporary
Working Groups (with the proviso that reports that are public and in English);
1
Note that IEA PVPS reports a value of 6.5 GW for "Europe" in 2017, while SolarPowerEurope claims over 7 GW (including
Turkey). The overall message remains that substantial market growth is needed to deliver on EU 2030 targets.
2
- major international projects, in particular from IEA PVPS;
- national projects and programmes from major non-EU countries.
ii) Patents statistics, for patents filed on technologies/sub-technologies
iii) Scientific publishing statistics, as analysed with the JRC's TIM (tools for information monitoring)
software, which makes use of text mining and computational linguistic techniques to treat and enrich
individual data items with useful information.
iv) Existing scientific overviews and compilations, for instance: proceedings of the European Photovoltaic
Solar Energy Conference (EU PVSEC); publications of the European Technology and Innovation
Platform for Photovoltaics, the Fraunhofer ISE Photovoltaics Reports 2018 [7] and the SEMI 2017
International Technology Roadmap for Photovoltaics [8].
Concerning technology performance and cost targets, the 2015 SET-Plan Declaration of Intent on Strategic
Targets in the context of Global Leadership on Photovoltaics [9] provides the main benchmark; Table 1 below
summarises the relevant parameters and values. Since several of these are indicated as percentage increases,
for the purpose of the present document Table 2 shows indicative absolute values.
Concerning the indicators, the main focus is on the technology readiness level parameter, using the
technology-specific guidance developed in the 2017 study contract for DG-RTD [10].
Table 1: Technical Goals in the SET-Plan PV Implementation Plan, October 2017.
Aspect Targets
PV module efficiency 2020: increase by at least 20 % compared to 2015 levels
2030: increase by at least 35 % compared to 2015
Reduction of turn-key system 2020: reduce by at least 20 % compared to 20152

costs
2030: reduce by at least 50 % compared to 2015
Enhancement of lifetime 2020: increase module lifetime (at 80 % of initial power) to 30 years
2025: increase module lifetime (at 80 % of initial power) to 35 years
Life cycle impact Minimise; no criteria specified up to now
Recyclability Increase; no criteria specified up to now
Building integrated products for 2020: reduce additional BIPV cost/m2 by 50 % compared to 2015 levels3
roofs or facades
2030: reduce additional BIPV cost/m2 by 75 % compared to 2015 levels
Manufacturing and installation Production capabilities of at least 20 m2 per minute by 20204
Concepts for highly automated installation
2
In February 2016 world-wide prices for residential systems ranged from EUR 1.25/Wp to EUR 2.40/Wp for systems with installation, but
without permitting or connection costs. For commercial systems the range was EUR 0.92/Wp to EUR 1.80/Wp.
3
For BIPV the end-2015 reference values are EUR 80-120/m2 for roof integrated modules, EUR 130-200/m2 for roof tiles & membranes,
EUR 150-350/m2 for semi-transparent façade integration and EUR 130-250/m2 for opaque roof integration. These are additional to PV
module costs).
4
This production volume implies a factory with a nominal production capacity of up to 2 GW per year.
3
Table 2 Module efficiency values calculated from the percentage increases stated in the 2017 SET-Plan PV Implementation
Plan.
PV technology Ref. year 2020 2030 Current cell records

2015*) June 2018
Target increase - +20 % +35 %
Wafer-silicon mc-Si 16.2 19.4 21.9 21.25
mono-Si 17.0 20.4 23.0 -
HJT 19.0 22.8 25.7 25.6
Thin-film CI(G)S 13.8 16.6 18.6 22.0
CdTe 14.6 17.5 19.7 22.0
*) 2015 reference data for commercial modules as reported in the Fraunhofer ISE Photovoltaics Report,
November 2015.
4
2 STATE OF THE ART
2.1 PV Technologies
2.1.1 Wafer-based crystalline silicon
Wafer-based crystalline silicon is the mainstream PV technology. The production process starts with silica sand
(SiO2), which is smelted to produce metallurgical silicon. This is then refined and cast in the form of long ingots
with either mono- or multi-crystalline microstructure. These are then sliced into wafers, which are processed
into solar cells (doping, antireflective layers, electrical contacts) and finally interconnected in weatherproof
packages designed to last for at least 25 years.
Silicon PV is a complex field in its own right, and Figure 2 gives an overview of the technologies variants
available. These are distinguished broadly by the type of silicon processing and doping (p- or n-type), whether
cast in multi-crystalline or monocrystalline form, and the type of contacting used to extract current (Table 3).
Figure 3 shows the current and projected market shares of the main commercial technologies, as reported by
the ITRPV in 2017 [8]. The cell (and therefore module) efficiency plays an increasing role in determining the
balance of systems costs, which for large-scale systems (> 100 kW) are estimated at 55 % of the total.
Currently just over 70 % of the market is taken by "p-type" silicon devices in either multi-crystalline or mono-
crystalline. P-type multi-crystalline cells with aluminium diffused back-surface field (Al-BSF) have traditionally
been the market mainstay and have led the dramatic cost reduction seen over the last 10 years together with
the emergence of GW scale production. Many analysts presumed that energy conversion efficiency would limit
growth of this area, but this has not been the case up to now. Trina Solar hold the record efficiency of 19.9 %
for a polycrystalline module [11], while Jinko Solar recently announced that they'd reached 22.0 % efficiency
for a full-size cell (156 x 156 mm2).
Recently PERC (passivated rear emitter and rear cell 5) technology has emerged to challenge the standard
aluminium back surface field approach. PERC has helped push production-line cell efficiencies above 20 %. In
February 2018 Longi (China) announced a record efficiency of 23.6 % on for mono -Si cells. Indeed a major shift
to PERC cell production is now underway, with the ITRPV roadmap (Figure 3) showing a market share of
already 10 %, and expected to rise to over 50 % over the next decade. A further driver is that the PERC cell
design can be adapted to make bi-facial cells i.e. they can capture light coming from both sides of the cell. In
this way a relatively small (and hence low cost) modification to the cell processing equipment can give a
significant increase in output (typically 10 % or more depending on the mounting and environment, although
manufacturers often claim much higher values). On the down side, the industry has had to develop ways to
cope with specific degradation processes: light induced degradation (LID) can cause modules to lose a
percentage of power after first exposure to light; potential induced degradation (PID) can lead to significant
power losses in longer term operation, depending on the system configuration.
Cells using n-type silicon offer superior performance for several fundamental physical reasons, but up to now
the production price differential has favoured the p-type. Market share is currently about 5 % [8]. Sunpower
have traditionally dominated this segment with its mono-crystalline cell with interdigitated back-contacts.
They still hold the cell efficiency record in this class (25.3 %), although Trina Solar have recently made big
advances and announced a cell with 25.2 % efficiency. Other technology options include PERC architectures,
full-area passivated designs and increasingly also heterojunction (HJT) cells that include thin layers of
amorphous silicon deposited on the n-type mono wafer substrate. Although the market share for HJT modules
is still relatively small (only a few % in 2017), the ITRPV report forecasts it to reach 14 % by 2027. Indeed the
efficiency record for silicon wafer solar cells is held by Kaneka's IBC/HJT cell, which established a record of
26.7 % in 2017. Kaneka maintain that this value could be increased up to 27.1 % (the theoretical limit for this
type of junction is 29.3 %). Modules using these cells have reached 24 % efficiency, but at present the
associated production process is not considered commercially viable.
5
PERC covers a family of cell concepts, of which the PERL (Passivated Emitter, Rear Locally-doped) and PERT (Passivated
Emitter, Rear Totally-diffused) are the most widely implemented. The concept was first realised in the 1980s, but has taken
off commercially in the last 3 years with the introduction of cost effective laser processing equipment, among other
factors.
5
Figure 2 Schematic of the silicon wafer sub-technologies, indicated also the mid-2018 efficiency records for each class.
6
Table 3 Overview of PV cell designs and contacting options
Aluminium Diffused Back Surface Field Cell

(AL-BSF)
This is "standard" technology and can be used
on p- or n-type, multi- or mon-crystalline
wafers. It currently represents almost 80 % of
the market.
Passivated Emitter Rear contact Cell (PERC):

two extra steps are added to the AL-BSF
process.: a rear surface passivation film is
applied and then lasers or chemicals are used
to open the rear passivation stack and create
tiny pockets in the film to absorb more light.
Bifacial cell design, in this case adapted from

PERC. A screen-printed rear aluminium finger
grid is used instead of a full-area rear layer to
allow light to access.
Metal Wrap Through Technology (MWT)

Back contact option with lower silver paste
consumption as the rear contact architecture
leads to smaller shaded area
Interdigitated back contact (IBC)

Both the positive and negative contacts are on
the rear of the device. This eliminates shading
from front contacts, and increases efficiency.
Its however relatively expensive to produce.
Full Area Passivated Cell: the bottom of the

wafer is given a thin-film structure that
passivates and serves as a conductive contact
to the cell. This eliminates (i) the need for
diffusion or implantation doping of the wafer
and (ii) complicated patterning of selective
emitter/BSF
Heterojunction (HJT) Cells: An ultra-thin layer

of amorphous silicon is deposited on the front
and back surfaces of a mono, n-type wafer.
This can also be combined with IBC contacting
for the very highest efficiency Si cells.
7
Figure 3 Current and projected global market shares of c-Si cell concepts (ITRPV Roadmap 2017 [8]).
Figure 4 Breakdown of cost elements in c-Si PV module production (from data in the ITRPV Roadmap, 2017).
It's worth noting that value chain for c-Si modules consists in several stages, all of which need to be addressed
by R&D in order to reduce costs (Figure 4). Issues include:
• Silicon feedstock: fluidised bed reactors can offer significant energy (and hence cost) savings
compared to the conventional Siemens process, but the product quality is not yet at the same level.
• Silicon wafers: the industry currently relies mainly on 160-180 µm wafers, and with silicon prices at an
historic low (currently about USD 12/kg, down from USD 70/kg in 2010), the pressure to move to
thinner cells is not as strong as it was a few years ago. The ITRPV roadmap foresees a modest
reduction in thickness up to 2025, however not going below 100 µm. Overall, silicon material usage
for cells has reduced over the last 10 years from 16 g/W to less than 6 g/W now. Moving to thinner
wafers is also a challenge for the production process. The EU FP7 Cheetah projects demonstrated the
feasibility of handling 90 µm wafers on pilot production equipment with some adaptions, but lower
thicknesses would require significant modification of the processing equipment.
• Contacting: the use of passivated contacts (deposited as a thin-film on the wafer surface) offers a step
beyond PERC in terms of efficiency which can be incorporated in high volume production.
• Kerfless wafer technologies are being developed that eliminate the sawing process entirely. So-called
epitaxial wafers/foils are fabricated by chemical vapour deposition of Si layers either p- or n-type in
the thickness range between 40 and 150 μm on re-usable seed substrates. The ITRPV roadmap [8]
predicts a modest 10 % market share for kerfless wafers in the 2025 timeframe. However there are
issues to be solved regarding automated handling of large area thin wafers in the production
environment.
• Metallisation: efforts to reduce silver usage and bring in substitutes e.g. copper.
• Anti-reflective glass: need to extend service life
8
• Cell interconnection: move to lead-free materials, use of half-cells or shingled cells, conducting
adhesives, compatibility with thinner wafers etc.
• Encapsulants and backsheet development for longer service life and for cost reduction.
Research efforts in the EU are largely focussed in Germany (Fraunhofer ISE, ISC Konstanz, IFSH), Belgium
(IMEC), the Netherlands (TNO6), France (CEA-INES) and Switzerland (EPFL). Institutes in many other countries
also contribute significantly. These activities are largely funded by national programmes and by industry
collaborations (in many cases now with Asian companies).
2.1.2 Thin-film Photovoltaics

The term "thin-film" refers to devices with active layers of a few microns thickness (i.e. about 100x thinner
than silicon wafers) deposited on a suitable substrate These technologies emerged some decades ago as a
consequence of new deposition methods and concepts. They offer:
- low manufacturing costs
- low energy payback time
- low CO2 footprint
Thin-film modules using cadmium telluride (CdTe), copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS), amorphous and
other thin-film silicon have been commercially available since the 1980s. Production in 2017 was reported as
4.5 GW (Figure 5), a slight decrease on 2016 [7]. Overall the market share has decreased on account of the
booming silicon wafer market and thin-film is now below 5 % of total annual PV module production. Only CdTe
is being produced at multi-GW scale and from one producer (First Solar, USA).
The 2016 White Paper on CIGS by an industry/research consortium [12] claims that the technology can be
competitive in many applications (including as building integrated products) and that advanced processing can
yield a cost of ownership of USD 0.40/Wp. ZSW, Europe's leading lab on this technology, has boosted the
efficiency of its CIGS solar cells to 22.0 %, and estimate that values could reach 25 %. Table 4 summarises the
state of the art of the main technologies and of several emerging concepts such as: organic, dye-sensitized,
and polymer-based solar cells, perovskite solar cells and copper zinc tin sulphide/selenide (kesterites).
Figure 5 Production trends for the main thin-film PV technologies (source: own elaboration of data from Fraunhofer ISE PV
Report 2018 [7])
6
Now includes the former ECN activities
9
Table 4 Characteristics of the principal thin-film photovoltaic technologies (based on the scheme presented in [13]).
Technology Record Efficiencies Main Features Challenges

(mid-2018)
Cell Module
Cadmium 22.1 % 18.6 % - Competes with c-Si for utility scale - Tellurium scarcity is a potential
Telluride projects limitation to very large scale
- Potential for efficiency to reach 25 % for deployment
cells and 85% of that for modules - Production dominated by a single
- High potential for cost reduction company (First Solar USA)
- Lowest EPBT (0.6 years) - Extend module long-term module
lifetime
- Low CO2 impact
- Cadmium toxicity: not technically an
issue for CdTe as a compound and in the
quantities used in PV prodcuts
Copper Indium 22.6 % 17.1 % - Low temperature coefficient and good - Need to decrease cell-to-module
(Gallium) low light performance give potential for efficiency gap
Diselenide good energy yields - Indium and gallium on the EU
CI(G)S - Technological flexibility already critical materials list
demonstrated at industrial scale: - TCOs with higher carrier mobility
production of flexible light weight and optimal optical transmittance,
modules (< 2 kg/m2) compatible with temperature
- Claimed that production costs could be process requirements (≤ 150 oC)
reduced to €0.24/W by 2020. - Hybrid modularisation schemes
including metal grids in combination
with thin-film scribing processes for
definition of individual cells
Amorphous 10.2 % - Early leader in mass produced thin-film - Low efficiency and no clear route
silicon products to values closer to crystalline silicon
a-Si - Dwindling commercial interest
Organic thin- 13.2 % 6% TRL 5-6 - Commercialisation issues with lack
film devices - Active material in form of small carbon- of stability and faster degradation
OPV based molecules, dendrimers and rates than for other technologies
polymers - Efficiency drop-off from cells to
- Low-cost production7, form-factor modules can be as high as 50 %
flexibility, customised appearance,
transparency.
- Excellent sustainability profile.
- Commercial module efficiency of 6 %
and a life time of 10+ years
Dye sensitised 11.9 % TRL 5-6 - Long-term stability, in combination
solar cells - Use light absorption in dye molecules with a reasonable efficiency,
(DSSCs) (the “sensitizers”) attached to the very - Scientific effort has shifted to
large surface area of a nanoporous oxide perovskites as they promise much
semiconductor electrode (e.g. TiO2), high efficiency levels
followed by injection of excited electrons
from the dye into the oxide to generate
electricity.
- Interest for use as semi-transparent
coloured glass building facades
7
According to [27], mass production could lead ultimately to costs of 8 USD/m2, a factor 10 below that projected for c-Si.
10
Technology Record Efficiencies Main Features Challenges
(mid-2018)
Perovskites 22.1 % TRL 4-5 for lead-containing materials; TRL - Lead toxicity, stability, scalability
(hybrid of 2-3 for lead-free perovskites - New cost efficient encapsulation
organic- - Uses abundant elements materials and processes
inorganic lead
- Low temperature solution-based - Identification of suitable buffer
or tin halide-
production processes (aids suitability for layers for optimal buffer/absorber
based material)
tandem applications on silicon wafers) front interface
- Tuneable band gap
- High efficiency
- High potential for flexible light weight
and semi-transparent applications
Kesterites 12.7 % TRL 3-4 Need to increase efficiency
8
CZTS - free of critical raw materials Low open circuit voltage (now only
- high stability 60 % of the theoretical maximum)
e.g. by reducing defects in the
- high level of technological
structure, use of graded band gap
- compatible with CIGS industrial concepts
processes
- band gap tuneable in broad IR – UV
region
2.1.3 Tandem PV
A major theme in PV research is how to raise the efficiency of PV devices above the Shockley-Quiesser limit of
29 % for single junction devices9. The answer lies in tandem devices, with the rule of thumb that the efficiency
of both the top and bottom components needs to be above 20 % to arrive at a combined efficiency above
30 %10. Further major challenges include the contacting of the two layers and developing a production process
compatible with both components. For the latter, the approaches are either to directly deposit the thin-film on
the silicon (monolithic integration) or to create the thin-film layer separately and then physically attach it to
the silicon (mechanical stacking).
Table 5 shows recent record results for several tandem concepts, both with silicon + thin-film and thin-film +
thin-film. The efficiency record for such multi-junctions is for a silicon cell with a monolithically added III-V
material layer, with values now reaching 33.3 %. However the commercialisation of such devices may be
restricted by costs of a GW production of such cells and the availability of the III-V materials used.
Another combination attracting strong interest is the perovskite on silicon tandem. There is an area of vibrant
research globally. The UK-German firm Oxford PV stands out as one of the most advanced: it is currently
developing a pilot production line and have secured over EUR 40 million in funding, including a EUR 15 million
grant in 2017 from the European Investment Bank.
Concerning thin-film on thin-film concepts, the CIGS – perovskite device cited in Table 5 is a leader in terms of
efficiency. Previous efforts to realise higher efficiencies for thin-film silicon devices looked at tandem devices
with a high band gap amorphous silicon top cell and one or two lower band gap microcrystalline silicon cells
[14]. However the stabilized efficiencies never got past the 13 % level. Many of the highest efficiency OPV
devices are tandems, but the obtained efficiency/lifetime combination hasn't been able to compete with mass
production silicon wafer technology. However in early 2018 University of Michigan scientists11 demonstrated
a tandem organic solar cell (2mm² active area) with 15 % efficiency.
8
IBM device, result certified; reported (but uncertified) efficiency value of 13.9 % from DGIST, Korea
9
Concepts with optical concentration of the sunlight are discussed in section 2.1.4 below
10
PV-Magazine interview with Martin Green, 19/05/2018
11 Xiaozhou Che et al, Nature Energy Vol 3, pages422–427 (2018)
11
Table 5 Energy conversion efficiencies (2018) of tandem PV cells (active areas of the order of 1 cm2).
Bottom Cell Top Cell Efficiency Integration Year/Month

%
Silicon III-V 35.912 Stacked 2016
Silicon III-V 33.313 Monolithic 2017
Silicon Perovskite 27.314 Monolithic 2018/06

Silicon Perovskite 27.115 Stacked 2018/08
Silicon Perovskite 23.916 Stacked 2017
Silicon Perovskite 23.617 Monolithic 2017
CIGS Perovskite 22.418 Monolithic 2018

CIGS Perovskite 20.519 Stacked 2015
2.1.4 Concentrating Photovoltaics (CPV)

This category exploits the fact that some PV materials show much higher energy conversion efficiency when
the incident light is concentrated by lenses or mirrors. Within CPV there is a differentiation according to
concentration factor: low concentration refers to < 10 suns, whereas high concentration implies a factor of
several hundred. The latter require the use of tracking devices. Despite its technical promise, CPV has failed to
make an impact in the market, struggling in particular with the intense cost completion from standard silicon
wafer products. Fraunhofer ISE and NREL have released a comprehensive review of the technology and market
in February 2016 [15].
For HCPV systems the most commonly used cell is a three-junction device based on GaInP/GaAs/Ge, with a
record efficiency of 46.0 % [11] for 508x concentrated light. With appropriate optics, module efficiencies of
over 35 % have been recorded can be achieved, In February 2016 Fraunhofer ISE announced an efficiency of
43.4 % for a CPV mini-module with quadruple junction solar cells. HCPV systems require a high fraction of
direct (vs diffuse) irradiation, and is thus only suited for the sun-belt regions with the optical systems currently
available. Approximately 340 MW of CPV systems are installed worldwide.
CPV is at the beginning of an industry learning curve, with considerable potential for technical and cost
improvements. The most challenging task is to become cost-competitive with other PV technologies in order
to reach substantial production volumes and the associated economies of scale.
2.2 Power conversion equipment

The key interface/integration element is the DC-AC inverter, and its cost makes up approximately 10 % of
system CAPEX. Efficiency for branded products currently stands at 98 % and above [7]. Development trends
include:
- extension of operational life (manufacturer guarantees are typically for 10 years)
- addition of features for grid stabilization and optimization of self-consumption; inclusion of storage units
- introduction of different semiconductors (SiC or GaN) to allow higher efficiencies and higher voltages.
In regard to the latter point, the uptake of SiC is mainly for large central inverters. In utility applications this
can reduce or eliminate the need for transformers, and improve grid support capabilities. For instance, the
German HV-SiC project (BMBF) recently announced an inverter using SiC components that can regulate power
12 Werner, J. et al, ACS Energy Lett., 2016, 1 (2), pp 474–480

13 J. Benick et al, Monolithic III-V//Si Multi-Junction Solar Cell Exceeding an Efficiency of 31%, presented at EU PVSEC 2017
(not in proceedings)
14 Oxford PV press release, 1 cm2 tandem cell recorded a 27.3% conversion efficiency,
15
IMEC press release, for 0.13cm² area (for 4cm² the cell efficiency is 25.3%)
16 Imec press release, August 2017
17 K.A. Bush et al, Nature Energy 2, 2017, 17009
18
UCLA, reported in Science 31 Aug 2018: Vol. 361, Issue 6405, pp. 904-908
19 F. Fu et al, Nature Communications 6, 2015, 8932
12
of up to 10-15 kV, more than ten times higher than regular silicon inverters. This opens possibilities for new
system architectures for utility scale plants. Use in the string inverter market will depend on getting
manufacturing costs down.
The market for module level power electronics20 up has up to now focussed largely on power optimizers (DC-
DC converters) and micro-inverters (DC-AC). Fraunhofer ISE [7] estimates that about 3 GWp of DC/DC
converters were installed in 2017, and that micro-inverters represent a small fraction (about 1 %) of the
inverter market21. This area is expected to develop in the future. The ITRPV roadmap [8] foresees a 20 %
market share for so-called smart junction boxes by 2027, covering DC-DC optimisers, micro-inverters and
integrated safety switches. The long-term durability of such devices is a critical factor as replacing defective
components at module level could be expensive.
Figure 6 Overview of inverter characteristics and costs (source [7])
2.3 Cross-Cutting Aspects

2.3.1 Standards
The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) Technical Committee 82 deals with solar photovoltaic
energy systems and was established 1981. It has published more than 100 standards, which have laid the
foundations for the dramatic increase of trade in PV products. In the EU, CENELEC has a mandate for
standardization in the field of solar photovoltaic energy systems and components (M/089 EN). This is
implemented by its Technical Committee 82: Solar Photovoltaic Systems. Under the terms of the Frankfurt
Agreement with IEC, CENELEC transforms IEC standards into European standards, usually in a "fast track"
procedure. The JRC annual PV standards report summarises the current status of IEC and CENELEC activities
[16].
PV modules are subject to certification (type approval) under the IEC 61215 series, with specific requirements
for each of the main technology groups (crystalline silicon, cadmium telluride, amorphous silicon and
microcrystalline silicon, copper indium gallium selenide and copper indium selenide). Work is also in progress
on a revision to include flexible (non-glass superstrate) products and bifacial designs. Compliance with IEC
61215 is expected to ensure low initial failure rates in the PV products entering service.
20
Other terms used include "smart modules" and "AC modules".
21
A requirement in the US building fire safety codes that a PV system can be isolated at or very close to the modules has
been a recent driver for the market in module integrated safety switches has been.
13
In a survey on needs for new or improved standards carried out in 2017 with the EU PV community22,
respondents saw "reliability degradation and lifetime" as key priority for all components and indeed for
systems. Standards for building integrated products were also flagged by a significant number of respondents,
highlighting issues such as system functionality and performance, compatibility with construction codes and
the need to avoid frequent (and expensive) design re-certification.
The International Photovoltaic Quality Assurance Task Force (PVQAT) has been successful in coordinating pre-
normative research and promoting new technical standards for verifying PV component and system quality
and bankability. PVQAT has a three-pronged approach that seeks to establish:
• a rating system to ensure durable design of PV modules for the climate and application of interest;
• a guideline for factory inspections and quality assurance (QA) during manufacturing;
• a comprehensive system for certification of PV systems, verifying appropriate design, installation, and
operation.
The JRC has supported the development of the PVQAT from its inception and is represented on the steering
committee together with NREL and AIST23.
The IEC System for Certification to Standards Relating to Equipment for Use in Renewable Energy Applications
(IECRE System) was formed in 2014 to define how certificates can be issued at system level for three energy
sectors: wind, solar and marine energy. Conformity assessment can be performed and certificates issued for
an individual PV power plant on a specific site at various stages of its design and implementation. It aims to
give confidence that a PV plant will safely perform as promised and reduce cost at the same time. It represents
a step beyond standards, in that while IEC writes technical standards, IEC does not define how these are used.
The IECRE Specific Certificate Categories can include:
● PV Site Qualification certificate;
● PV Power Block design qualification certificate;
● PV Plant Design qualification certificate;
● Conditional PV Project certificate (construction complete / commissioning);
● Annual PV Plant Performance certificate;
● PV Asset Transfer certificate;
● PV Decommissioning certificate.
Finally, in the context of the EU's circular economy policy, EC mandate M/543 is a formal request to the
European standardisation organisations as regards Ecodesign requirements on material efficiency aspects for
energy-related products. Generic standards are expected in 2019 on aspects such as durability, dismantlability,
disassemblability and remanufacturing. Product-specific standards (e.g. for PV modules or inverters) would
then need be developed in this framework.
2.3.2 Critical Raw Materials

EU Raw Materials Initiative aims to help ensure their secure, sustainable and affordable supply. Of relevance
to PV, the 2017 list critical materials list24 includes gallium, indium and silicon metal.
2.3.3 Sustainability
Photovoltaic modules have an environmental impact. Areas of potential concern include:
 energy required to produce the PV cells and modules, typically expressed as an energy payback time
or energy footprint; these values are strongly influenced by the power source mix used during
production;
22
Cheetah Project, Deliverable D5.9
23
Fraunhofer ISE and China General Certification Centre will also join PVQAT Steering Committee in 2018.
24 COM(2017) 490 "Communication on the 2017 list of Critical Raw Materials for the EU"
14
 water required during production and operation i.e. for cleaning;
 toxic and other potentially harmful materials used or created during manufacturing;
 potential release of toxic and other potentially harmful materials during operation i.e. leeching, fires
etc.;
 reduction of use of materials whose availability is or may become critical: silver for crystalline silicon
devices; tellurium, indium, gallium for thin-film devices;
 limitation of land use i.e. possible displacement of agricultural activities, visual impact;
 end-of-life management and recycling.
Carbon footprint and energy payback time (EBT) have received particular attention. The world average carbon
footprint of PV electricity generation is estimated as 55 g CO 2-eq/kWh – for Europe values range from 38 g
CO2-eq/kWh for Cyprus which has a high irradiation to 89 g CO2-eq/kWh for Iceland which has a low
irradiation25 [17]. Regarding technologies, thin-film modules have the lowest emissions, followed by poly-
crystalline silicon and then mono-crystalline silicon.
At international level the IEA PVPS Task 12 group issued methodology guidelines on PV-specific parameters
used as inputs in LCA [18].
The EU initiative on the Single Market for Green Products includes two methods to measure environmental
performance throughout the lifecycle: the Product Environmental Footprint (PEF) and the Organisation
Environmental Footprint (OEF) [19]. Photovoltaic electricity generation was assessed as a pilot product, and
the resulting Product Environmental Footprint Category Rules26 provide a methodology for assessing the
environmental impacts of PV technologies based on life cycle assessment.
PV is included the Ecodesign Working plan 2016-19. A preparatory study27 is in progress on solar panels,
inverters and systems, in order to assess the feasibility or proposing Ecodesign, EU Energy label, EU Ecolabel
and Green Public Procurement (GPP) policy instruments. It is expected to be completed in 2019. Should the
decision be taken to implement an Ecodesign regulation, this would be expected to require a further two
years.
Concerning recycling, PV modules come under the scope of the WEEE Directive28 since 2012. The industry has
set up a pan-European producer scheme called PV CYCLE, which offers WEEE compliance and waste
management services for solar energy system products.
2.3.4 Performance, operation, reliability and lifetime

a) PV Performance measures for trade, system design and planning
The rated peak power value remains the key parameter for commerce in photovoltaic products, as well as for
regulatory purposes (e.g. in trade cases). An energy yield rating for PV modules is now available under the IEC
61853 (parts 3 and 4 were approved in 2018). This allows calculation of a module's potential energy yield
under 6 reference climates (i.e. an annual data set with hourly values of irradiation, spectral content, ambient
temperature and wind speed). The approach offers investors and prosumers better information on actual
operational performance, and can underpin improved product performance differentiation.
25
Calculated using an average "world" carbon footprint of 1798 kgCO2-eq/kWp for PV system manufacturing in 2011,
based on market shares of 88% for c-Si and 12% for TF and other technologies. End-of-life processing is not included.
26
The document "Product Environmental Footprint Category Rules (PEFCR) Photovoltaic Modules Used In Photovoltaic
Power Systems For Electricity Generation" is due to be released in November 2018; see also the PEF site
https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/wikis/display/EUENVFP/PEFCR+Pilot%3A+Photovoltaic+electricity+generation
27
See http://susproc.jrc.ec.europa.eu/solar_photovoltaics/projectplan.html
28
2012/19/EU Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive regulates the appropriate treatment of end-of-life
products and requires that producers comply with national waste management obligations, including the related financing
and administration.
15
b) Reliability and Operational Lifetime
Today’s market requires warranties that are decades long (typically 80 % of power after 25 years). However
the subject of degradation of PV modules is still under open debate within the PV community. The lack of
extended standardisation work on this topic is due mainly to the fact that new and different failure modes of
PV modules appear in the field as time passes and as module technologies and packaging are explored. The IEC
61215 series standard for design certification has been demonstrated to be valuable for rapidly uncovering
well-known failure mechanisms; however, it is insufficient for assessing long-term risk, evaluating newer or
less common materials and designs and establishing field performance degradation.
Field data can be used to give estimates for degradation rates. A recent compilation study [20] found a median
degradation rate29 for c-Si technologies of 0.5 to 0.6 %/year and a mean of 0.8–0.9 %/year. The data for thin
film technologies indicate a slightly higher rate of around 1 %/year.
c) Operation performance analysis and monitoring
A range of tools is now available for situations that can range from utility-scale plants of 10 MW with 50 000
modules down to small roof systems of a few kW. Issues include:
- early detection of performance anomalies;
- optimisation of maintenance;
- detecting faulty modules.
d) Forecasting/resource measurement methodologies
Solar irradiance measurements provide essential information at all stages of the PV system life cycle (site
selection, system design, certification, operation, maintenance, trouble-shooting, upgrading, expansion) and
business decisions rely on accurate solar irradiance data. Most modern sensors used to measure global (or
hemispherical) solar irradiance fall into the following categories: thermopiles pyranometers, photodiodes
and photovoltaic reference cells. Spectro-radiometers are used for measuring spectral content. Within these
categories are instruments in various price and performance classes.
Data from geostationary satellites is also used to estimate the solar resource. The advantage of this approach
is that the data are available uniformly over large geographical areas. Using different satellites, the solar
resource can be estimated for the entire world except for the polar areas. In recent years, several data sets
have achieved accuracy in the estimate of global horizontal irradiation of close to 5 % (95 % confidence
interval for the annual average solar irradiation). The estimate of direct normal irradiance, important for
concentrating solar power plants, is less precise, with recent studies giving an uncertainty of about 10 % (95 %
confidence interval). The availability of the solar resource data varies. For some areas long-term time series of
data are available for free, this is the case for Europe, North America, Africa and most of Asia.
Power forecasting is also necessary for efficient grid integration of fluctuating PV power. The IEA-PVPS Task 14
produced a state of the art report on forecasting in 2013 [21]. They distinguish broadly for forecasting horizons
of 0 to 6 hours ahead and from 6 hours to a few days ahead. The requirements also vary with spatial scale.
Single-site forecasts may be used for storage management or direct marketing of single PV power plants.
Regional forecasts may be relevant for marketing and balancing of PV power.
Many different forecasting methods are available including numerical weather prediction (NWP), model
output statistic (MOS) approaches and satellite-based forecast models. IEA) Solar Heating & Cooling (SHC) Task
46 “Solar Resource Assessment and Forecasting” addresses the need for a framework to evaluate and
compare different forecast models. Considerable effort is devoted to forecast benchmarking and accuracy
metrics. RMSE (and MSE) give more weight to the largest errors. Since these are considered to have a
disproportionate impact on costs, RMSE may be better for system operators. Indeed the SET-Plan Integrated
Roadmap specifies an RMSE of <8 % of installed power by 2020 for an intra-day single-site power forecast in
NW-Europe. The data reported by Lorentz et al in 2015 [22] suggest that this may be already achievable.
29
This degradation rate is with respect to the initial nominal power (Wp); the decrease in power is therefore implicitly
linear in time.
16
3 R&D OVERVIEW
3.1 Global and European Trends
3.1.1 Scientific Publications
The JRC Technology innovation Monitoring tool (TIM 30) provides the functionality to check on scientific
publications in its database, which contains documents from the database Scopus (Elsevier) published after
1996. Figure 7 shows the global distribution of scientific articles published in 201731. EU authors were involved
in approximately 25 % of the 8057 papers identified in the search. Separate analysis shows that this proportion
has been maintained since 2010, underlining the high level scientific excellence in photovoltaics in Europe. It is
also significant that Asian countries account for a very significant fraction of scientific output and indeed the
Chinese Academy of Sciences is the single largest contributor organisation.
Looking at the recent time trends (Figure 8), EU output of scientific publications on PV almost doubled from
2010 to 2014. However it appears to have then plateaued in the period 2015-2016, and the TIM data search
even shows a drop in 2017 (this data may not be complete, as the global figures also show a similar drop for
2017).
Figure 9 the distribution of main research locations for 2017, while Table 6 shows the top 100 ranking of
organisations with publications in 2016 involving at least one EU co-author. These data confirm the well-
known centre of excellence in PV research in Western Europe, while the low level of publications from
organisations in Eastern Europe is also notable.
Figure 7 Distribution of scientific articles published in 2017 (source: JRC TIM tool)
30
EU, Joint Research Centre, Tools for Innovation Monitoring, http://www.timanalytics.eu/
31
TIM search string: topic:(photovoltaic OR "solar cell") AND class:(article) AND emm_year:2017.
17
Figure 8 Time trend for EU scientific publications on photovoltaics (source: JRC TIM tool).
Figure 9 Geographical distribution of authors of PV research publications (source: JRC TIM tool).
18
Table 6 Ranking of organisations with publications in 2016 involving at least one EU co-author (source: JRC TIM tool).
Rank Institution/Organisation Pubs. continued …

1 CNRS 99
2 Imperial College London 53 52 Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research 12
3 University of Oxford 48 School of Chemical Science and Engineering 12
8 Fraunhofer ISE 45 Technische Universität München 12
4 University of Cambridge 39 Universidad Autónoma de Madrid 12
5 Helmholtz Berlin für Materialien und Energie 38 Universidad de Sevilla 12
6 Uppsala University 36 Universitat Jaume I 12
7 Eindhoven University of Technology 35 University of California 12
9 Delft University of Technology 29 University of Groningen 12
10 Lund University 26 60 Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin 11
Universidad Politécnica de Madrid 26 Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia 11
University College London 26 RWTH Aachen University 11
13 Aalto University 25 Tallinn University of Technology 11
14 Politecnico di Milano 23 University of Angers 11
Technical University of Denmark 23 University of Liverpool 11
16 Chalmers University of Technology 22 University of Ljubljana 11
Politecnico di Torino 22 University of Palermo 11
18 Aalborg University 21 University of Salento 11
Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne 21 Vilnius University 11
Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg 21 78 Aarhus University 10
20 Swansea University 20 Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena 10
21 University of Manchester 19 Hasselt University 10
23 Bavarian Center for Applied Energy Research 18 Mälardalen University 10
King Abdullah University of Sci & Tech 18 National Renewable Energy Laboratory 10
KU Leuven 18 Northwestern University 10
University of Rome Tor Vergata 18 Queen Mary University of London 10
University of Sheffield 18 Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha 10
28 Newcastle University 17 University of Bayreuth 10
Technische Universität Dresden 17 University of Bordeaux 10
University of Luxembourg 17 University of Potsdam 10
36 Ecole Polytechnique 16 University of Science and Technology 10
Linköping University 16 University of Southampton 10
Loughborough University 16 90 Catalonia Institute for Energy Research. IREC 9
Polish Academy of Sciences 16 Institute for Solar Energy Research Hamelin 9
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya 16 Johannes Kepler University Linz 9
University of Aveiro 16 King Abdulaziz University 9
University of New South Wales 16 Leibniz Universität Hannover 9
39 Stanford University 15 National Technical University of Athens 9
Tampere University of Technology 15 National University of Singapore 9
University of Nottingham 15 PSL Research University 9
University of Patras 15 Sheffield Hallam University 9
45 Chinese Academy of Sciences 14 Universidade de Lisboa 9
Freie Universität Berlin 14 University of Applied Sciences SUPSI 9
KTH Royal Institute of Technology 14 University of Catania 9
Massachusetts Institute of Technology 14 University of Duisburg-Essen 9
University of Oldenburg 14 University of Konstanz 9
University Politehnica of Bucharest 14 University of Milano-Bicocca 9
48 Forschungszentrum Jülich 13 University of Valencia 9
Universidad de Jaén 13
University of Glasgow 13
Utrecht University 13
19
3.1.2 Patents
The data considered is from Patstat (European Patent Office) for the period to 201432, with subsequent
processing by the JRC [23]. The overall volume of patents (>30 000) precludes a detailed analysis of content.
However generic technology–related information is given by the CPC classification codes (Table 7 )
Table 7 CPC classification codes relevant to photovoltaics
Grouping CPC codes

Photovoltaic energy (PV generic) Y02E 10/50
Material Technologies Y02E 10/540
Y02E 10/541 CuInSe2 materials
Y02E 10/542 Dye sensitized
Y02E 10/543 Group II-VI materials (CdTe)
Y02E 10/544 Group III-V materials
Y02E 10/545 Microcrystalline silicon
Y02E 10/546 Polycrystalline silicon
Y02E 10/547 Monocrystalline silicon
Y02E 10/548 Amorphous silicon
Y02E 10/549 Organic33
Building applications Y02B 10/10,
Y02B 10/12 PV Roof systems for PV cells
Y02B 10/14 PV hubs
System with concentrators Y02E 10/52
Power conversion Y02E 10/56 PV - Power conversion electric or electronic aspects
Y02E 10/563 Grid connected
Y02E 10/566 Power management inside the plant
Y02E 10/58 Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) systems
PV-thermal hybrids Y02E 10/60
Manufacturing processes
Figure 10 shows the overall trend in counts of patent families 34 per year for three categories: all patent
families, so-called "high-value" patent families i.e. application made to two or more patent offices and granted
patent families. Overall filings grew strongly from 2000 up to 2012, but have decreased in 2013 and 2014. The
reasons for this are not fully clear, but anecdotal evidence suggests that patenting has become less valued as a
means to protect IPR in the industry.
In terms of global regional breakdown for 2014, China took the largest share when considering all patent
family applications, followed by Japan and Korea. However if just the "high-value" patent families are
considered a different picture emerges, with Japan as leader and the EU in second positon.
Figure 13 shows the data analysed in terms of seven main CPC classifications (see Table 7). Patents on
materials technologies are the largest single grouping, followed by manufacturing processes. Both of these
grew strongly over the period 2000-2012. The increase in power conversion inventions is also note-worthy.
Figure 13b shows the regional breakdown for 2013. China has markedly high proportion of patents relating to
manufacturing processes, as might be expected for the world's largest producer of PV products. For the EU,
patenting on power conversion and on BIPV are relative strengths.
Finally, Figure 14 considers the PV materials categories. The strong growth in patents on organics (including
perovskites) and on DSSC materials is striking. In the 2013 breakdown, these two categories account for over
50 % of patent families in all regions except the USA. For crystalline silicon (mono- and poly-), the USA, EU and
RoW remain leaders, in that order.
32 There is a time lag of 4 years to obtain complete data for a given year.
33 CPC Y02E 10/549 includes perovskites, although these are hybrid organic/inorganic materials.
34 Patent documents are grouped in families, with the assumption that one family equals one invention.
20
Figure 10 Global trend in patent filings under PV related families per year.
Figure 11 Regional breakdown of patent families (high value indicates applications in two or more patent offices)
Figure 12 Trends in patenting under the main application groups for 200-2013
21
Figure 13 Regional breakdown for 2013 for patents under the main application groups.
Figure 14 Trends and breakdown of patents in terms of PV materials groupings.
Figure 15 Regional breakdown of patents in terms of PV materials groupings for 2013.
22
3.2 EU Policy and Programmes
3.2.1 Energy Union and the SET-Plan
The Energy Union sets out a strategic vision for the transition to a low-carbon, secure and competitive
economy in the European Union. It consists of five dimensions: security of energy supply; internal energy
markets; energy efficiency; decarbonisation of the energy mix; and research and innovation [24]. The Strategic
Energy Technology Plan (SET-Plan) is an integral part of this framework and aims to accelerate the
development and deployment of low-carbon technologies. The working group on photovoltaics involves
representatives of Member States, other stakeholders and the European Commission, and in 2015 it released
the "Declaration of Intent on Strategic Targets in the context of an Initiative for Global Leadership in
Photovoltaics" [9].This was followed in 2017 by a detailed implementation plan [25].
The European Technology and Innovation Platforms (ETIPs) were created to support the implementation of
the SET-Plan by bringing together EU countries, industry, and researchers in key areas. The photovoltaics
platform, ETIP-PV35 provides consensus-based strategic advice in the areas of research and innovation, market
development, including competitiveness, education and Industrial policy.
Also under the SET-Plan governance, the European Energy Research Alliance (EERA) aims to accelerate
technology development by cooperation amongst non-profit research institutes and universities on pan-
European programmes. The EERA PV joint programme36 focuses primarily on cost reduction of PV systems,
through enhancement of performance, development of low-cost, high-throughput manufacturing processes,
and improvement of lifetime and reliability of PV systems and components.
3.2.2 Horizon 2020

Horizon 2020 is the EU's financial instrument implementing the Innovation Union, a Europe 2020 flagship
initiative aimed at securing Europe's global competitiveness. In the period 2014-2017, 100 PV-related projects
and actions have been funded. Table 8 gives the breakdown of the different programmes in terms of the EC
financial contribution. Figure 16a shows the breakdown in terms of applications, with the area "flat plate
modules" is split into c-Si, thin-film and tandem technologies. Overall this category accounts for the bulk of
funding (58 %). The significant part dedicated to tandem cell and module concepts shows the interest in this
area. Furthermore of the 8 "tandem" PV projects, 6 use silicon wafers for the bottom cell, with 5 working on
III-V materials for the top cell and 1 on perovskites. Figure 16b shows the breakdown in terms of materials
technology (here tandem concepts are counted 50 % for the top cell and 50 % for the bottom cell material).
About a quarter of project EC funding is accounted for by crystalline silicon, and both III-V and CIGS thin-film
materials also have significant shares. The "other FET" category reflects ERC funding of basic science projects.
The groupings "OPV/DSSC" and "perovskites" are at the same level.
Table 8 Breakdown of programmes and EC funding for PV-related projects, H2020, 2014-2017.
Programme EC contribution % No. Projects Average per project

Research and Innovation Actions 50 009 287 36 13 3 846 868
European Research Council 28 817 654 21 18 1 600 981
Integrated Action 24 862 365 18 7 3 551 766
Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions 13 000 351 9 28 464 298
Small Medium Enterprise 11 379 829 8 28 406 422
Cost Shared Action 9 086 988 7 5 1 817 398
EURAMET 2 000 000 1 1 2 000 000
Total 139 156 473
35
http://www.etip-pv.eu/homepage.html
36
https://www.eera-set.eu/eera-joint-programmes-jps/photovoltaic-solar-energy/
23
Figure 16 Technology and application breakdown by EC funding for PV-related projects, H2020, 2014-2017
a) Application areas (flat plate is sub-divided into c- b) PV materials breakdown

Si, thin-film and tandem)
3.2.3 SOLAR- ERA.NET

SOLAR-ERA.NET is a network of more than 20 European RTD and innovation programmes in the field of solar
electricity technologies [26] and itself receives funding from the EU framework programmes for coordination.
It contributed to implementing the SET-Plan and aims to:
 initiate / support innovative, industry-led projects;
 improve cooperation between national RDI programmes;
 strengthen Europe‘s position in the solar sector.
Under the FP7 SOLAR-ERA.NET funded a total of 39 PV projects were funded. They represent a project volume
of MEUR 50 of which over half comes from public funding. Figure 17 shows the breakdown of the thematic
areas addressed. Compared to the directly-funded EU programmes, there is more emphasis on applied
research and demonstration, and less on low TRL research. The consortium has produced a useful collation of
the project description and budgets, but as yet no systematic information on the results and impact.
Figure 17 Distribution of projects funded by SOLAR-ERANER under the first call [26].
24
3.2.4 European Cooperation in Science and Technology (COST)
COST Actions are bottom-up science and technology networks with duration of four years. There is no funding
for research itself. Four current projects involve PV technology or are relevant to PV applications:
 CA16235 | Performance and Reliability of Photovoltaic Systems: Evaluations of Large-Scale
Monitoring Data (PEARLPV) 05 October 2017 - 04 October 2021
 MP1406 | Multiscale in modelling and validation for solar photovoltaics (MultiscaleSolar) | 07 May
2015 - 06 May 2019
 TU1401 | Renewable energy and landscape quality (RELY) | 16 October 2014 - 15 October 2018
 MP1402 | Hooking together European research in atomic layer deposition (HERALD) | 04 December
2014 - 04 December 2018
3.2.5 EIT Innoenergy

InnoEnergy was established in 2010 and is supported by the European Institute of Innovation and Technology
(EIT) as one of a series Knowledge and Innovation Communities (KICs). The InnoEnergy network includes 24
shareholders, as well as more than 360+ associate and project partners. It invests in businesses and helps
develop innovative products, services, and solutions. According to the information on its web site, it has
invested in at least 6 PV-related projects (see Appendix 1), although little information is provided on the
project results. The most recent notable investment was EUR 2 million in 2017 in Nexwafe (a Fraunhofer ISE
spin-off), for its kerfless wafer technology.
3.2.6 InnovFin
The European Investment Bank set up the InnovFin (EU Finance for innovators) financing tools to cover a wide
range of loans, guarantees and equity-type funding, which can be tailored to innovators’ needs. Two specific
investments in PV technology have been identified:
 In 2016 the European Investment Bank provided EUR 20 million of quasi-equity under the InnovFin
Mid Cap Growth Finance program to Heliatek (based in Germany) to help boost production capacity
of its HeliaFilm product. HeliaFilm is an organic photovoltaic solar film for integration into building
facades
 In 2017 the (EIB) awarded EUR 15 million to Oxford PV Germany GmbH under the InnovFin Energy
Demonstration Projects scheme to support the transfer of its disruptive perovskite on silicon tandem
solar cell technology from lab scale to commercialisation.
3.2.7 NER-300
NER 300 is a demonstration programme for CCS and RES projects involving all Member States. The programme
aimed to support a wide range of CCS technologies and RES technologies (bioenergy, concentrated solar
power, photovoltaics, geothermal, wind, ocean, hydropower, and smart grids). For the period 2021-2030 the
Commission has proposed a new programme called the ETS Innovation Fund.
The only PV project selected so far is the Santa Luzia Solar Farm, located near Lagos, Portugal. The nominal
capacity is 20 MWe and the technology is concentrator photovoltaics with Magsun TRK-60 modules (23 %
nominal efficiency at 800 suns). Maximum NER 300 funding is EUR 8 million. The final investment decision is
estimated for June 2018 with entry into operation in July 2019.
25
3.3 Other R&D Programmes
3.3.1 EU Member States
The 2017 SET-Plan PV Implementation Plan outlines the main member state activities in each of the priority
areas [25].
3.3.2 IEA Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme

The IEA Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme (PVPS) involves Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, China,
Denmark, European Union, Finland, France, Germany, International Copper Association, Israel, Italy, Japan,
Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand, Turkey and the
United States. Its mission is "To enhance the international collaborative efforts which facilitate the role of
photovoltaic solar energy as a cornerstone in the transition to sustainable energy systems". The PVPS tasks
don't involve research per se, but focus on bringing together and analysing information from the participants.
There are 8 ongoing tasks:
Task 1: Strategic PV Analysis & Outreach;
Task 9: Deploying PV Services in emerging and developing countries;
Task 12: PV Sustainability;
Task 13: Performance and Reliability of Photovoltaic Systems;
Task 14: High Penetration of PV Systems in Electricity Grids;
Task 15: Enabling Framework for the Development of BIPV;
Task 16: Solar Resource;
Task 17: PV for Transport.
3.3.3 USA
Sunshot is an initiative run by the US Department of Energy Solar Energy Technologies Office (SETO) with the
overall goal of making solar energy (PV and solar thermal) affordable for all Americans. The 2020 cost targets
for utility scale PV (USD 0.06/kWh) have already been achieved and focus has shifted to the 2030 goal of USD
0.03/kWh, as well as USD 0.04/kWh and 0.05/kWh for commercial and residential systems respectively. These
targets can be met with different mixes of technology, cost and performance.
The solar subprograms include:
 Photovoltaics;
 Concentrating Solar Power;
 Systems Integration;
 Soft Costs;
 Technology to Market;
 National Laboratory Research.
Table 9 shows the scope of the current photovoltaics sub-programmes, which include substantial investment
in research at the national laboratories and the National Center for Photovoltaics at the National Renewable
Energy Laboratory.
26
Table 9 US Department of Energy research programmes for PV
Programme Year Amount Objective

Announced Awarded
USD million
Photovoltaic Research and 2017 20 •Small exploratory projects
Development 2: Modules and •Significant improvements in the performance,
Systems (PVRD2) energy yield, manufacturability, and reliability of
completed PV modules as well as the
development of advanced methods for module
characterization and analysis
•Hardware and software solutions to facilitate
the rapid, safe, and cost-effective deployment
and commissioning of PV systems
Photovoltaic Research and 2016 17 Improvements to nearly every aspect of cell
Development (PVRD) design from grain boundary recombination and
module design from layout geometry to choice
of encapsulant can help to lower the cost of solar
energy.
Photovoltaic Research and 2016 2 Understanding of the optical, thermal, and
Development: Small Innovative electrical concerns associated with the
Projects in Solar (PVRD-SIPS) performance of completed modules
Physics of Reliability: Evaluating 2015 7 provide access to improved predictive models,
Design Insights for Component accelerated testing techniques, and more
Technologies in Solar 2 (PREDICTS reliable products that will ultimately lead to
2) reduced risk in long-term PV performance
SunShot National Laboratory 2015 110 advance PV cell and module technology as well
Multiyear Partnership (SuNLaMP) as prediction of PV module and system
performance.
Next Generation Photovoltaics 3 2014 14 10 projects, funding of the order EUR 1 million
each: 5 on perovskites, 3 on III-V materials, 1 on
OPV and 1 on DSSC
3.3.4 China
3.3.4.1 Top Runner Programme37

China’s National Energy Administration (NEA) launched the “Technology Top Runner Program” in 2015 to
prompt using high-efficiency PV products and to accelerate PV industry transformation. Initially Top Runner
projects were required to use mono-si PV modules with efficiency higher than 17 % or multi-si modules with
efficiency higher than 16.5 %. The overall scale of support is for installations amounting to several GW
annually.
Figure 18 shows a breakdown of technologies of winner bids in the 2017 phase. Notable points include: over
50 % bifacial products; over 80 % PERC /PERT; 19% n-Si. The latest phase is for 1.5 GW of solar capacity to be
grid connected by June 2019 and is reserved next-generation technology that has yet to enter mass
production.
37
Based on EnergyTrend (Taiwan) press releases
27
Figure 18 Breakdown of technologies of winner bids in the Chinese 2017 Top Runner Programme (in total 5
GW). Source: EnergyTrend, Taiwan.
Table 10: Chinese results for maximum efficiency (%) of thin-film solar cells and modules 2012-2016.
Year Si-based CIGS CdTe GaAs

Cell Module Cell Module Cell Module Cell Module
2012 12.06 8.94
2013 15.06 9.59 31
2014 16.07
2015 20 16.28 13.1 34.5
2016 20.33 12.6 17.33 32
3.3.4.2 PV Technology R&D38

● Crystalline silicon cell efficiency
China’s research level for crystalline silicon solar cell can be described as "leading" and "catching up" at the
same time. Top class is the lab research for polycrystalline solar cells. Trina Solar's PV Science and Technology
State Key Laboratory realised a world record of 21.25 % efficiency polycrystalline solar cell, while Jinko Solar
Co., Ltd announced 21.63 % efficiency for the same product. For monocrystalline solar cells, Trina joined
efforts with the Australia State University to develop a small size (2 cm²) IBC cell with lab efficiency of 24.4 %.
The efficiency of large size 156 mm x 156 mm monocrystalline solar cell independently developed by Trina
Solar reached 23.5 %, the highest efficiency for large size IBC cells. In addition, the Shanghai Institute of
Microsystem and Information Technology under Chinese Academy of Sciences achieved their highest efficiency
of large size HJT cell (156 mm x 156 mm) with 23.3 %.
● Thin-film research: Since 2011, efficiency of various types of thin-film solar cell has improved steadily
(Table 10).
● New type and concentrator cell efficiency: Solar cell efficiency for perovskites is over 22 %. The
highest efficiency for dye-sensitized solar cells certified by a third party is 11.9 %, with 14 % reported
in a paper. Polymer solar cell efficiencies remains at a lower level, and improvement on efficiency and
stability is the problem to be solved in the future.
38
Based on and adapted from IEA PVPS National Progress Report 2017
28
3.3.5 Japan PV Technology R&D
R&D activities are divided between the New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization
(NEDO), which promotes technology development towards commercialization, funded by METI, and the Japan
Science and Technology Agency (JST), which promotes fundamental R&D, funded by the Ministry of Education,
Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT).
NEDO has been promoting PV technology development consistently over the last 35 years. It manages a large
portfolio of R&D projects. Its PV Development Strategy (NEDO PV Challenges) was announced in September
2014 with a headline cost target of JPY 7/kWh (approximately EUR 0.06/kWh). It identified measures to
achieve target power generation costs as well as the development of recycling technologies. This cost target
has now become part of the "Energy/Environment Innovation Strategy" launched by Japan's Cabinet Office in
March 2016.
The National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), one of the largest public research
organizations in Japan, includes substantial activities on photovoltaics [27]:
AIST Renewable Energy Research Center (Fukushima)
 Crystalline Si, energy rating;
 Energy network.
AIST Research Center for Photovoltaics (Tsukuba and Kyushu)
 Improvement in cell and module performance: CIGS, CZTS, thin-film Si, organic TFs, DSSC, perovskites.
 Innovative solar cells: multijunction, quantum-dot, plasmonics, etc.,
 Module reliability and robust modules
 Calibration, measurement, PV system safety, maintenance, and diagnosis
NEDO manages two demonstrative research projects and three technology development projects based on the
NEDO PV Challenges, a guidance for technology development in which a target to realize the power generation
cost of JPY 14/kWh by 2020 and JPY 7/kWh by 2030 is set. Three technology development projects are
currently running:
 Development of Solar Power Recycling Technology (FY 2014 to FY 2018)
 Technological development for improvement of system performance and operation and maintenance
(O&M) (FY 2014 to FY 2018) and
 Development of high performance and reliable PV modules to reduce levelised cost of energy (FY
2015 to FY 2019). This budget line includes 19 projects under four main headings:
i. “Development of crystal silicon PV modules using advanced multiple technologies and high
performance CIS modules”,
ii. “Research and development of innovative new structure solar cells”,
iii. “Development of common components for solar cells and modules” and
iv. “Development of Common Fundamental Technologies”. Under the technology development,
development of high efficiency solar cell technology and development of fundamental
technologies for commercialization using pilot mass production line are carried out on
various types of solar cells such as crystalline silicon solar cells, II-VI compound solar cells
and organic solar cells.
In addition a “R&D project for international joint development of innovative technologies” is jointly conducted
with G7 countries since 2015 and research themes on new structure solar cells were adopted in 2016.
R&D activities administered by MEXT by the Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST):
 Photoenergy Conversion Systems and Materials for the Next Generation Solar Cells and
 Creative Research for Clean Energy Generation using Solar Energy
Under the project of “Technological development for improvement of system performance and operation and
maintenance (O&M) (FY 2014 to FY 2018)”, development and demonstration are conducted on technologies to
29
increase power generation amount by improving functions of BOS, technologies to reduce BOS cost including
installation cost. In 2016, under this project, NEDO started demonstrations on structure of PV systems and
ensuring electrical safety. In order to ensure safety against disaster risks, development of design method and
technology, demonstration test and research of facilities are conducted. Based on the knowledge acquired
through demonstration test, NEDO aimed to formulate a guideline for designing safer and more economical
ground-mounted PV systems by February 2019.
30
4 ASSESSMETN OF R&D PROJECTS WITH EU CO-FUNDING
Table 11 gives an overview of major39 EU-supported projects in Horizon 2020 oriented to PV technology
development. It includes a summary for the main technology goals stated in the description of work, together
with a note on main achievements based in the project available at the time of writing (end 2018). An estimate
of initial and final (or target) TRL is given as one measure of the impact of the work.
a) Wafer-based crystalline silicon
Three major projects are being supported:
 NextBase: Next-generation interdigitated back-contacted silicon heterojunction solar cells and
modules by design and process innovations
 DISC: Double side contacted cells with innovative carrier-selective contacts
 AMPERE: Automated photovoltaic cell and Module industrial Production to regain and secure
European Renewable Energy market
Both NextBase and DISC address TRL levels 3/4/5, aiming to developed innovative very high efficiency cells but
also with manufacturing processes with potential to be commercially exploited. Ampere has larger ambitions,
namely to bring to production the heterojunction technology developed over the last ten years in EU labs. The
EU supported this process in FP7, in particular with the HETSI, 20Plus and Hercules projects.
STILORMADE is a running SME project addressing commercialisation of an existing quarter-wafer cell concept
called iCell.
b) Thin-films
CIGS is being addressed in the Sharc25 project (super high efficiency CU(In, Ge)Se2 thin-film solar cells
approaching 25 % efficiency). ARCGIS-M addresses high efficiency CIGS with high manufacturability and runs to
November 2019.
The SWInG project targets kesterites. The information available suggests that the chosen technology route
(Ge-based kesterite) has not up to now brought a breakthrough in terms of efficiency (target is 15 %).
Another EU-supported project (also with international partners) called Starcell started in 2017 with an 18 %
target by 2019.
In the area of perovskites CHEOPS looks at single junction devices and tandems with silicon wafers. The
ESPResSo project has specific durability objectives for the cell and modules devices being developed.
Tandem Concepts
For silicon with III-V material top cells, two projects are running, both targeting a TRL level of 4: Nanotandem
on cells with GaS nanowires and SiTaSol looking at two different deposition/fabrication processes. The SME
project NanoSol addresses commercialisation of an existing prototype called SolFilm using Aerotaxy Naowires
on silicon.
The CHEOPS project is also addressing perovskite on silicon tandems. The partners include Europe's foremost
groups working in this area (Oxford PV, EPFL, CHOSE etc.).
d) BIPV
This area is being supported through several projects with a range of techno-economic objectives. PV-SITES
encompasses a number of facilitation activities (design tools, energy forecasting tools) as well as development
and demonstration of products at several sites. Two SME projects target specific products. In Advanced- BIPV
the company Onyx successfully developed two building façade products (Onyx is also a partner in PV-SITES).
SoTile is a 2nd phase project to develop a moulded tile and validate it on 18 roofs.
39
Here the term "major" refers to projects with over EUR 500 000 EU contribution.
31
e) CPV
Despite the difficulties in achieving competitive cost levels for concentrating PV technology, several projects
are active. The largest, CPVMatch, set ambitious goals (world record efficiency and a scalable fabrication
process). There are also several SME projects working on combined CPV – heating/cooling concepts.
CogemCPVT aims to take prototype concept closer to production. SOcool also takes an existing prototype
(SunOyster) for development in three niche product packages (electricity generation and thermal chillers).
REPHLECT targets an HCPV concept with a pilot line in Spain and a clone on Morocco.
f) Recycling
The CABRIS project aimed to improve high value material retrieval rates and re-manufacturing from recycled
materials. ELSi is working on the realisation of a pilot plant (TRL 8/9).
It is noted that these projects are relevant to the on-going CEN mandate M/543: standardisation request to
the European standardisation organisations as regards Ecodesign requirements on material efficiency aspects
for energy-related products. Both can provide relevant to the needed PV product specific standards, for
instance durability, disassembly and remanufacturing of PV systems.
32
Table 11 Major EU-funded projects under Horizon 2020 (status in December 2018)
Acronym Title Start/ Main Technology & Cost TRL TRL EC

End Date Objectives in DoW start (target) funding
€
SWInG Development of thin-film 01/06/2015 - Wide band gap thin-films solar 3 3
solar cells based on wide cells with 15 % efficiency on a 3 254 755
band gap kesterite absorbers 31/05/2018 laboratory scale and 12 % for a
mini-module prototype.
- Specifications for the synthesis
of high quality Cu2ZnXY4 absorber
as well as suitable back/front
contacts .
CPVMatch Concentrating photovoltaic 01/05/2015 CPV solar cells and modules 3-4 4?
modules using advanced working at a concentration ≥ 4 949 596
technologies and cells for 23/10/2018 x800 and with efficiency of 48 %
highest efficiencies and 40 %, respectively (current 4-
J cell record is 46 % @ 508 suns)
Sharc25 Super high efficiency 01/05/2015 Objective: conversion efficiency 3-4 3-4
Cu(In,Ga)Se2 thin-film solar CIGS towards 25 %, create a small 4 563 123
cells approaching 25 % 31/10/2018 area CIGS solar cell with an
efficiency > 24 % and a
monolithically interconnected
sub-module with an efficiency >
20 %.
Nano-Tandem Nanowire based Tandem 01/05/2015 - Demonstrate a tandem solar 3 4?

Solar Cells cell composed of a top pn- 3 561 842
30/04/2019 junction formed in III-V
nanowires and series connected
to a bottom pn-junction in
silicon, with > 25 % efficiency
- Scale-up: develop technologies
for arrays > 10 cm²
CHEOPS Production technology to 01/02/2016 - Scale up to single junction PK cell: 5
achieve low Cost and Highly modules manufactured in a pre- 4 3 299 095
Efficient phOtovoltaic 31/01/2019 production environment while
Perovskite Solar cells maintaining >14 % stable Tandem:
efficiency, area >15x15 cm2. 3 4
- Demonstrate low cost potential
(<0.3€/Wp)
- Develop PK-HJS tandems cells
(>29 % efficiency on 2x2 cm2, at
low cost (target <0.4€/Wp)
ADVANCED- New generation of BIPV-glass 01/04/2015 - Develop a new family of 7 8
BIPV with advanced integration products (Novel XL-BIPV glazing 1 887 121
properties 31/03/2017 units, with high-mechanical
resistance and high performing
vision glazing, based on PV thin-
film transparent panes
(transparency over 50 %).
- estimated selling price of175-
200€/m2
Cogem COGEM CPV - An innovative 01/06/2015 Develop the original HS 5? (7)
CPVTM Ceramic Heat Spreader prototype with new materials 2 098 456
within HCPV 28/02/2019 including in order to reduce
(extended) energy production costs of about
25 %, and an improvement on
the performance at least of 3 %.
- >40 year lifetime
33
€
PVSITES Building-integrated 01/06/2016 - Drive BIPV technology to a large 5 (6/7)

photovoltaic technologies market deployment by 5 467 612
and systems for large-scale 30/06/2019 demonstrating an ambitious
market deployment portfolio of building-integrated
solar technologies and systems
- High impact demonstration and
dissemination actions will be
accomplished in terms of cost-
effective renewable generation,
reduction of energy demands
and smart energy management.
SolTile A roof integrated solar tile 01/10/2016 - In Phase 1 Soltiles developed a 6 (9)
system to develop cost- moulded tile (patented) that can 1 542 733
effective distributed solar 30/09/2018 incorporate c-Si and TF
power generation technologies
(Phase 2 project) - Phase 2 aim is to re-engineer
the tiles for increased efficiency;
optimise the manufacturing
processes; establish compliance
with regulations; install and test
18 roofs for system validation.
SiTaSol Application relevant 01/05/2017 - Increase efficiencies of c-Si solar 3 4
validation of c-Si based cells to 30 % by combining it with 4 298 201
tandem solar cell processes 31/10/2020 III-V top absorbers.
with 30 % efficiency target - Prototype module with
efficiency > 24 %.
- Additional costs for the 2-5 µm
Ga(In)AsP epitaxy and processing
below 1 €/wafer (for module
costs <0.5 €/Wp).
- Demonstrate devices in a
industrial relevant environment.
NextBase Next-generation 01/10/2016 - IBC-SHJ cells with efficiency 3/4 4/5
interdigitated back- above 26.0 % and corresponding 3 800 421
contacted silicon 30/09/2019 solar modules with efficiency
heterojunction solar cells above 22.0 %.
and modules by design and - Development of a new
process innovations industrial manufacturing tool and
low-cost processes for a
competitive IBC-SHJ solar module
cost of < 0.35 €/Wp.
DISC Double side contacted cells 01/10/2016 - Target efficiencies >25.5 % on 3/4 to 5/6
with innovative carrier- large area cell and >22 % at 4 743 519
selective contacts 30/09/2019 module level
- Demonstrating pilot
manufacturing readiness at
competitive costs.
- Reduce non-abundant material
consumption (Ag, In), with an
enhancement of the energy yield,
with modern module design
ensuring outstanding durability
AMPERE Automated photovoltaic cell 01/05/2017 Setting-up of a 100 MW full-scale 5-6 7-8
and Module industrial automated pilot line in
Production to regain and 30/04/2020 production environment at the 14 952 065
secure European Renewable 3Sun fab (Catania) based on
Energy market silicon heterojunction technology
(HJT) developed within preceding
European projects (CEA-INES &
MBS platforms) .
34
€
iDistributedPV Solar PV on the Distribution 01/09/2017 - Develop affordable integrated
Grid: Smart Integrated solutions to enhance the
Solutions of Distributed 28/02/2020 penetration of distributed solar 2 706 940
Generation based on Solar PV (buildings) based on the
PV, Energy Storage Devices effective integration of solar PV
and Active Demand equipment, energy storage,
Management monitoring and controlling
strategies and procedures, active
demand management, smart
technologies and the integration
of procedures in the power
distribution system according to
market criteria.
- 5 demo sites (ES, DE, PL, LI, EE)
EU HEROES EU routes for High 01/09/2017 - To identify at least 7 existing N/A N/A
pEnentration of solaR PV into community energy projects that
lOcal nEtworkS 30/08/2020 illustrate current theory and best 1 230 558
practice on grid connection of
solar PV in the context of social
enterprise business models
- To support and analyse the
implementation of at least 7 pilot
projects informed by the
business models developed for
the project and working in
partnership with electricity
network operators.
SOcool SunOyster cooling (SOcool) 01/09/2017 - Develop three product packages 7 (8)
31/08/2019 (SOcool) consisting of the 1 398 478
SunOyster and selected thermal
chillers to create standardized
packages for the supply of
electricity, cold and heat for
commercial and residential
buildings
- Build up a pilot productionn and
start commercializing
CABRIS Implementation of a CirculAr 01/06/2015 - Retrieving up to 90 % of the (≥6)
economy Based on Recycled, high value raw materials: silicon, 7,844,565
reused and recovered 30/05/2018 indium and
Indium, Silicon and Silver silver.
materials for photovoltaic · Manufacturing of PV from the
and other application recycled materials achieving
lower cost (25 % less)
and at least the same cells
efficiency as conventional
processes.
STARCELL Advanced strategies for 01-01-2017 - device efficiency up to 18 % at 3? (5) 4,832,189
substitution of critical raw cell level and targeting 16 %
materials in photovoltaics 31-12-2019 efficiency at mini-module level, -
demonstrate CRM free thin-film
PV devices with manufacturing
costs ≤ 0.30 €/Wp
Eco-Solar Eco-Solar Factory - 40 % plus 01-10-2015 PV modules with optimised 4 (5/6) 5,642,708
eco-efficiency gains in the recovery, reuse and resource
photovoltaic value chain with 31-09-2018 efficient production methods.
minimised resource and Demonstrator modules specs:
energy consumption by • industrial size (60cells)
closed loop systems • less than 2 % degradation in IEC
61215
• 260 Wp for mc-Sis and 285 Wp
for sc-Si
• monitoring system for
identifying faulty panels and
repairing/replacing
• cost-competitive aiming for 5-8
ct/kWh
35
€
REPHLECT Recovering Europe´s 01/08/2015 - Develop new "near –market" 6 (8)
PHotovoltaics LEadership manufacturing lines for HCPV 1,633,601
through high Concentration 30-04-2018 receivers and an assembly line
Technology for HCPV modules
- Demonstrate migration of
manufacturing line to a pilot
satellite production centre
- Product quality certification
N.B. Basis is BSQ' 820X HCPV
technology and the new
generation 1000X prototype
NanoSol Accelerating 01-02-2016 - integrate nanowire III-V films 6 (8)
Commercialization of with Si devices 1,740,375
Nanowire Solar Cell 31-07-2018 - increase efficiency from 16 % to
Technologies 27 % on tandems
- prepare for large-scale
industrialization
N.B. Basis is Sol Voltaics (SE)
SolFilm product to transfer and
correctly orient GaAS nanowires
ELSi Industrial scale recovery and 01-05-2016 To recover >95 % of end of life 6/7 (8/9) 2 529 607
reuse of all materials from silicon-based PV modules;
end of life silicon-based 30-04-2018 materials recovered to be of
photovoltaic modules value and ready for reuse.
- Recover materials from 100
metric tonnes of PV-waste
- validate the ELSi process
economic viability with a
representative full scale unit
having an annual throughput of
968 metric tonnes of disused PV
modules, equivalent to 44,000
modules per year.
ARCIGS-M Advanced aRchitectures for 01-12-2016 Develop the CIGS technology 4 (6) 4 498 700
ultra-thin high-efficiency towards higher efficiency (up to
CIGS solar cells with high 30-11-2019 23 % for solar cells and up to 18
Manufacturability % for solar cell modules), by
using novel approaches in
passivation, patterning and
optical design
STILORMADE Highly efficient non-standard 01-01-2017 - Module eff. >19.5 % (>21.5 % 6/7 (9) 2 940 596
solar modules manufactured for PERC)
through an automated, 31-12-2018 - pilot production line of 15MW
reconfigurable mass (for BIPV and solar street lighting
production processes markets), then scale up to
delivering 30 % reduction in 60MW, and then 200MW
costs - BIPV: >18 % efficiency, tailored
design, cost <€4/W (prod. &
instal.), lifetime >25 years
- Street Lights: >18 % efficiency,
cost <€2000 / light unit, >12-hour
operation at average light
intensity of 100W, lifetime of
>25 years
SUNINBOX Portable SolUtioN for 01-02-2017 - market readiness of product 6 (9) 1 407 542
dIstributed geNeration in a ("plug & play" 12 kW system
BOX 31-01-2019 solar with a tracker), transported
(Phase 2 project) and stored in a standard
container)
- objective price of 4.25 €/W for a
12kW system, for electricity
<0.35 €/kWh)
SOLARSHARC SOLARSHARC - a durable self- 01-05-2017 Product is a patented coating 6 (9) 2 267 636
(originally clean coating for solar panels technology that uses silica nano-
EVERCLEAN to improve PV energy 30-04-2019 particles bonded in a polymer
but changed generation efficiency matrix to give a robust self-
for copyright cleaning coating:
36
€
reasons) - 25 year lifetime without
recoating
- repellent to water, dust, and
bio-fouling
- Cost <€10 per m2
- High transparency and anti-
reflective properties
ESPResSo Efficient Structures and 01-05-2018 - cell efficiency > 24 % (on 1cm²) (5) 5 412 657
Processes for Reliable and < 10 % degradation following
Perovskite Solar Modules 30-04-2020 IEC thermal stress cycle
- modules (35 x 35 cm2) with >
17 % efficiency and long-term
(>20 years) reliable performance
- façade elements demonstrating
a LCoE of ≤ 0.05€/kWh in
southern Europe.
37
5 TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT OUTLOOK
5.1 Cost Trends
The cost of PV electricity from a system depends on several elements (as for instance in levelised cost of
electricity calculations), but here the focus is on the investment needed for a PV system (Figure 19) and for the
module, as the main energy conversion component. Indeed this is also the most significant component,
accounting for up to half the total capital investment needed for utility scale systems (although less for
residential systems where economies of scale for installation are less and soft costs are higher).
a) Modules
Module costs have decreased dramatically over the last 20 years, with a learning rate of 24 % (the decrease in
price for every doubling of total installed capacity). Table 12 shows the June 2016 wholesale spot prices for
several technologies. These confirm a sharp decrease in prices over the period 2016-2017 (Figure 20).
According to ITRPV analysis, this is driven largely by increased manufacturing efficiency, with improvement in
energy conversion efficiency playing a lesser role. It should also be noted that many commercial products are
priced higher than these spot levels on a €/watt peak basis, but are competitive by offering features such as
higher efficiency (therefore less area and lower balance of system costs), bifaciality (potential for higher
overall power output depending on the reflected light at the rear side of the module), better actual energy
yield for the conditions at a specific location, improved reliability and degradation resistance, lower CO2
footprint etc..
Table 12 Wholesale spot prices for PV modules, without taxes
Technology Average High Low

€ € €
Poly Silicon Solar Module 0.25 0.36 0.23
Poly High Eff / PERC Module 0.29 0.39 0.26
Mono High Eff / PERC Module 0.32 0.48 0.28
Thin-film Solar Module 0.27 0.37 0.24
(source: PVInsights web site 6/6/2018, exchange rate $/€ = 1.15)
Figure 19 PV system cost breakdown for a utility-scale Figure 20 Trends in PV module spot prices for 2016/2017,
system (source: JRC elaboration of ITRPV 2017 data) also showing the component breakdown (source ITRPV
2017).
38
Concerning future module price trends, Figure 21 shows the historical data up to 2017 as a function of global
cumulative installed capacity40. The decrease rate (learning curve) over the previous ten years has been
steeper than the historical rate, adding further uncertainty to future projections. Nonetheless, based on the
capacity estimates from the IEA 2017 sustainable development scenario, the price range for 2030 would be
0.19 to 0.24 EUR/W and by 2040 would have fallen further to 0.09 to 0.19 EUR/W (corresponding to
cumulative installed capacities of 1 846 GW and 3 246 GW respectively). Whether the technology is still
crystalline silicon or thin-film or a combination of both is another matter.
b) BIPV
Cost information on building integrated PV products is less commonly reported. SUPSI perform an annual
survey in Europe [28] and Figure 22 shows the range of prices obtained (100 to 400 EUR/m2) for various
applications.
Figure 21 PV module cost reduction trends curve based on data for commercially available modules of all technologies
(source: JRC analysis of data from Fraunhofer PV Report and own sources)
Figure 22 BIPV costs according to the 2017 SUPSI survey: "The black bars represent the share of the costs that is avoided
because no conventional building material has to be used. The grey bars represent the true additional costs that contractors
need to spend in order to apply a PV functionality in their building skin. The total cost results from the sum of both. The
error bars show the full range (min-max) of all the different quotes we received"
40
This combines data for all commercially available modules, the recent spot price levels are set by crystalline silicon
products, and effectively these values set the benchmark for the market, independent of whether the technology is wafer-
based, thin-film or concentrating. Learning curve analysis for just thin-film products show a comparable reduction rate and
price levels, an achievement since the production volumes are more than an order of magnitude lower.
39
c) PV Systems
In January 2018 the price range for commercial systems was 0.61 to 1.26 EUR/Wp [3]. The world-wide average
system price for residential systems with installation, but without permitting or connection costs, was
reported as EUR 1.22/Wp, ranging from EUR 1.05/Wp in Europe up to EUR 1.38/Wp in the US.
In the framework of the JRC-EU-TIMES modelling work, long-term trends for the costs of utility-scale,
commercial and residential rooftop systems prices have been examined. Figure 23 shows projections of CAPEX
and OPEX for three deployment categories: utility, commercial and residential41. In this analysis a learning
curve approach was used, whereby the variation in costs is linked to the extent of deployment observed. This
has been done for several scenarios and the results are shown as maximum and minimum values that evolved
in the course of the simulations. Also included is the trend in system cost reduction foreseen in the SET-Plan
targets, which broadly corresponds to the highest learning rate (lowest cost trend) emerging form the model
scenarios.
Figure 23 Range of PV system and operating costs in the JRC-EU-TIMES models a) CAPEX and b) OPEX
(a)
(b)
41 For OPEX costs, the initial 2020 residential value is slightly below that for a commercial system. This may reflect that the
latter category spend less on programmed O&M.
40
5.2 Future Deployment Scenarios
The JRC-EU-TIMES model [29] offers a tool for assessing the possible impact of technology and cost
developments. It represents the energy system of the EU28 plus Switzerland, Iceland and Norway, with each
country constituting one region of the model. It simulates a series of 9 consecutive time periods from 2005 to
2060, with results reported for 2020, 2030, 2040 and 2050. The model was run with three baseline scenarios:
Baseline: Continuation of current trends; no ambitious carbon policy outside of Europe; only 48 % CO2
reduction by 2050
Diversified: Usage of all known supply, efficiency and mitigation options (including CCS and new nuclear
plants); 2050 CO2 reduction target is achieved
ProRES: 80 % CO2 reduction by 2050; no new nuclear; no CCS
In addition, a further 13 sensitivity scenarios were run. LCEO deliverable report D4.7 [30] presents the
scenarios and the overall results. This technology development report focusses on the 3 baseline scenarios and
the associated sensitivity runs for the high and low learning rates, considering the EU as a whole. Further
analysis including country breakdowns will be included in the technology market report.
For PV the specific inputs include: a) CAPEX and fixed operating and maintenance (FOM) cost trends, together
with learning rate values for three PV deployment options: utility scale, commercial (rooftop) scale and
residential scale (see section 5.1 above); b) Load factor: country-specific values are included for the solar
resource in terms of full load hours per year, as well as an upper bound on installed capacity.
Figure 24 gives an overview of the results for the three main scenarios. A notable feature is the large increased
in electricity production in the Pro-RES scenario (Res1), reflecting a deep electrification of transport and the
use of electricity to produce hydrogen, synfuels and other previously petrochemical-based products. Solar
(essentially PV) plays a significant role in all scenarios, and particularly in ProRes.
Figure 25 shows this in more detail by extracting the installed capacity values for PV and plotting these as a
function of time period. The installed capacity by 2050 in ProRes is almost 2 TW, and a factor of more than 4
above that in the diversified scenario. In terms of the type of PV deployment, Figure 26 shows a breakdown for
the diversified and pro-res scenarios. This follows the costs: the cheapest form (utility scale PV) dominates,
with a smaller role for commercial scale installations. In the current model configuration the more expensive
residential scale PV is not used. In this respect, it would be useful if the model could include a means of
accounting for the prosumer investment perspective, where the energy produced can be sold or used directly,
thus avoiding the costs of buying it.
In relation to the sensitivity to the assumed learning rate for cost decrease, Figure 26 shows the impact of the
high and low learning rate values on the level of PV deployment for the 2050 time period. It should be noted
that for these sensitivity cases the model applies the modified learning rates across all technologies, not just
for PV. For the diversified scenario, the high learning rate case produces a modest 8 % increase in PV capacity
for 2050 and the low value a 33 % decrease. The situation for Pro-Res scenario is more complex: counter-
intuitively, the high learning rate results in 33 % decrease in PV capacity in 2050 compared to the main
scenario. This occurs because other technologies (in particular wind) become even more competitive with the
high learning and take a larger share of overall production.
41
Figure 24 JRC-EU-TIMES model: distribution of power generation (TWh) by technology for the baseline, diversified (Div1) and pro-renewables (Res1) scenarios. Solar is represented by the
yellow segments; PV accounts for the vast majority of this and CSP for the remainder.

42
Figure 25 Growth of PV capacity over time in the baseline, diversified and Pro-Res scenarios.
Figure 26 Breakdown of the PV deployment categories for the a) diversified and b) pro-renewables scenarios.
a) b)
43
Figure 27 Effect of varying the PV system cost learning rate on PV capacity for 2050
5.3 Challenges
The 2017 SET-Plan Implementation Plan for PV gives a comprehensive picture of the technical challenges for
PV technology development (see Text Box 1). The following points are intended as supplementary to these.
a) For the mass- production market, price per W of cells and modules appears set to decrease strongly; indeed
the sector needs this to be truly competitive in the electricity market. This trend will further reinforce the fact
that "size matters" in manufacturing. Indeed PV modules are seen as amenable to mass production, given the
relatively low number of components and no moving parts. Also increasing levels of automation may help to
minimise the role of labour costs in production.
b) EU industrial policy: the recent call42 by German institutes and industry for a more proactive industrial
strategy on PV manufacturing is the latest in series of such initiatives. The 2017 RTD study report "Assessment
of Photovoltaics (PV)" 2016/17, identifies three pillars that can form a basis for such a strategy to rebuild the
EU's PV manufacturing sector, as shown in Figure 28. This distinguishes a mass market and a tailored market.
For equipment manufacturing and for inverters, the focus is on nurturing remaining strengths for the mass
market, while also aiming to lead in tailored products. For PV products themselves, for the mass market the
focus is on next generation technology, while also aiming to lead on tailored products.
c) Manufacturers are increasingly using long-term degradation rates as a marketing tool, and R&D roadmaps
target module "lifetime" values of 30 years and more. However as yet there are no standard tests to
substantiate such claims in reliable and transparent way. This is an issue of key importance to investors, as it
impacts directly on the expected financial returns. Efforts at EU level and in international cooperative efforts
such as PV-QAT should be reinforced to find robust and transparent procedures for addressing this issue, as
well as for rapidly resolving unforeseen degradation issues that may arise in danced technologies (as has been
done recently for PID and LeTiD phenomena).
d) The scale-factor can be also important for demonstrating advanced technologies and establishing market
credibility. The contrast is stark between the Chinese Top Runner Programme that encompasses several GW of
installations and programmes in EU and the USA at multi-MW level.
42
Fraunhofer ISE Presseinformation #14 Solarindustrie will deutschen Neustart – Nachhaltigkeitskriterien für PV-
Ausschreibungen gefordert, 25.5.2018
44
e) Standards: the on-going Ecodesign preparatory study has identified several topics that lack European or
international standards:
• Ex-ante calculation of energy yield of PV systems;
• Durability of modules;
• Durability of PV inverters;
• Dismantlability43 of PV modules;
• Disassemblability44 of PV systems;
• Remanufacturing45 of PV systems.
The PV community will need to find appropriate solutions to these in a relatively short-time frame.
Figure 28 Basis for a strategy to rebuild the EU's PV manufacturing sector (source: Study Report "Assessment of
Photovoltaics", Contract PP-02161-2014)
43
Dismantle: process whereby parts and/or materials are separated by mechanical, chemical, metallurgical or thermal
means, inter alia such that the item cannot subsequently be reassembled to make it operational.
44
Disassemble: non-destructive taking apart of an assembled product into constituent components, which can be re-
assembled
45
Re-manufacture: production process that creates products using parts taken from previously used products.
45
Text Box 1: SET-Plan PV Implementation Plan Priorities 2017
1. PV for BIPV and similar applications …… Therefore the cell processing needs to be scaled-up on an
industrial level and the cost needs to be reduced. New
The R&I activity on BIPV aims at developing a market pull
materials and the combination of two cell technologies need
approach for innovative and integrated PV solutions that
new interlayer development. Also the stability needs to be
will allow a faster market uptake of new PV technologies
enhanced (or maintained if already sufficient). In the end the
and a more intensive and multi-functional use of the
environmental impact of these new materials needs to be
available surface area in Europe, including quality and
evaluated including quality and reliability.
reliability. This requires a multidisciplinary approach and
close collaboration between the PV/BIPV and building 4. Development of PV power plants and diagnostics
sectors.
The aim of this activity is to develop and demonstrate
On the one hand, for BIPV it seems likely that thin-film business models and streamline the processes for effective
technologies (especially CIGS) are well suited. Therefore, a operation and maintenance of residential and small
combined development of thin-film PV and BIPV is commercial plants in order to keep the plant performance
suggested. On the other hand, BIPV solutions based on and availability high over the expected lifetime. Especially
other PV technologies can also offer attractive solutions. advanced monitoring is essential. Due to incompatibility and
Sub-activities cover bifacial applications and PV the accompanying extra costs this is often not done
installations on roads & waterways. according to good industry practices.
2. Technologies for silicon solar cells and modules with Aspects of energy system integration are included, but as an
higher quality integral part of the PV system.
Wafer-based silicon (c-Si) technologies have the largest 5. Manufacturing technologies (for c-Si and thin-film)
market share (>90 %) in the worldwide solar PV sector.
Further reduction of system and generation costs (LCoE) for
The main objective of this Activity is to develop and
silicon wafer based PV and thin-film technologies is strongly
implement advanced c-Si PV technologies for high-quality,
supported by the implementation of high-throughput, high
high-performance cells (≥24 %) and modules in high-
yield industrial manufacturing technology. This includes
throughput industrial manufacturing processes, including
production equipment (Capital Expenditure; CAPEX) and
(for the PV sector) new materials and production
material (Bill of Materials; BOM) costs as well as product
equipment. These products will serve as differentiator for
quality (efficiency and performance). Advances in this field
the European PV industry by means of significant
will strengthen the European manufacturing industry. The
efficiency benefits and better performance related to
introduction of new materials and cell/module designs
sustainability aspects and recyclability of modules (PV
enforces advances in the field of manufacturing
Ecolabel, Ecodesign and Energy labels). Through this, the
technologies, including the introduction of Industry4.0
European PV industry will be able to strengthen its global
(“smart factory”) in PV, and will also strengthen the
position.
European manufacturing equipment industry.
3. New technologies & materials
6. Cross-sectoral research at lower TRL
Crystalline silicon based solar cells as well as some thin-
With respect to high level R&D, European research labs are
film technologies are gradually reaching their theoretical
still the leading institutions worldwide. A closer cooperation
efficiency limit. The most promising approach (at least on
of these labs could help maintaining this position in order to
the short and medium term) to go beyond this limit are
support European industry with cutting edge research
tandem technologies. Concrete options are III/V-
results.
semiconductor or perovskite top cells on silicon bottom
cells. Another option is a stack of two thin-film cells. A On a topical level this activity covers all the other activities
third route is the development of cost-effective described above, with a focus on the low TRL-parts of the
concentrating PV (CPV). total R&I programs
The aim of this activity is to bring these technologies to an
economically feasible level. …
46
6 CONCLUSIONS
R&D Resources and Programmes
Europe retains a strong basis in research and innovation on PV technologies, but also faces strong and
increasing competition at global level. EU authors are involved in approximately 25 % of the annual output of
scientific articles. However while EU scientific output almost doubled from 2010 to 2014, it plateaued in the
period 2015-2016. In terms of patents, in 2014 the EU accounted for 22% of so-called "high-value" patent
family applications, although in terms of absolute numbers Asian countries (specifically China, Japan and
Korea) lead the way. For the EU, areas of relative strength include patenting on power conversion and BIPV.
With photovoltaics now recognised as becoming a major energy source by mid-century, Europe can continue
to develop and exploit these research resources and remain a global leader (but not the only one) in the field.
Indeed the SET-Plan PV implementation plan offers a coordinated approach, which could be further expanded
to embrace storage, digitalisation and market aspects.
The EU is currently supporting a broad range of projects relating to PV under H2020. Many of these projects
are running or have only recently finished, so insufficient information is available at this point to assess the
overall impact in terms of technology readiness level. However the following general observations are made:
- There appears to be scope for improved communication and coordination between the research and
innovation actions and the programmes for SMEs. Examples noted here include the work on
concentrating PV and on tandem concepts.
- In striving for higher TRLs, the issue of scale becomes a critical factor to achieving cost competiveness.
This applies not just to the bulk market for free-standing or roof-applied systems, but also to building
integrated products. It is not clear if some of the EU-supported projects targeting high TRLs have sufficient
resources to address this, particularly those requiring further technical development as well as pilot
manufacturing. Development of GW-scale demonstration programmes could be beneficial in adding
market-pull stimulus for advanced concepts.
- PV, like all renewables, inherently supports EU policy for long-term decarbonisation. However more focus
could be given to specific aspects such as circular economy aspects and socio-economic effects. In this
respect, more awareness of the "policy readiness level" of results could be useful. Pre-normative work on
standards needs to arrive at codes and procedures, in addition to providing supporting evidence. Socio-
economic studies relating to cost-effectiveness can best target the issues likely to be addressed in policy
impact assessments, for instance regarding the cost-benefit of different routes for large-scale PV
integration at utility scale and on the distribution network.
Technology Outlook
Wafer-based silicon technology is set to remain the predominant PV technology in the least in the medium
term. Chinese manufacturers already have module production costs as low as EUR 0.30/W (and current
wholesale spot prices even lower). This is accompanied by a major shift in production to PERC and bifacial
PERC cell architectures, bringing efficiency gains with relatively low cost changes to the production process.
Further cost savings should come from cheaper polysilicon via fluidised bed processes and smaller kerf losses.
Reduction of wafer thickness to save material costs is also an option, but thicknesses of below 80 µm
(compared to the current industry standard of 180 µm) pose challenges for automated handling in production.
Some additional cost reduction potential is envisaged for the non-silicon cost components. Intensive R&D is in
progress in Asia, Europe and the US, targeting not just efficiency and cost reduction but also improving
sustainability aspects such as energy pay-back time. While p-type cells continue to be optimised, in the mid-
term (2025+) analysts predict that n-type cells will become dominant. Already commercial available
technology options include PERT architectures, passivated contacts, heterojunctions and interdigitated back-
contact cells.
Looking further ahead, three basic options are available (and may also be combined):
 tandem devices to create a broader absorption window; here current research focus is on silicon +
perovskite and silicon + III-V materials, but the TRL level is still modest (about 4 to 5);
 improved contacting, minimising reflection and improving light trapping;
 spectrum adjustment.
47
For thin-films, both copper indium gallium diselenide disulphide (CIGS) and cadmium telluride technologies
have recently established cell efficiency records of 22 % or more. There is therefore an immediate technology
challenge to transfer these gains to modules at competitive cost levels. On the other hand silicon-based thin-
film technologies and kesterite face major challenges to increase efficiencies above 12 % and the market
outlook is not encouraging. CPV technology continues to progress but faces a major challenge to become cost-
competitive with other PV technologies quickly enough in order to reach substantial production volumes and
the associated economies of scale.
48
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50
APPENDIX 1 – LISTING OF EU-SUPPORTED R&D PROJECTS RELATING TO PV
Table: H2020 PV Projects receiving EU funding (status end 2017)
Project Project Project Title Call year Free Keywords Weighted EU Project Topic
Number Acronym contribution Code
637367 HyMoCo Hybrid Node Modes for 2014 solar concentrators, 1 485 000 ERC-StG-2014
Highly Efficient Light waveguides, nanotransfer
Concentrators printing, silver island films,
coalescence control,
surface plasmon polaritons,
hybrid modes
638133 ThforPV New Thermodynamic for 2014 Optical frequency- 1 500 000 ERC-StG-2014
Frequency Conversion and conversion, Photovoltaics,
Photovoltaics thermodynamic of
radiation
638857 CHROMTISOL Towards New Generation 2014 nanotubes, solar cells, 1 644 380 ERC-StG-2014
of Solid-State Photovoltaic charge-carrier separation.
Cell: Harvesting
Nanotubular Titania and
Hybrid Chromophores
639760 PEDAL Plasmonic Enhancement 2014 Solar Energy Systems 1 447 410 ERC-StG-2014
and Directionality of
Emission for Advanced
Luminescent Solar Devices
640868 SWInG Development of thin-film 2014 thin-film, photovoltaic, 3 254 755 LCE-01-2014
Solar cells based on WIde semiconductor, kesterite,
band Gap kesterite CZTSSe, wide band gap,
absorbers high efficiency, tandem
640873 CPVMatch Concentrating Photovoltaic 2014 Photovoltaics, high 4 949 596 LCE-02-2014
modules using advanced efficiency, III-V multi-
technologies and cells for junction solar cells,
highest efficiencies Concentrating
Photovoltaics (CPV), CPV
modules, spectrum
matching, advanced
materials, SiGeSn, wafer-
bonding, light management
641004 Sharc25 Super high efficiency 2014 Cu(In,Ga)Se2, highly 4 563 123 LCE-02-2014
Cu(In,Ga)Se2 thin-film solar efficient, novel PV
cells approaching 25 % concepts, towards
theoretical limits, thin-film
solar cell
641023 Nano-Tandem Nanowire based Tandem 2014 photovoltaic, multi-junction 3 561 842 LCE-01-2014
Solar Cells solar cells, nano wires,
nano technology, III-V-
compounds
641972 CABRISS Implementation of a 2014 Photovoltaics, recycling, 7 844 565 WASTE-1-
CirculAr economy Based on critical materials, silicon , 2014
Recycled, reused and silver, indium, feed-stock
recovered Indium, Silicon
and Silver materials for
photovoltaic and other
applications
646554 PV PV FINANCING 2014 Photovoltaic, PV, financing 2 050 939 LCE-04-2014
FINANCING schemes, business models
for PV
51
647311 Sol-Pro Solution Processed Next 2014 Printed Electronics, Flexible 1 840 940 ERC-CoG-
Generation Photovoltaics Photovoltaics, Solution 2014
Processed Opto-Electronic
Materials, Research and
Product Development,
Organic Solar Cells,
Electrodes, Processing,
Devices
651970 POLYSOLAR A light weight, recyclable, 2014 Solar, photovoltaic, PV, 50 000 SIE-01-2014-1
tracking support system, support system, polymer
for solar photovoltaic membrane, tracking,
modules based on renewable energy, rooftop,
inflatable polymer building integrated
membranes
652490 FLOTA Floating Offshore 2014 floating PV systems for 50 000 BG-12-2014-1
Photovoltaic systems marine aquaculture
653184 MPerS Sustainable Mixed-ion 2014 Perovskite, Sustainble 195 455 MSCA-IF-
Layered Perovskite Solar lowcost Solar cell, 2014-EF
Cells
653296 CHEOPS Production technology to 2015 Perovskite, thin-film, 3 299 095 LCE-02-2015
achieve low Cost and Highly module, large area, high
Efficient phOtovoltaic efficiency tandem solar cell
Perovskite Solar cells
655039 NANOSOLAR HYBRID QUANTUM- 2014 Photovoltaics, Solar Cells, 158 122 MSCA-IF-
DOT/TWO-DIMENSIONAL Quantum Dots, Two- 2014-EF
MATERIALS PHOTOVOLTAIC Dimensional materials,
CELLS Graphene
655272 HISTORIC High efficiency GaInP/GaAs 2014 Multijunction solar cells, III- 159 461 MSCA-IF-
Tandem wafer bonded V/Silicon, Wafer bonding 2014-EF
solar cell on silicon
655852 Quokka A mature Quokka for 2014 171 461 MSCA-IF-
Maturation everyone – advancing the 2014-EF
capabilities and accessibility
of numerical solar cell
simulations
656658 NanoCuI Nano-Copper Iodide: A New 2014 copper iodide, p-type dye 195 455 MSCA-IF-
Material for High sensitized solar cells, 2014-EF
Performance P-Type Dye- sensitizer dyes,
Sensitized Solar Cells electrochemistry
657115 c-SiOnGlass Development of high- 2014 Solar cells, liquid-phase 171 461 MSCA-IF-
quality crystalline silicon crystallization, silicon thin- 2014-EF
layers on glass film, photoluminescence,
spectral response
659225 Crystal Solar Organic-Inorganic 2014 Photovoltaics, solution 251 858 MSCA-IF-
perovskite and organic processed semiconductors, 2014-GF
semiconductor films with Organic-inorganic
improved crystal properties perovskites, crystal
via reel-to-reel solution formation
coating; application to
photovoltaics and field
effect transistors
659747 HCAPT High Current All Printed 2014 printed electronics roll-to- 84 878 MSCA-IF-
Transistors roll transistors organics 2014-EF
oxides metal-organics
standalone devices optics
nanostructures energy
power heat current
crystallinity sustainability
morphology flexo electricity
52
661480 PlasmaPerovS A full plasma and vacuum 2014 Perovskite, solar cell, 158 122 MSCA-IF-
ol integrated process for the photovoltaic, plasma, 2014-EF
synthesis of high efficiency vacuum, nanomaterials,
planar and 1D conformal Carbon Nanotubes,
perovskite solar cells Graphene
662792 Suninbox Portable SolUtioN for 2014 Distributed generation, off- 50 000 SIE-01-2014-1
dIstributed geNeration in a grid energy, solar tracking,
BOX photovoltaics
666507 ADVANCED- NEW GENERATION OF 2014 BIPV, Sustainable, See-thru, 1 887 121 SIE-01-2014
BIPV BIPV-GLASS WITH Resistance, Dimensions,
ADVANCED INTEGRATION Sizes
PROPERTIES
673874 SBskin SBskin. Smart Building skin 2014 BIPV, Glassblock, Smart 50 000 SIE-01-2014-1
Building Envelope, Energy
Efficiency, Photovoltaics,
Innovative Products
673917 MLSYSTEM MLSYSTEM - heatable, 2014 photovoltaics, carbon 50 000 SIE-01-2014-1
integrated photovoltaics dioxide emission, energy
with insulated glass units efficiency, BIPV
674102 SOLARGE45 Towards a SOLAR enerGy 2014 solar energy high 50 000 SIE-01-2014-1
Efficiency of 45 % concentration
photovoltaics efficiency
module CPV system
advanced optics
manufacturing costs low
carbon clean electricity
industrialisation pilot plant
utility
674311 Cogem COGEM CPV - An innovative 2014 HCPV, Concentration 2 098 456 SIE-01-2014
CPVTM Ceramic Heatsprider within Photovoltaic, Ceramics,
HCPV (High Concentration Energy, Heatsprider,
Photovoltaic) Technology Convex-Lens, Glass, Solar
Technology
674628 RAYGEN A unique innovative utility 2014 Solar Energy, Concentrated 50 000 SIE-01-2014-1
scale solar energy Photovoltaics, Utility scale
technology that utilises a solar energy, Renewables,
field of low cost heliostat World record pv
collectors to concentrate performance, capital
sunlight onto an ultra- expenditure, multi-junction
efficient multi-junction solar, CPV.
photovoltaic cell array
679692 Eco-Solar Eco-Solar Factory - 2015 PV, crystalline silicon 5 642 708 FoF-13-2015
40 %plus eco-efficiency technology, solar cells,
gains in the photovoltaic repair, reuse, recycling,
value chain with minimised remanufacturing, module,
resource and energy disassembly, resource
consumption by closed loop efficiency, aluminum, silver,
systems silicon, LCA, LCC
679789 CONTREX Controlling Triplet Excitons 2015 Conjugated Polymers, 1 499 223 ERC-StG-2015
in Organic Semiconductors Organic Solar Cells
681881 SEEWHI Solar Energy Enabled for 2015 Solution-cast solar cells, 2 000 000 ERC-CoG-
the World by High- ultrahigh resolution 2015
resolution Imaging imaging, ultrafast imaging
of charge currents,
modelling of charge
generation and transport
683876 SoHo3X Introducing a novel concept 2015 hologram, CPV, TIR 50 000 SIE-01-2015-1
of solar photovoltaic
module in the market
53
683928 REPHLECT Recovering Europe´s 2015 Photovoltaics, HCPV, 1 633 601 SIE-01-2015
PHotovoltaics LEadership
through high Concentration
Technology
684019 Soltile A roof integrated solar tile 2015 Solar energy, distributed- 50 000 SIE-01-2015-1
system to develop cost- power, photovoltaics, roof-
effective distributed solar integrated, renewables,
power generation. cost-saving, zero-energy
building
684347 SUN4GREEN MAXIMISING SUNLIGHT 2015 GREENHOUSE, 50 000 SIE-01-2015-1
RESOURCES FOR COST, PHOTOVOLTAIC, CROP
ENERGY AND YIELD YIELDS, DUAL HARVESTING
EFFICIENT GREENHOUSES
684528 PVFINAL Photo Voltaic Fully 2015 Solar energy, photo voltaic, 50 000 SIE-01-2015-1
Integrated and Automated renewable energy
Line
687008 GOTSolar New technological 2015 Solar cells, efficiency, 2 993 404 FETOPEN-RIA-
advances for the third stability. 2014-2015
generation of Solar cells
687336 SiLaSpaCe Si based Layer Stacks for 2015 Additive Layer 997 466 COMPET-03-
Rear-Side Passivation and Manufacturing Techniques 2015
Enhanced Reflection of
GaInP/GaInAs/Ge Triple-
Junction Space Solar Cells
687409 EASY Pv EGNSS high Accuracy 2015 Photovoltaic maintenance, 935 973 GALILEO-2-
SYstem improving RPAS, EGNSS high accuracy, 2015
PhotoVoltaic plants RTK, EDAS, computer vision
maintenance
691768 PVSITES Building-integrated 2015 Market, deployment, BIPV, 5 467 612 LCE-03-2015
photovoltaic technologies system, demonstration.
and systems for large-scale
market deployment
695116 AMETIST Advanced III-V Materials 2015 Photovoltaics, High 2 492 719 ERC-ADG-
and Processes Enabling efficiency solar cells, III-V 2015
Ultrahigh-efficiency (50 %) solar cells, dilute-nitride
Photovoltaics solar cells, multi-junction
solar cells, Molecular Beam
Epitaxy, CPV, satellite solar
cells
696519 NanoSol Accelerating 2015 nanowire, photovoltaic 1 740 375 SIE-01-2015
Commercialization of
Nanowire Solar Cell
Technologies
699935 Crystal Single-Crystal Perovskite 2015 Solar Cells, Photovoltaics, 269 858 MSCA-IF-
Tandem Solar Tandem Solar Cells For High Perovskites, Crystal 2015-GF
Efficiency and Low Cost Growth, Single Crystals,
Shape Control, Epitaxial
Growth, Tandem Solar
Cells, Ultrafast
Spectroscopy, Advanced
Characterisation, Device
Physics
701104 ELSi Industrial scale recovery 2015 Photovoltaic modules, 1 011 843 FTIPilot-1-
and reuse of all materials recycling, end of life, 2015
from end of life silicon- separation, electrically
based photovoltaic driven processes, silicon,
modules valuable metals, raw
material recovery,
aluminum, silver, gold,
copper, waste
54
management, logistics
702629 R2R-3G Towards Roll-to-Roll 2015 R2R, 3G, Solar cells, TCO, 187 420 MSCA-IF-
Production of Third DMD, NWSC, GaAs, InP, 2015-EF
Generation Solar Cells light trapping, Monte Carlo,
solar cells
705113 2for1- 2 for 1: Quantum Dynamics 2015 singlet fission, ultrafast 78 182 MSCA-IF-
SingletFission of Singlet Fission spectroscopy, photovoltaic 2015-EF
solar cells
706094 TONSOPS Titanium Oxide 2015 Solar cells, Perovskites, 170 122 MSCA-IF-
Nanocomposites for Nanocomposites, TiO2 2015-EF
Scalable Optimized nanotubes, Thermoplastics
Perovskite Solar cells
706552 APPEL Approaching efficiency 2015 Photovoltaics, light- 195 455 MSCA-IF-
limits of perovskite solar emitting diodes, 2015-EF
cells by overcoming non- electroluminescence
radiative recombination
losses
706744 COLIBRI Carrier-selective contacts 2015 high efficiency 175 420 MSCA-IF-
for silicon photovoltaics photovoltaics, c-Si solar 2015-EF
based on broadband- cells, carrier-selective
transparent oxides contacts, tandem solar cells
707168 MatchForSola Mechanochemical 2015 photovoltaic, 131 565 MSCA-IF-
r Approach to Inorganic- mechanochemistry, 2015-EF
Organic Hybrid Materials
for Perovskite Solar Cells
715027 Uniting PV Applying silicon solar cell 2016 Photovoltaics, PV, Solar 1 986 125 ERC-2016-STG
technology to revolutionize cells, Thin-film,
the design of thin-film solar Cu(In,Ga)Se2, CIGSSe,
cells and enhance their CIGSe, CIGS, Silicon, Si,
efficiency, cost and stability PERC
715354 p-TYPE Transparent p-type 2016 Dye-sensitized solar cells, 1 499 840 ERC-2016-STG
semiconductors for renewable energy, artificial
efficient solar energy photosynthesis, solar fuel,
capture, conversion and electrochemistry
storage.
716792 SOFT- Solar Energy Conversion 2016 Soft interfaces 1 499 044 ERC-2016-STG
PHOTOCONVE without Solid State
RSION Architectures: Pushing the
Boundaries of
Photoconversion
Efficiencies at Self-healing
Photosensitiser
Functionalised Soft
Interfaces
717956 HyTile Sensitive integrated Solar 2015 photovoltaic, solar thermal, 50 000 SIE-01-2015-1
Hybrid Roofing for building integrated, energy
historical buildings. production, solar power,
hybrid, roof coverage, solar
roof
720887 ARCIGS-M Advanced aRchitectures for 2016 CIGS, thin-film solar cell, 4 498 701 NMBP-17-
ultra-thin high-efficiency ultra-thin, passivation, 2016
CIGS solar cells with high
Manufacturability
720907 STARCELL Advanced strategies for 2016 kesterite, CZTS, solar cells, 4 832 185 NMBP-03-
substitution of critical raw In, Ga, sustainable, thin- 2016
materials in photovoltaics film PV
55
721452 SOLAR-TRAIN Photovoltaic module life 2016 Renewable energy, PV 3 576 248 MSCA-ITN-
time forecast and modules, PV systems, 2016
evaluation reliability, service life
prediction, accelerated
testing, yield prediction
722651 SEPOMO Spins for Efficient 2016 Organic electronics, organic 3 826 024 MSCA-ITN-
Photovoltaic Devices based solar cells, organic 2016
on Organic Molecules semiconductors, spin
processes, charge transfer
states, upconversion,
donor-acceptor materials,
photon harvesting, triplet-
triplet annihiliation
724424 No-LIMIT Boosting Photovoltaic 2016 Photovoltaics 1 999 072 ERC-2016-
Performance by the COG
Synergistic Interaction of
Halide Perovskites and
Semiconductor Quantum
Dots
725165 HEINSOL Hierarchically Engineered 2016 Solar cells, colloidal 2 486 865 ERC-2016-
Inorganic Nanomaterials nanocrystal, COG
from the atomic to supra- heterojunctions, physics of
nanocrystalline level as a solar cells, solution-
novel platform for SOLution processed thin-films
Processed SOLar cells
726360 MOLEMAT Molecularly Engineered 2016 Photovoltaics, Perovskites, 1 878 085 ERC-2016-
Materials and process for Electro-optical properties, COG
Perovskite solar cell
technology
726703 SolTile A roof integrated solar tile 2016 Solar energy, distributed- 1 542 733 SMEInst-09-
system to develop cost- power, photovoltaics, roof- 2016-2017
effective distributed solar integrated, renewables,
power generation cost-saving, zero-energy
building
727272 ETIP PV - SEC Support to all stakeholders 2016 Photovoltaics, SET-Plan, 596 813 LCE-36-2016-
from the Photovoltaic ETIP, Innovation 2017
sector and related sectors
to contribute to the SET-
Plan
727497 SiTaSol Application relevant 2016 Photovoltaics, Si Tandem 4 298 201 LCE-07-2016-
validation of c-Si based Solar Cells, HVPE, 2017
tandem solar cell processes Semiconductor bonding,
with 30 % efficiency target Next-generation Si cells
727523 NextBase Next-generation 2016 c-Si photovoltaics 3 800 421 LCE-07-2016-
interdigitated back- 2017
contacted silicon
heterojunction solar cells
and modules by design and
process innovations
727529 DISC Double side contacted cells 2016 high efficient photovoltaic 4 743 519 LCE-07-2016-
with innovative carrier- cells, carrier selective 2017
selective contacts junctions, rooftop
instalations, non-abundant
material consumption,
renewable energy
production process
727722 PRINTSolar Printable Perovskite Solar 2016 Metal halide Perovskite 150 000 ERC-PoC-2016
Cells with High Efficiency Solar Cells, High Efficiency
and Stable Performance modules, Scaleup printable
modules
56
728378 RollArray A disruptive mobile 2016 Solar Power; Mobile Solar 50 000 SMEInst-09-
photovoltaic array that can Power; PV; Photovoltaic; 2016-2017
pack up to 20kWp of Emission Reduction;
generating power into a Renewable Energy; Green
domestic trailer and Energy; Efficiency; Remote
100kWp of generating Generation; Remote Power
power into an ISO 20-foot Supply; Off Grid Energy;
shipping container. Disaster Response;
728894 CDRONE Towards un-subsidised 2016 UAV Drone solar cleaning 50 000 SMEInst-09-
solar power – Cleandrone, automatic unmanned aerial 2016-2017
the inspection and cleaning vehicle
solution
734948 e-SPACE e-Solar Performance 2017 Solar power, PV, PV 50 000 SMEInst-04-
monitoring Analysis and data Collection monitoring, geostationary 2016-2017
for Energy Monitoring: an satellites, Sentinel
innovative solution based satellites, Copernicus
on measures correlation programme, Service,
between an autonomous Software as a Service,
ground-based solar sensor Cloud, energy grid,
and Earth observation data Operations & Maintenance,
Earth Observation
736314 EBFZ Float zone silicon from 2017 advanced technology, 20 000 SMEInst-01-
electron beam grown rods silicon, power 2016-2017
microelectronics,
photovoltaic, electron
beam, float zone
736795 PAWAME CONDUCTING A FEASIBILITY 2017 Energy-as-a-Service, off- 50 000 SMEInst-12-
STUDY ON THE VIABILITY grid communities, 2016-2017
OF AN INNOVATIVE renewable energy, solar
BUSINESS MODEL FOR energy, developing world,
BRINGING SOLAR ENERGY energy
TO REMOTE COMMUNITIES poverty
AND DEVELOPING
COUNTRIES
737447 PHYSIC Photovoltaic with superior 2016 Photovoltaics, cracks, 149 500 ERC-PoC-2016
crack resistance durability, optimized
residual stresses,
innovative pre-stressing
technique, increase lifetime
and energy production
737884 STILORMADE Highly efficient non- 2016 customised solar modules, 2 836 035 FTIPilot-01-
standard solar modules solar street lighting, 2016
manufactured through an building integrated
automated, photovoltaics, market
reconfigurable mass replication
production processes
delivering 30 % reduction in
costs
738842 SUNINBOX Portable SolUtioN for 2016 Distributed generation, 1 407 543 SMEInst-09-
dIstributed geNeration in a Photovoltaic energy, 2016-2017
BOX portable solar solution,
solar irrigation, plug and
play system, lower cost of
energy, off grid solution
743667 STORM SMART PLANT MANAGER 2016 Solar PV, Storage, Grid 50 000 SMEInst-09-
FOR UTILITY SCALE Support, Grid Ancillary 2016-2017
PHOTOVOLTAIC PLANTS Services, Predictability,
WITH STORAGE SYSTEMS Interoperability, Clustering,
Low carbon energy,
Security of supply, Internet
of electricity
57
746516 RECHARGE Photon-recycling for high- 2016 energy harvesting, wireless 248 063 MSCA-IF-2016
efficiency energy harvesting sensor, photovoltaics,
in GaAs photovoltaic GaAs, silicon
devices on silicon
746964 FERROVOLT For a better understanding 2016 ferroelectrics, domain 175 866 MSCA-IF-2016
and design of ferroelectric walls, perovskites,
photovoltaics: First- photovoltaics, electronic
principles study of optical transport, first principles,
absorption and charge- density-functional theory,
carrier transport at many-body perturbation
ferroelectric domain walls theory
in BiFeO3
747221 POSITS High Performance Wide 2016 solar cells, photovoltaics, 175 420 MSCA-IF-2016
Bandgap and Stable perovskites, silicon,
Perovskite-on-Silicon tandem, stability
Tandem Solar Cells
747422 FibrillarMICR Controllable Growth and 2016 Polymer solar cell, polymer 66 240 MSCA-IF-2016
OSTRUCT Charge Carrier Transport of transistor, polymer fibril,
Fibrillar Microstructure of charge transport
Semiconducting Polymers
in Field-Effect Transistors
and Photovoltaics
747599 PerovSAMs Molecular glues for 2016 perovskites, self-assembled 170 122 MSCA-IF-2016
perovskite materials monolayers, interfaces,
optoelectronics,
nanocrystals
750600 NAROBAND Environmental friendly 2016 colloidal quantum dots, 158 122 MSCA-IF-2016
narrow band-gap colloidal solar cells, solution
nanocrystals for processed opto-electronics,
optoelectronic devices thin-films
751159 SRec BIPV Smart Reconfigurable 2016 Photovoltaic energy, Power 172 800 MSCA-IF-2016
photovoltaic modules for converters, Reconfigurable
Building Integrated architectures, Maximum
PhotoVoltaic applications Power Point Tracking
751375 TinPSC Towards Stable and Highly 2016 Sn-based perovskites, Solar 185 857 MSCA-IF-2016
Efficient Tin-based cells, Stable, High power
Perovskite Solar Cells conversion efficiency
752117 PVMINDS Bottom-up PV module 2016 Photovoltaic Modules; 172 800 MSCA-IF-2016
energy yield and integrated Reliability Model; Failure
reliability model for site- Analysis; Energy Yield
specific design optimization Simulation; Design-for-
Reliability
756962 HYPERION HYbrid PERovskites for Next 2017 Photovoltaics, light- 1 759 733 ERC-2017-STG
GeneratION Solar Cells and emitting diodes, metal
Lighting halide perovskites
758885 4SUNS 4-Colours/2-Junctions of III- 2017 Highly mismatched alloy 1 499 719 ERC-2017-STG
V semiconductors on Si to materials, diluted nitrogen,
use in electronics devices multiband solar cells,
and solar cells multijunction solar cells,
silicon technology, solar
energy
760311 EverClean EVERCLEAN - A DURABLE 2016 Photovoltaic, buildings, 2 267 636 FTIPilot-01-
SELF-CLEAN COATING FOR solar energy, repellent 2016
SOLAR PANELS TO coatings, self-cleaning,
IMPROVE PV ENERGY energy saving, PV, BIPV
GENERATION EFFICIENCY
764452 iDistributedP Solar PV on the Distribution 2017 Prosumers, distributed 2 706 940 LCE-21-2017
V Grid: Smart Integrated solar PV, energy storage
Solutions of Distributed devices, effective
Generation based on Solar integration with the power
58
PV, Energy Storage Devices system, development of

and Active Demand effective solutions, active
Management demand management,
business and management
models
764786 PV- Development of innovative 2017 Self-consumption, grid, 2 501 739 LCE-21-2017
Prosumers4Gr self-consumption and regulation, support
id aggregation concepts for scheme, photovoltaic, solar
PV Prosumers to improve
grid load and increase
market value of PV
764805 EU HEROES EU routes for High 2017 Community solar, high 1 230 558 LCE-21-2017
pEnentration of solaR PV penetration PV, grid
into lOcal nEtworkS integration, sustainable
business models beyond
net metering, new solar
market segments
773639 INNO PV- Innovative Fireman's Switch 2017 photovoltaic systems, DC 50 000 SMEInst-02-
SWITCH for Photovoltaic Systems: switching device, 2016-2017
towards large-scale photovoltaic installations
production
774686 AlbaSolar Developing perovskite- 2016 Perovskite based 50 000 SMEInst-09-
based solar panels composite, solar panels, 2016-2017
photovoltaic
774717 PanePowerS Transparent Solar Panel 2016 PV panel glass, 50 000 SMEInst-09-
W Technology for Energy transparency; DSSC 2016-2017
Autonomous Greenhouses technology; Reliability;
and Glass Buildings energy savings; renewable
energy; low manufacturing
cost; energy efficiency
774973 SENSEE Replicating the SUN 2016 Solar simulation, LEDs, solar 50 000 SMEInst-09-
through affordable, spectrum, solar testing 2016-2017
efficient and accurate LEDs
776362 RadHard Ultra High Efficiency 2017 high efficiency radiation 3 072 973 COMPET-1-
Radiation Hard Space Solar hard four junction solar 2017
Cells on Large Area cells, semiconductor
Substrates bonding technology, BOL
efficiency above 35 %, EOL
efficiency above 31 %, ultra
large (200 mm) Ge wafers
777968 INFINITE-CELL International cooperation 2017 kesterite; c-Si thin-film; 1 318 500 MSCA-RISE-
for the development of tandem devices; cost- 2017
cost-efficient kesterite/c-Si efficient solar cells
thin-film next generation
tandem solar cells
16ENG02 ENERATE Advanced PV energy rating 2017 2 000 000
59
Table: SOLAR-ERA.NET Projects, status March 2018
No Acronym Title Topic End Budget
1 SLAGSTOCK Low-Cost Sustainable Thermal Energy Storage CSP 30/04/2018 1 273 286
Systems Made of Recycled Steel Industry
Waste
5 LIMES Light Innovative Materials for Enhanced Solar Glass 31/03/2017 1 931 696
Efficiency
9 BLACK Black Silicon and Defect Engineering for Highly Si 30/09/2017 1 244 391
Efficient Solar Cells and Modules
12 INTESEM Intelligent Solar Energy Management Pipeline System 31.12.2016 1 358 900
from Cell to Grid
13 NOVACOST Non Vacuum Based Strategies for Cost TF 30/09/2017 1 121 134
Efficient Low Weight Chalcogenide
Photovoltaics
36 NovaZOlar All-non-Vacuum Processed ZnO-based Buffer TF 31/08/2016 1 589 688
and Window Layers for CIGS Solar Cell
Technology
37 HyLighT Design, Development and Application of a BIPV 31/08/2016 239 149
Technologically Advanced System of Natural
Daylight and Artificial PV Lighting - Hybrid
Light Tube
39 InnoModu: Leadfree Modules with Low Silver Content and Si 31/03/2016 809 345
Innovative Busless Cell Grid
47 AER II Industrialization and System Integration of the BIPV 30/04/2016 587 241
Aesthetic Energy Roof Concept
49 SNOOPI Smart Network Control with Coordinated PV System 30/09/2018 1 029 883
Infeed
71 PV4FACADES Photovoltaics for High-Performance Building- BIPV 31/08/2016 2 607 307
Integrated Electricity Production Using High-
Efficiency Back-Contact Silicon Modules
77 ACCESS-CIGS Atmospheric Cost Competitive Elemental TF 28/02/2018 1 946 839
Sulpho-Selenisation for CIGS
78 PV me Organic PhotoVoltaic Systems Integrated in BIPV 30/06/2018 2 480 390
Manufactured Building Elements
82 PV2GRID A Next Generation Grid Side Converter with System 31/03/2018 199 056
Advanced Control and Power Quality
Capabilities
84 THESEUS Tandem High Efficiency Solar Cells Utilizing III- Tandem 30/11/2017 672 000
V Semiconductors on Silicon
90 U-light Ultra Lightweight PV Modules and their BIPV
Applications in Innovative PV Systems
Achieving Lowest Levelized Cost of Electricity
92 HESiTSC High efficiency silicon based tandem solar cell Tandem
PV module
93 InGrid High efficiency PV modules based on back- Si
contact cells and novel interconnecting grid
95 Monoscribe Roll-to-Roll Monolithic Interconnection of TF
Customizable Thin-film Solar Modules
102 HighCast High Performance Silicon Casting and Si
Wafering
108 EDITOR Evaluation of the Dispatchability of a Parabolic CSP
Trough Collector System with Concrete
Storage
112 APPI Atmospheric Pressure Processing for Industrial TF
Solar Cells
60
120 FunGlass FunGlass – Multi-Functional Glass for PV BIPV
Application
123 SITEF Silicon Fluid Test Facility Si
128 PROOF Competitive Industrialized Photovoltaic BIPV
Roofing
138 SolFieOpt Optimal Heliostat Fields for Solar Tower Power CSP
Plants
142 SPRINTCELL Sulfide-based Ink for Printable Earth-Abundant TF
Solar Cell
143 DINAMIC Dilute Nitride Based Concentrator CPV
Multijunction Solar Cells, with Efficiencies
Over 47 %
147 IPERMON Innovative Performance Monitoring System System
for Improved Reliability and Optimized
Levelized Cost of Electricity
150 HVolt-PV High Voltage IBC Photovoltaic i-Cells and Si
Modules
152 Bifalo Bifacial PV modules for lowest levelized cost of Si
energy
155 CNT-PV Carbon nanotube hole-transporting and ?
collecting layers for semi-transparent, flexible
and low-cost solid-state photovoltaic cells
160 HIPPO High-efficiency poly-Si passivated contact solar Si
cells and modules
419 Liquid Si 20 Liquid phase deposition of Functional Silicon Si
Layers for Cost-Effective High Efficiency Solar
Cells
428 FrontCIGS Re-designing front window in flexible CIGS TF
modules for cost-effective moisture protection
431 SIMON Silicone Fluid Maintenance and Operation ?
436 DURACIS Advanced global encapsulation solutions for TF
long-term stability in industrial flexible
Cu(In,Ga)Se2 photovoltaic technology
438 Refined PV Reduction of Losses by Ultra Fine Metallization Si
and Interconnection of Photovoltaic Solar Cells
441 ENHANCE Enhanced rooftop PV integration through BIPV
kinetic storage and wide area monitoring
450 PEARL TF-PV Performance and Electroluminescence TF
Analysis on Reliability and Lifetime of Thin-
Film Photovoltaics
61
Table: PV-related project supported by KIC-Innoenergy (source: data from KIC-Innoenergy web site, April 2018)
Project Scope Consortium Status

BIPV-Insight integrated software tool for Tecnalia, Enerbim, TFM Energía Available as a product
performance prediction of BIPV Solar Fotovoltaica, Bear Holding, BIM-Solar from Enerbim
and BAPV products. BV, Université Bordeaux 1, (2016)
Comsa Corporación
EFFIC A back-end interconnection Meyer Burger, Centre for No public info found
system for thin-films CIGS Concept in Mechatronics (CCM),
TNO, ECN, Avancis
EnThiPV Product that measures the CEA, Amcor, Disatech, Vinci - Patent request
permeability of high and ultra Technologies, ESADE, IREC, UPC, - Commercial helium
high barrier materials used for Tecnalia, KIT permeameter in 2013?
thin-film PV
Epicomm NEXWAFE’s kerfless wafer NexWafe, Fraunhofer ISE, ISC January 2017:
technology aims for a drop-in Konstanz, Ecosolifer InnoEnergy invests €2 m
replacement for Cz silicon in NexWafe
wafers
FASCOM Advanced concept of solar SIARQ, Sunplugged, Tecnalia, - Prototype made
streetlight. SECE - No public info available
POWCELL Powder substrate based S’tile, CEA, Karlsruher Institut Project complete
photovoltaic cell for thin-film für Technologie, INSA Lyon, No public info available
crystalline silicon & 15 MW SiLiMixt, Tesconsol
pilot line
62
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LCEO Photovoltaics Technology Development Report 2018: EUR 29916 EN

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LCEO Photovoltaics Technology Development Report 2018: EUR 29916 EN

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LCEO Photovoltaics Technology Development Report 2018

Name: Nigel TAYLOR

Name: Maria GETSIOU

Print ISBN 978-92-76-12540-2 ISSN 2600-0458 doi:10.2760/320016

Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2019

© European Union, 2019