Approaches All Qs

Name: ________________________
Approaches All Qs
Class: ________________________
Date: ________________________
Time: 370 minutes
Marks: 274 marks
Comments:
Q1.
Read the following descriptions of behaviour:
A Sarah is terrified of lifts because she was trapped in one for 5 hours. She cannot go
in a lift now.
B Jerry watches as his brother James is given sweets for cleaning their pet hamster’s
cage. The next day, Jerry’s mum finds Jerry cleaning out the hamster cage.
How can the behaviours described in A and B above be explained by learning theories?
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(Total 6 marks)
Q2.
In a study of tooth decay, researchers checked the dental records of 100 pairs of identical
twins. They recorded the number of fillings for each twin and found the following data:
Twin pairs with the same Twin pairs with different
number of fillings number of fillings
48 52
Use your knowledge of genotype and phenotype to explain the data in the table above.
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(Total 4 marks)
Q3.
Outline two features of the cognitive approach. Explain two limitations of the cognitive
approach.
(Total 8 marks)
Q4.
Read the item and then answer the question that follows.
Psychologists investigating theoretical models of cognitive processing study

human cognitive processing. They sometimes give participants problems to
solve then ask them about the experience afterwards. Typical participant
responses are as follows:
Response A: ‘There were too many things to think about at the same time.’
Response B: ‘I had to do one task at a time, then do the next task, and so on.’
Briefly suggest how each of these responses might inform psychologists investigating
models of human cognitive processing.
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(Total 2 marks)
Q5.
Read the item and then answer the questions that follow.
A behaviourist researcher studying reinforcement carried out a laboratory

experiment. He put a cat in a puzzle box. The cat was able to escape from
the puzzle box by pulling on a string which opened the door. Each time the
cat escaped it was given a food treat. At first, the cat escaped quite slowly,
but with each attempt the escape time decreased.
(a) Explain which type of conditioning is being investigated in this experiment?
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(2)
Read the item and then answer the questions that follow.
The data from the laboratory experiment are shown in the table below.
Time taken for the cat to escape from the puzzle box
Attempt Time taken for the cat to

escape from the puzzle box
(seconds)
1 63
2 60
3 45
4 37
5 18
6 15
7 5
8 3
(b) Calculate the mean time taken for the cat to escape from the puzzle box. Show your
calculations.
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(2)
(c) The researcher compared the time taken for the cat to escape at the first attempt,
with the time taken for the eighth attempt. He found that after learning had taken
place the cat’s escape time was: Shade one box only.
A 9 times faster than it was at the start.
B 11 times faster than it was at the start.
C 15 times faster than it was at the start.
D 21 times faster than it was at the start.

(1)
(Total 5 marks)
Q6.
Discuss two limitations of social learning theory.
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(Total 6 marks)
Q7.
A cognitive psychologist investigating how memory works gave participants the same
word list to recall in one of two conditions. All the words were of equal difficulty.
Condition 1: Ten participants recalled the words in the same room in which they had
learned the words.
Condition 2: Ten different participants recalled the words in a room that was not the same
room as that in which they had learned the words.
The following results were obtained:
Mean values and standard deviations for Condition 1 and Condition 2 in a memory
experiment.
Condition 1 Condition 2
Mean 15.9 10.6
Standard deviation 3.78 1.04
(a) Why are the standard deviation values found in the study above useful descriptive
statistics for the cognitive psychologist?
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(2)
(b) Outline one problem of studying internal mental processes like memory ability by
conducting experiments such as that described in part (a) above.
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(2)
(Total 4 marks)
Q8.
Rita and Holly are identical twins who were separated at birth. When they finally met each
other at the age of 35, they were surprised at how different their personalities were. Rita is
much more social and out-going than Holly.
Use your knowledge of genotype and phenotype to explain this difference in their
personalities.
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(Total 4 marks)
Q9.
Which one of the following statements is false? Shade one box only.
A Repression can lead to unpleasant memories causing distress
B Repression causes people to have difficulty accessing

unpleasant memories
C Repression involves people choosing to forget unpleasant

memories
D Repression involves unpleasant memories being kept from

conscious awareness
(Total 1 mark)
Q10.
In a laboratory study of problem-solving, cognitive psychologists asked

participants to solve problems presented in different colours of ink. They
found that it took longer to solve problems presented in green ink, than it did
to solve problems presented in other colours. They inferred that the mental
processing of problems is made more difficult when a problem is presented in
green ink.
Explain what is meant by ‘inference’ in relation to this study.
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(Total 2 marks)
Q11.
Which one of the following statements is false? Shade one box only.
A The Id is responsible for pleasure-seeking behaviour
B The Id is responsible for unreasonable behaviour
C The Superego is responsible for bad behaviour

D The Superego is responsible for guilty feelings
(Total 1 mark)
Q12.
Discuss the contribution of behaviourist psychologists such as Pavlov and Skinner to our
understanding of human behaviour.
(Total 16 marks)
Q13.
Dominic is unhappy and lacks confidence. He also thinks he is not very

good-looking and not very clever. He goes to a counselling therapist for
help. The therapist suggests that Dominic lacks congruence.
Outline what is meant by ‘congruence’. Explain one way in which Dominic might achieve
‘congruence’.
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(Total 4 marks)
Q14.
A phenotype is the result of the combined effect of ….
Shade one box only.
A neurotransmitters and environment.
B inheritance and environment.
C genetic makeup and neurotransmitters.
D genotype and evolution.

(Total 1 mark)
Q15.
Which one of the following statements about evolution is false?
Shade one box only.
A Evolution involves adapting to the environment.
B Evolution involves breeding of those best able to

survive.
C Evolution involves common genetic material between

species.
D Evolution involves changes in behaviour from one

generation to the next.
(Total 1 mark)
Q16.
Bradley has just started to play snooker and is keen to play well. He watches
carefully when his partner takes a difficult shot then tries to copy the same
shot. He thinks about how his partner was holding the snooker cue and
whether he can do the same.
Social learning theorists refer to the role of mediational processes in learning.

Referring to Bradley’s experiences, explain the role of mediational processes in learning.
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(Total 4 marks)
Q17.
Describe Wundt’s role in the development of psychology.
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(Total 6 marks)
Q18.
Briefly explain one strength and one limitation of the cognitive approach in psychology.
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(Total 4 marks)
Q19.
Outline the psychodynamic approach in psychology. Discuss one or more differences
between the psychodynamic approach and the humanistic approach.
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(Total 8 marks)
Q20.
A young woman says: “When I was 5 years old, I was at a party and a balloon burst with a
loud bang in my face. Even after all these years, I cannot bear to go into a room where
there are balloons. They terrify me!”
Use your knowledge of classical conditioning to explain why the young woman is terrified
of balloons.
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(Total 3 marks)
Q21.
Describe a procedure that behaviourists have used to study operant conditioning.
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(Total 3 marks)
Q22.
Describe the psychodynamic approach to explaining human behaviour. Discuss strengths
and limitations of this approach.
(Total 16 marks)
Q23.
A psychology student made the following observation to his teacher.
‘The behaviourist approach has been presented to us as helpful in understanding human

behaviour. However, most of the data have been obtained from research using animals.’
Briefly discuss the value of behaviourism in helping us to understand human behaviour.

(Total 5 marks)
Q24.
A psychodynamic psychologist wished to investigate the function of dreams. He asked five
friends to keep a ‘dream diary’ for a week by writing a descriptive account of their dreams
as soon as they woke up in the morning. He interpreted the content of their dreams as an
expression of their repressed wishes.
Referring to the study above, explain why psychodynamic psychologists have often been
criticised for neglecting the rules of the scientific approach.
(Total 3 marks)
Q25.
Outline key features of the cognitive approach in psychology. Compare the cognitive
approach with the psychodynamic approach.
(Total 16 marks)
Q26.
Explain one way in which social learning theory overlaps with one other approach in
psychology.
(Total 2 marks)
Q27.
It has been claimed that the humanistic approach has little to offer psychology. Outline
and evaluate the humanistic approach in psychology. Refer to at least one other
approach in your answer.
(Total 16 marks)
Q28.
Mr Benson is a primary school teacher. He has noticed that some of the children in his
class push to the front of the queue when it is time to leave the classroom.
Suggest how Mr Benson might use vicarious reinforcement to alter the behaviour of these
children. Explain your answer with reference to social learning theory.
(Total 3 marks)
Q29.
(a) What is meant by genotype?
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(1)
(b) What is meant by phenotype?
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(Total 2 marks)
Q30.
Marc is often frustrated and angry, but most of the time he keeps his feelings under
control. One day, during a meeting at work, Marc stormed out of the room and kicked the
drinks machine so hard that the glass screen broke.
(a) Suggest how a psychodynamic psychologist might explain Marc’s behaviour.
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(2)
(b) Suggest how a behaviourist psychologist might explain violent behaviour such as
that shown by Marc.
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(2)
(Total 4 marks)
Q31.
Describe the cognitive approach in psychology.
Evaluate the research methods used by cognitive psychologists.

(Total 16 marks)
Q32.
Read the article below.
Is your child watching you?
Research by social learning theorists into gender development has shown that
children learn many of their gender-related behaviours from others. There are many
examples of children copying the behaviour of adults, such as a young girl trying on
her mother’s make-up. Of course, there are many reasons why some adult
behaviours or actions seen by children are not copied.
Briefly explain what social learning theorists mean by modelling in relation to gender
development. Refer to the article above in your answer.
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(Total 2 marks)
Q33.
(a) Outline a psychodynamic explanation for the development of the superego.
(3)
(b) Explain how the superego might affect moral behaviour in the following situation:
Jackie sees a T-shirt that she really likes in a store. She is aware that there are no
security cameras nearby and thinks how easy it would be to slip the T-shirt into her
bag.
(2)
(Total 5 marks)
Q34.
Emily very much wanted to pass her ballet examination, but after she failed the
examination she did not seem upset.
Suggest one defence mechanism and use your knowledge of this defence mechanism to
explain why Emily was not upset after failing her ballet examination.
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(Total 2 marks)
Q35.
Outline one limitation of the psychodynamic approach.
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(Total 2 marks)
Q36.
Describe and evaluate the humanistic approach in psychology.
(Total 16 marks)
Q37.
What do social learning theorists mean by imitation?
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(Total 1 mark)
Q38.
When investigating the conditioning of behaviour, Behaviourists such as Pavlov and
Skinner collected quantitative data.
Outline what is meant by quantitative data. Give an example of quantitative data collected
by a psychologist who has studied conditioning.
(Total 2 marks)
Q39.
Give two reasons why Behaviourists do not collect qualitative data in their investigations.
(Total 2 marks)
Q40.
Give two assumptions of the cognitive approach. For each assumption, illustrate your
answer with reference to a topic in psychology. Use a different topic for each assumption.
(Total 4 marks)
Q41.
A student asked his teacher: “Why are there so many approaches in psychology?”
The teacher replied: “Because each has something different to offer to our understanding
of the human mind and behaviour. This means that every approach is unique.”
Discuss what makes the psychodynamic approach unique in psychology. Refer to other
approaches in your answer.
(Total 16 marks)
Q42.
Referring to two assumptions of the humanistic approach, explain why humanistic
psychologists have rejected the scientific method.
(Total 4 marks)
Q43.
Outline and evaluate social learning theory. In your answer, make comparisons with at
least one other approach in psychology.
(Total 16 marks)
Q44.
Explain two strengths of the behaviourist approach in psychology.
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(Total 4 marks)
Q45.
Describe the humanistic approach in psychology and discuss differences between this
approach and the psychodynamic approach.
(Total 16 marks)
Q46.
A psychologist carried out a study of social learning. As part of the

procedure, he showed children aged 4-5 years a film of a 4 year-old
boy stroking a puppy. Whilst the children watched the film, the
psychologist commented on how kind the boy was. After the children
had watched the film, the psychologist brought a puppy into the room
and watched to see how the children behaved with the puppy.
Outline what is meant by social learning theory and explain how social learning might
have occurred in the procedure described above.
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(Total 6 marks)
Mark schemes
Q1.
[AO2 = 6]
1 mark for recognising this as EITHER an example of classical conditioning/associative

learning/temporal learning/Pavlovian learning OR an example of operant conditioning.
Plus
1 mark for elaboration eg reference to EITHER elements of Pavlovian conditioning -

association between a UCS and a CS leading to a learned response to a previously
neutral stimulus (the elaboration may be embedded in description of Pavlov’s research)
OR avoidance learning and negative reinforcement.
Credit reference to the 2-process model.
Plus
1 mark for application to Sarah’s lift phobia EITHER eg being trapped has become
associated with lifts and now the lift alone causes the CR of fear OR avoiding lifts is
negatively reinforcing.
A correctly labelled classical conditioning diagram related to Sarah can be awarded both
the elaboration and the application mark.
1 mark for recognising this as an example of social learning/observational

learning/modelling/vicarious reinforcement/imitative learning.
Plus
1 mark for elaboration eg reference to aspects of social learning such as vicarious/indirect

reinforcement, identification with a role model, cognitive mediators (attention, retention,
motivation etc) (the elaboration may be embedded in description of Bandura’s research).
Plus
1 mark for application to Jerry’s behaviour eg the observer, Jerry, noted the reward
received by the model, James. This acted as vicarious reinforcement and he decided to
imitate James’s behaviour.
Q2.
[AO2 = 4]
Level Marks Description
Understanding of genotype and phenotype applied to the

2 3–4 data is clear. The answer is generally coherent with
effective use of terminology.
There is limited/partial understanding genotype and
phenotype applied to the data. The answer may lack
coherence. Use of terminology may be either absent or
1 1–2
inappropriate. Or – only genotype or phenotype has been
applied. Or 1 mark for basic understanding of genotype
AND phenotype.
0 No relevant content.
Possible Content:
• The genotype for tooth decay is the same for all the twin pairs as they are all
MZ/identical so for each pair their teeth would be expected to decay in exactly the
same way.
• The fact that some twin pairs have different decay to each other (52) indicates their
phenotypes differ and something other than genes affected tooth decay e.g.
diet/brushing teeth.
Expect to find this content embedded in the application.
Q3.
[AO1 = 4 and AO3 = 4]
Knowledge of two features of the cognitive approach is

accurate with some detail. Explanation of two limitations is
4 7–8 effective. The answer is clear and coherent. Specialist
terminology is used effectively. Minor detail and/or
expansion of argument sometimes lacking.
Knowledge of one or two features of the cognitive

approach is evident but there are occasional
inaccuracies/omissions. There is some effective
3 5–6
explanation of at least one limitation. The answer is mostly
clear and organised. Specialist terminology is mostly used
appropriately.
Limited knowledge of at least one feature of the cognitive

approach is present. Focus is mainly on description. Any
explanation of limitation(s) is of limited effectiveness. The
2 3–4
answer lacks clarity, accuracy and organisation in places.
Specialist terminology is used inappropriately on
occasions. OR just limitations done well.
Knowledge of at least one feature of the cognitive

approach is very limited. Explanation of limitation(s) is
limited, poorly focused or absent. The answer as a whole
1 1–2 lacks clarity, has many inaccuracies and is poorly
organised. Specialist terminology either absent or
inappropriately used. OR just limitation(s) answered at
Level 2.
Possible features:
• Behaviour is influenced by thoughts that can be both conscious and non-conscious

– internal mental processes.
• Schema are the mental representation of experience and knowledge and
understanding.
• Mental processes are information processing and the processing can be compared
to that of a computer.
• Models can be used to provide testable theories about mental processing and these
can be studied scientifically and inferences made.
• Cognition and biological processes can be integrated leading to cognitive
neuroscience as a way forward to understanding human behaviour.
• Methodology - use of controlled experimentation – inference about mental
processes on the basis of observed behaviour.
Possible Limitations:
• The approach can be seen as mechanical in regarding human thinking as

processing like the computer leaving little room for the irrationality seen in emotional
behaviours.
• The focus on detail of exactly what can be recalled by participants in controlled
environments means an understanding of everyday use of memory, for example, is
missing from explanations. This leads to issues of generalisation.
• The process of inference may be a 'leap too far' in explaining thinking.
• Issue of soft determinism and little room for processes other than internal mental
events affecting behaviour such as biology.
• Research findings indicate factors other than internal mental events as cause of
behaviour.
• Use of self-report as a method of data collection and the subsequent issues of
reliability.
• The focus on individual mental processes such as attention, leaves little room for
how these mental events work together.
Limitations may overlap, one may be taken as an elaboration of another. Award credit for
two limitations to the best advantage of the student.
Credit other relevant limitations.
Q4.
[AO2 = 2]
1 mark for each relevant application as follows:
1 mark for response A: processing is limited capacity (when performing demanding /

novel tasks)
1 mark for response B: processing is sequential (when performing demanding /
novel tasks).
Credit other relevant applications.
Q5.
(a) [AO2 = 2]
1 mark for operant conditioning.
Plus
1 mark for an explanation of how this is operant conditioning, ie performance

of desired response, pulling strings, results in a positive consequence, escape
and treat.
(b) [AO2 = 2]
2 marks for a correct answer 30.75 with workings (eg total time (246) divided
by number of trials).
1 mark for correct answer without workings.
1 mark for partial workings (eg total time (246) divided by…) with incorrect
answer.
(c) [AO3 = 1]
Q6.
[AO3 = 6]
Discussion of two limitations is clear and effective. The

3 5–6 answer is coherent and well organised with effective use of
specialist terminology.
Discussion of two limitations is mostly effective although

one or both lack explanation. The answer is mostly clear
2 3–4 and organised, with appropriate use of specialist
terminology.
OR One limitation is discussed at top of Level 3.
At least one limitation is presented. Discussion lacks

detail / explanation. Specialist terminology is either absent
1 1–2
or inappropriately used.
OR One limitation is discussed at Level 2.
Limitations – possible content:
• difficulty demonstrating cause and effect – although Bandura research

controlled variables and demonstrated behaviour was imitated it is difficult to
show cause and effect in real life
• sees behaviour as environmentally determined whereas some behaviours may
be innate
• mediating cognitive factors have to be inferred so cannot measure extent of
their influence
• SLT does not explain cognitive processes, leaving this to cognitive
psychologists
• can explain learning of outward behaviours, SLT is not so able to explain the
learning of abstract notions, eg fairness, justice etc which cannot be observed
directly
• credit comparison with other theories where presented in terms of a limitation.
Credit other relevant limitations.
Q7.
(a) AO2 = 2
2 marks for a clear and coherent explanation of the usefulness of the

standard deviation in this study.
1 mark for a weak or muddled answer in which the impact of the difference in
the SDs is alluded to.
• Useful to inform about the spread of scores.

• Indicates participant variables – as a group the people in Condition 1 are
quite different / are more variable than those in Condition 2.
Credit answers which suggest that the SDs can be used to look for similarity
or differences in variance.
(b) AO3 = 2
2 marks for a clear, coherent outline of a relevant problem.
1 mark for a weak, muddled or very limited outline.
Possible problems:
• Direct observation of memory is not possible and must be inferred from
the results / behaviour of the participants – this inference could be
mistaken.
• The task given is rarely how normal memory functioning occurs because
it is specifically designed to make measurement possible – the
researcher therefore collects data that is only related to memory
processing under experimental conditions.
Credit other valid problems.
Q8.
AO2 = 4
Knowledge of genotype and phenotype is clear.

Explanation of how these affect personality is clear. The
2 3–4
answer is generally coherent with effective use of
terminology.
1 1–2 There is limited / partial knowledge and explanation.

Knowledge is clear but the explanation is missing or
inaccurate. The answer lacks accuracy and detail. Use of
terminology is either absent or inappropriate.
Possible Content:
• Holly and Rita have identical genotype as they are MZ twins.
• They have the predisposition to develop the same personalities as each other
unless another factor(s) intervenes.
• For them to have developed different personalities over time, this must have
been influenced by being in different environments.
• Their phenotypes – personalities achieved – are different, presumably
because Rita was encouraged to be sociable and lively and Holly was not.
Q9.
[AO1 = 1]
Q10.
[AO2 = 2]
1 mark for an explanation of inference: going beyond the immediate evidence to

make assumptions about mental processes that cannot be directly observed.
Plus
1 mark for a sound application to the study with clear description about what is
being inferred (problem difficulty / more difficult processing) on the basis of what is
being measured (time taken to solve the problem in the different conditions). Award
1 mark only for answers where knowledge of inference and application are only
partially clear.
Q11.
[AO1 = 1]
Q12.
[AO1 = 6 and AO3 = 10]
Knowledge of contribution / s is accurate and generally well

detailed. Discussion is thorough and effective. Answer is
clear, coherent and focused on contributions to
4 13 – 16
understanding human behaviour. Specialist terminology is
used effectively. Minor detail and / or expansion of
argument sometimes lacking.
3 9 – 12 Knowledge of contribution / s is evident and there is some

reference to the understanding of human behaviour. There
are occasional inaccuracies. Discussion is apparent and
mostly effective. The answer is mostly clear and organised.
Specialist terminology mostly used effectively. Lacks focus
in places.
Knowledge of contribution / s is present. Focus is mainly on

description. Any discussion is only partly effective. The
2 5–8
answer lacks clarity, accuracy and organisation in places.
Specialist terminology used inappropriately on occasions.
Knowledge of contribution / s is limited. Discussion is

limited, poorly focused or absent. The answer as a whole
1 1–4 lacks clarity, has many inaccuracies and is poorly
inappropriately used.
Content, possible contributions:
• gave appreciation of how behaviour is learnt and environmentally determined

• large scale data gathering and generalisation allowed for development of laws
and principles
• gave us theories of learning and laws of learning – classical and operant
conditioning theories
• emphasised importance of consequences, ie behaviour that is rewarded likely
to be repeated
• emphasised role of reinforcement and punishment – strengthens or weakens
learning
• insistence on objectivity and study of overt behaviour – raising psychology’s
scientific status.
Credit other relevant contributions.
Discussion of possible contributions:
• strict scientific methods, objectivity, controlled research, verifiable findings led

to raised status of psychology but meant that many aspects of human
behaviour could not be studied
• implications, eg development of laws and principles enabled prediction and
control of behaviour and how these apply to human behaviour
• usefulness for aspects of human behaviour, eg therapy, classroom
management etc
• reductionist approach focusing on lower level of explanation, eg S-R links /
associations therefore lacks meaning when it comes to complex human
behaviours
• focus just on behaviour neglected the whole person, eg in treatment using
conditioning only
• strongly deterministic – human behaviour is environmentally determined –
what of free will?
• research mainly with animals therefore generalisation to human behaviour
could be limited
• discussion about the balance between reliability and validity in behaviourist
research
• ethical issues, eg as applied to control of human behaviour
• comparison with what other approaches offer in explanations of human
behaviour.
Credit other relevant strengths and limitations.
Q13.
[AO1 = 2 and AO2 = 2]
Outline of congruence is clear and coherent with

appropriate use of terminology. Application to Dominic is
2 3–4
appropriate with description of need to reduce the gap and
how to achieve this.
Outline is limited, ie shows some knowledge that

congruence involves different aspects of the self.
1 1–2
Application is vague. The answer as a whole is not very
clearly expressed.
Content / Outline:
• congruence is the fit / match / comparability / consistency between the

perceived self (how you see yourself) and the ideal self (the self you would like
to be).
Application:
• Dominic needs to close the gap / discrepancy between his perceived and his
ideal self
• gap can be reduced / closed if he develops a more healthy view of himself, or,
has a more achievable and realistic ideal self – unconditional positive regard
from the therapist is an example of a specific strategy here.
Q14.
AO1 = 1
Q15.
AO1 = 1
Q16.
AO2 = 4

The role of meditational processes relevant to Bradley’s
situation is clear and mostly accurate. The material is used
2 3–4 appropriately to explain Bradley’s experiences. The answer
is generally coherent with effective use of specialist
terminology.
The role of mediational processes relevant to Bradley’s

situation is evident. The material is not always linked
1 1–2 explicitly or effectively to Bradley’s experiences. The
answer lacks accuracy and detail. Use of specialist
terminology is either absent or inappropriate.
Possible content:
Credit mediational processes relevant to Bradley’s situation e.g.

• mental/cognitive processes occur between stimulus (Bradley’s observation)
and response (Bradley’s copying the behaviour).
• specific examples here are: attention, motivation, retention/memory,
assessment of own ability.
• Bradley is motivated to attend to the relevant information (is keen to play well).
• Bradley pays attention to the actions of the person he wants to copy (watches
carefully).
• Bradley tries to remember the action so he can do the same (thinks about how
he was holding the cue).
• Bradley considers his own ability to perform (thinks…whether he can do the
same.)
Credit other relevant information.
Q17.
AO1 = 6
Knowledge of Wundt’s role in the development of

psychology is generally accurate and mostly well detailed.
3 5–6
The answer is clear and coherent. Specialist terminology is
used effectively.

2 3–4 psychology is evident. There are some inaccuracies. There
is some appropriate use of specialist terminology.

psychology is limited and lacks detail. There is substantial
1 1–2
inaccuracy/muddle. Specialist terminology is either absent
or inappropriately used.
Possible content:
Credit mediational processes relevant to Bradley’s situation e.g.

• Wundt known as ‘the father of psychology’ – moved from philosophical roots to
controlled research.
• Set up the first psychology laboratory in Liepzig, Germany in 1870s.
• Promoted the use of introspection as a way of studying mental processes.
• Introspection – systematic analysis of own conscious experience of a stimulus.
• An experience was analysed in terms of its component parts e.g. sensations,
emotional reaction etc.
• His work paved the way for later controlled research and the study of mental
processes e.g. by cognitive psychologists.
Q18.
AO3 = 4
Strength:
1 mark for identification of a strength
Plus
1 mark for explanation/elaboration e.g. why it is a strength of the cognitive
approach.
Limitation:
1 mark for identification of a limitation
Plus
1 mark for explanation/elaboration e.g. why it is a limitation of the cognitive
approach.
Likely strengths: control/objectivity in research; use of models for ease of

understanding; links to neuroscience and consequent applications.
Likely limitations: still requires inferences about cognitive processes; mechanistic

approach to understanding human behaviour.
Q19.
AO1 = 3 and AO3 = 5
Outline of the psychodynamic approach is generally

accurate. Discussion of difference(s) is thorough and
4 7–8 effective. Answer is clear, coherent and well focused.
Specialist terminology is used effectively. Minor detail
and/or expansion of argument sometimes lacking.
Outline of the psychodynamic approach is evident. There

are occasional inaccuracies. Discussion of difference(s) is
3 5–6 apparent and mostly effective. The answer is mostly clear
and organised. Specialist terminology mostly used
effectively. Lacks focus in places.
2 3–4 Outline of the psychodynamic approach is present. Focus

is mainly on description. Any discussion of difference(s) is
only partly effective. The answer lacks clarity, accuracy and
organisation in places. Specialist terminology used
inappropriately on occasions.
Outline of the psychodynamic approach is very limited.

Discussion of difference(s) is limited, poorly focused or
1 1–2 absent. The answer as a whole lacks clarity, has many
inaccuracies and is poorly organised. Specialist
terminology either absent or inappropriately used.
Possible content – outline:

• The concept of the unconscious and role of unconscious in behaviour
• Tripartite structure of the personality – id, ego, superego
• Psychosexual stages of development
• Conflicts – Oedipus and Electra
• Defence mechanisms
• Psychodynamic approach to therapy – psychoanalysis
Possible differences – discussion:

• Negativity of Freud in relation to the positive outlook of humanistic psychology
• Emphasis on repressed thoughts and emotions, and past experiences (Freud)
versus emphasis on subjective experience of the present and personal growth
in the future
• Emphasis on unconscious drives/motives versus conscious awareness and
experience
• Psychic determinism (Freud) versus free will and rational choice
• Directive versus non-directive approach to therapy
Not all of this is necessary for full credit.
Q20.
[AO2 = 3]
Up to 3 marks for application of classical conditioning to the scenario.
Credit reference to the following points:

• one mark for reference to balloon as a neutral stimulus when ‘unburst’
• one mark for the reflex: normally a loud noise / bang causes fear
• one mark for the association between the balloon and bang / bursting
• one mark for the ‘new learning’ that balloons alone now elicit a fear response.
Example of a correct diagram:
Neutral = no
stimulus response
Ballo
on
UCS UCR
Loud noise = Fear
CS + UCS UCR
Balloon Loud noise = Fear
CS CR
Balloon = Fear
Allow a maximum of 2 marks for a correct diagram with no explanation.
Q21.
[AO3 = 3]
Up to 3 marks for a description of one way used by behaviourists to study operant

conditioning.
1 mark for each of the following points:
• how the researchers used a controlled environment / context / variables –

such as some detail of the Skinner box (do not credit naming Skinner’s rats
and / or Skinner’s box)
• pairing of specified stimulus and response / consequence eg rat presses lever-
receives food pellet
• reference to repetition– giving a food pellet each time.
Credit other relevant points such as schedules of reinforcement and procedure

leading to extinction.
Accept answers based on both positive and negative reinforcement (or avoidance)
and answers based on Skinner’s work, shaping of animals such as guide dogs,
token economies with humans.
Q22.
Marks for this question: AO1 = 6, AO3 = 10
Knowledge is accurate and generally well detailed.

Discussion / evaluation / application is thorough and
4 13 – 16 effective. The answer is clear, coherent and focused.
and / or expansion of argument sometimes lacking.
Knowledge is evident. There are occasional inaccuracies.

Discussion / evaluation / application is apparent and
3 9 – 12 mostly effective. The answer is mostly clear and
organised. Specialist terminology is mostly used
2 5–8 Some knowledge is present. Focus is mainly on

description. Any discussion / evaluation / application is
only partly effective. The answer lacks clarity, accuracy
and organisation in places. Specialist terminology is used
Knowledge is limited. Discussion / evaluation /

application is limited, poorly focused or absent. The
1 1–4 answer as a whole lacks clarity, has many inaccuracies
and is poorly organised. Specialist terminology either
absent or inappropriately used.
Please note that although the content for this mark scheme remains the same, on most
mark schemes for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) content appears as a
bulleted list.
AO1
Marks for accurate description of features of psychodynamic approach: the role of

the unconscious; psychosexual stages; the structure of personality; defence
mechanisms; the role of conflict; the procedures used in psychoanalysis. Credit
description of features provided by neo Freudians such as Erikson.
AO3
Marks for discussion of strengths and limitations of the psychodynamic approach.

Likely strengths: focus on emotional development that occurs in early childhood and
affects adult behaviours and personality; recognition of the lack of rationality in much
behaviour and how stated intentions do not always match actual actions;
development of a therapy for the treatment of anxiety disorders laying the foundation
for psychotherapy in modern psychiatry.
Likely limitations: not testable as concepts such as the unconscious are not easy to
operationalise; not falsifiable as the theory is one in which the explanation uses post
hoc reasoning, stating that adult disorder is a result of conflict in an early
psychosexual stage but the theory often cannot predict how a particular conflict in
childhood will affect adult behaviour; key concepts are not directly observable and
have to be inferred from indirect procedures such as dream analysis; problems of
generalisability due to lack of evidence in particular and reliance on individual case
studies; general lack of scientific rigour because of interpretation of information and
retrospective nature of psychoanalysis, limited evidence using the scientific method
and reliance of case studies; general pessimism of the approach in which the
individual always has to overcome repressed memories and overuse of defence
mechanisms; emphasis on sexual instincts seems out of date in modern society,
especially the imbalance in explanation for male and female development.
Credit comparison with other approaches only if the comparison makes clear the
way in which the value of the psychodynamic approach is evident or how the
psychodynamic approach is weakened by such comparison.
Credit use of evidence.
Q23.
Please note that the AOs for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) have
changed. Under the new Specification the following system of AOs applies:
• AO1 knowledge and understanding

• AO2 application (of psychological knowledge)
• AO3 evaluation, analysis, interpretation.
[AO1 = 2, AO2 = 3]
AO1
Up to two marks for knowledge of assumptions of the behaviourist approach,

behaviourist research and concepts. Content might include: behaviour learned from
experience / blank slate; classical and / or operant conditioning; unconditioned
stimulus; unconditioned response; conditioned stimulus and response; pairing /
association between the two stimuli; focus on stimulus-response associations;
consequences of behaviour; reinforcement (positive and negative); punishment;
repetition of response; scientific approach / experimental approach.
These may be embedded in the discussion.
AO2
Up to three marks to be awarded for discussion based on detail.

Has value because: success of behaviour therapy, including aversion therapy,
systematic desensitization; behaviour modification; scientific approach to
understanding human behaviour, etc.
Limited value because: human behaviour is more complex than animal behaviour;
consciousness, reflective thought and / or emotions affect how humans think and
behave; mechanically responding to a stimulus, effects of reinforcement and
punishment on behaviour may be more characteristic of animals than humans;
references to reductionism and determinism.
Credit use of relevant evidence / examples of behaviours / topic areas.
The question does not ask for reference to the stem. Full AO2 marks can be
awarded without reference to the stem and research using animals.
Q24.
[AO3 = 3]
Up to three marks for explaining how the psychodynamic approach as depicted in

the stem neglects the rules of science. Students may offer a brief elaboration on two
or more rules of science identified in the study as ‘neglected’ or may choose to
elaborate on a single one. Likely answers: interpretation of content of dreams open
to bias and subjectivity; no verifiable evidence; small sample; opportunity sample of
friends and implications for generalizability; qualitative data collected and
implications for statistical analysis; retrospective data / memory distortions – reports
written on waking; dreams are private experience and covert; problem of
replicability. Credit other possible answers if made relevant to the scenario, eg no
reference to a testable hypothesis.
Markers should be aware that some of the above points may overlap and should
look for a coherent answer for full marks.
Q25.
4 13 – 16 Knowledge is accurate and generally well detailed.

Comparison is thorough and effective. The answer is
clear, coherent and focused. Specialist terminology is

Comparison is apparent and mostly effective. The
3 9 – 12 answer is mostly clear and organised. Specialist
terminology is mostly used effectively. Lacks focus in
places.
Some knowledge is present. Focus is mainly on

description. Any comparison is only partly effective. The
2 5–8 answer lacks clarity, accuracy and organisation in places.
Specialist terminology is used inappropriately on
occasions.
Knowledge is limited. Comparison is limited, poorly

focused or absent. The answer as a whole lacks clarity,
1 1–4 has many inaccuracies and is poorly organised.
Specialist terminology either absent or inappropriately
used.
bulleted list.
AO1
Marks for knowledge and understanding of key features / assumptions of the

cognitive approach. Likely content: thought, both conscious and unconscious can
influence behaviour; thought mediates between stimulus and response; information
processing approach; mind works similarly to a computer; use of models; mental
processes can be scientifically studied; the human mind actively processes
information.
AO3
Marks for comparing the cognitive approach with the psychodynamic approach.
Possible comparison points: cognitive – people as conscious logical thinkers vs

psychodynamic – focus on unconscious thought (though conscious level is
acknowledged); cognitive – stages of intellectual / cognitive development including
moral development in early years through to teenage years vs psychodynamic –
stages of personality development, also early years through to teenage years;
cognitive – information processing approach and little focus on emotions vs
psychodynamic – focus on emotional life and childhood experience; cognitive –
damage to brain and mental processes as explanation of atypical behaviour vs
psychodynamic – repression and unconscious conflict; cognitive – people as rational
conscious thinkers vs psychodynamic – irrational; cognitive – explanations involve
active processing and an element of free will / soft determinism vs psychodynamic –
individual is passive and behaviour is determined. Accept comparisons based on
therapies and research methods, application to all topic areas and to all the debates.
Credit use of relevant evidence.
Q26.
[AO1 = 2]
Up to two marks for explaining one way in which social learning theory overlaps with
one other approach.
One mark for identifying a way in which SLT is similar to another approach. Likely
answers will refer to overlap with the behaviourist approach – learning of behaviour
and role of reinforcement; overlap with cognitive approach – mental processes in
learning. Accept any other possible answers such as overlap with the
psychodynamic approach – role of identification in gender / moral development.
One mark for elaboration / further detail or explaining limits of the similarity and / or
difference between the SLT and chosen approach.
Credit description of evidence or reference to topics as elaboration.
Q27.

effective. Other approach used effectively. The answer is
4 13 – 16

mostly effective. Some use of other approach. The
3 9 – 12
answer is mostly clear and organised. Specialist
terminology is mostly used effectively. Lacks focus in
places.

2 5–8 only partly effective. The answer lacks clarity, accuracy

bulleted list.
AO1
Marks for relevant knowledge of assumptions of the humanistic approach and

concepts. Most likely assumptions and concepts will focus on: concern with
individual’s subjective view and experience of the world and conscious experience;
focus on person-centred approach and uniqueness of the individual; holistic
approach; the individual has free will; the individual striving for self-actualisation;
scientific methods are inappropriate for the study of human minds; aim of
psychology is to help people reach their full potential; concept of self; conditions of
worth; unconditional positive regard; client-centred therapy; Q-sort / POI.
AO3
Marks for analysis, comparisons with other approaches, evaluation of the approach
including its contributions and application of knowledge.
Discussion may focus on comparison with one other approach, though students may
well broaden their discussion to include more than one. All approaches are
acceptable though the behaviourist approach, with its focus on objectivity,
determinism, reductionism and scientific and mechanistic approach, is likely.
Students may be stimulated to respond to the claim that the approach has little to
offer psychology as part of their discussion. Strengths may cover: promotes a
positive image of human beings; optimistic view – person can grow and change
throughout life; focus on subjective experience makes a valuable contribution to
understanding the individual – more sensitive than scientific methods; persons in
control of their lives – largely ignored by other approaches; contributes to
psychological theories eg mood disorders; effective in some treatments eg
counselling for stressful events – insight and control, milieu therapy. Limitations may
include: opposition to scientific approach and implications; use of qualitative
techniques; focus on individual, and problem of formulating general laws of
behaviour / idiographic approach; vagueness of terms – implications for testing; lack
of comprehensiveness; culture-bound values.
Q28.
[AO2 = 3]
One mark for a suggestion. Answers must include a role model and the opportunity
of seeing:
• positive consequences for the model(s) for performing the desired behaviour,
eg allowing the children in the queue to exit first and / or praising them / giving
them privileges / stars / edible rewards, in front of all the class, for their orderly
conduct.
• negative consequences for undesired behaviour eg show the class a video of
children being punished for pushing to the front of the queue.
Two marks for explaining the suggestion in the context of social learning theory.
Behaviour seen to be rewarded / reinforced will be repeated; or behavior seen to be
punished will be avoided; child learns by observing a model and consequences for
the model; child thinks that the consequences will apply to him / her on a future
occasion; role of cognitive processes, eg perception of a reward and expectation of
similar.
Q29.
(a) [AO1 = 1]
Genotype: refers to the genes an individual possesses / an individualߢs

genetic make-up.
(b) [AO1 = 1]
Phenotype: refers to the observable traits or characteristics shown by the

individual; these traits / characteristics are due to the combined effect of genes
and environment.
Q30.
(a) [AO2 = 2]
Up to 2 marks for application of knowledge of the psychodynamic approach to

Marc’s behaviour. There must be a link to Marc’s behaviour – either controlled
or violent – in the answer.
Likely points: use of defence mechanisms to cope with Marc’s anxieties /

uncontrolled id / weak superego – kicking the drinks machine; repressed
anger – keeping feelings under control.
Candidates might suggest Marc’s behaviour is a result of childhood trauma or
maternal deprivation or identification with a violent father.
One mark for a brief / muddled applied answer
(b) [AO2 = 2]
Up to 2 marks for application of knowledge of the behaviourist approach to

Marc’s behaviour. There must be a link to Marc’s behaviour – either controlled
or violent – in the answer.
Likely points: learning by association, principles of operant conditioning and /

or types of reinforcement of violent acts / violent acts have resulted in direct
rewards. Accept vicarious reinforcement as an explanation – violent
behaviours acquired after exposure to violent actions in the environment.
One mark for a brief applied answer or muddled reference to behaviourist

concepts in an applied answer
Q31.

3 9 – 12 Knowledge is evident. There are occasional inaccuracies.

mostly effective. The answer is mostly clear and

description. Any Discussion / evaluation / application is
Knowledge is limited. Discussion / valuation / application

is limited, poorly focused or absent. The answer as a
1 1–4 whole lacks clarity, has many inaccuracies and is poorly
inappropriately used.
bulleted list.
AO1
Marks for knowledge in detail of features and / or assumptions of the cognitive

approach. These might include: the requirement that cognitive processes must be
studied if human behaviour is to be understood; mental processes mediate between
the stimulus and response; human information processing is analogous to the way a
computer works – input, storage and retrieval systems, hardware and software; the
use of models to explain internal / mental processes; propose stage-based
processing; human behaviour should be studied scientifically.
Credit description of models to illustrate features.
AO3
Marks for evaluation of the strengths and limitations of methods used by cognitive
psychologists. Candidates are likely to refer to the use of laboratory-based
experiments. Credit evaluation of use of models and evaluation of methods used in
cognitive neuroscience.
Likely strengths which might be expanded by discussion: there is a high degree of
control over variables which means that a cause and effect relationship can be
established; variables are operationalised to make measurements accurate and
objective; standardisation of procedures means research can be replicated to
enhance reliability; as participants are usually aware they are participating there is a
measure of ethical treatment; participants are usually human rather than animal
research. Credit reference to field experiments and the inclusion of observation as
part of the research method in some instances with resulting increased ecological
validity. Credit reference to the use of case studies and their impact on theory and
the suggestion that these may be more scientific in cognitive psychology than in
psychodynamic.
Likely limitations which might be expanded by discussion: artificiality of the situation
impacts on ecological validity; ecological validity often affected by narrowness of
dependent variables so that sight is lost of behaviour as a whole; use of artificial
stimuli – eg nonsense words / ambiguous figures affect generalisability; awareness
of participation means people taking part may exhibit demand characteristics which
could affect reliability and / or validity of the research. Credit contrast with methods
used in other approaches where the relevance to strength or limitation is made
clear.
Credit use of evidence to illustrate discussion of strengths and limitations of the
research methods used in the cognitive approach.
Q32.
[AO1 = 1, AO2 = 1]
AO1
One mark for a brief explanation of modelling in gender development.

Likely answers: modelling is a process whereby a child / individual imitates the
(gender-related) behaviour of a chosen person – a role model.
AO2
One mark for application to the article.

The article suggests that the young girl models the behaviour of her mother by
imitating ‘putting on make-up’.
Alternative answer: [When people produce behaviours they are modelling them –
providing an opportunity for others to learn how to do something.]
Modelling is when an adult exhibits (gender related ) behaviour for a child to imitate /
copy, (AO1). In the article, the mother is modelling ‘putting on make-up’ and the
young girl imitates this behaviour by trying to do the same, (AO2).
Q33.
(a) [AO1 = 3]
Up to three marks for an outline which can include any of the following:
• occurs at the Phallic stage of psychosexual development

• arises through identification with same-sex parent
• and internalisation of his / her moral standards
• via resolution of Oedipus / Electra complex
• part of the tripartite personality
A full-mark answer must include reference to identification and

internalisation.
Although unlikely, candidates should be credited for other psychodynamic
explanations.
(b) [AO2 = 2]
Up to two marks for application of knowledge of the role of the superego in

moral behaviour to the example of Jackie. For full marks the answer should
refer to: the unconscious conflict between the id impulses - Jackie desires the
top; the demanding, threatening superego (Jackie does not steal the top (or
pays for it at the till) because of guilt even at the possibility of wrong-doing).
Can also give full credit to a discussion where superego fails to stop Jackie
stealing the t-shirt or where the ego ideal operates to reward good behaviour
ie not stealing. For full marks candidate should explain the internal /
unconscious conflict between two parts of the personality and make explicit
application.
Q34.
[AO2 = 2]
One mark for suggesting an appropriate defence mechanism.
Likely answers: rationalisation / denial / repression, etc.
One mark for explanation of the defence mechanism in relation to the scenario eg
Emily’s upset / the event / exam failure / the situation. For the second mark, the
explanation must match the named defence mechanism.
Possible answer: Rationalisation (AO2, 1). Emily may not see the examination result
as important as she was not fully prepared (AO2, 1).
Q35.
[AO2 = 2]
One mark for a brief outline of a problem / limitation and 2 marks for an elaborated
outline of a problem.
Likely points: not testable / not falsifiable / key concepts not directly
observable / problems of generalisability / lack of scientific rigour, etc.
Possible answer: One problem of the psychodynamic approach is that the key
concepts like the unconscious are not directly observable (1 mark). That means that
there is little objective evidence that can be used to support the approach (1 mark).
Q36.


3 9 – 12 mostly effective. The answer is mostly clear and

1 1–4 Knowledge is limited. Discussion / evaluation /

answer as a whole lacks clarity, has many inaccuracies
bulleted list.
AO1
Marks for description of the features of the humanistic approach. Features could
include how each person is unique and / or good. The subjective experiences,
feelings and thoughts of a person should be of importance to psychologists
(phenomenology). Focus on the importance of self and congruence. Self-
actualisation – every person has an innate tendency to reach his or her full potential.
Hierarchy of Needs. Concept of free will – able to choose and determine own
actions. Conditions of worth. Unconditional positive regard – the unconditional love
is essential to the development of a well-adjusted adult. Client- centred therapy –
client at the centre of their own therapy in solving their own problems. The
idiographic approach – emphasis on understanding the uniqueness of a person.
Concept of holism. Research methods used eg the Q-sort technique.
AO3
Marks for evaluation: The humanistic approach has been criticised for its rejection of
the scientific approach and its failure to use experiments to understand and predict
human behaviour. There is little objective evidence to support the assumptions
made by humanistic psychologists. Students may evaluate the approach in relation
to other approaches, eg the behaviourist approach which views humans as
passively responding to stimuli in the environment. Humanistic psychologists state
that humans are active agents – able to change and determine their own
development. However, this may be seen as idealistic. Students may contrast the
concept of free will with the deterministic features of other approaches, eg the
biological approach. The value of a person-centred approach may be compared to
the psychodynamic approach. Practical applications of the approach, eg motivation
in business world and client centred therapy. Credit other relevant points.
Q37.
[AO1 = 1]
One mark for knowledge of the term.
Imitation means copying behaviour (of a role model). Do not credit ‘copying’ alone.
Credit use of an example to describe imitation.
Q38.

[AO3 = 2]
One mark for knowledge of what is meant by quantitative data: data in numerical
form; data representing how much there is of something.
The second mark is for an example of a specific behaviour: such as Pavlov - a
measure of the amount of saliva produced by the dog; or Skinner, the time taken to
respond to a stimulus (to peck a button / press a lever / jump over a barrier / reach a
goal box etc) or number of responses to a stimulus (pecks, lever presses in a given
time period).
Q39.

[AO3 = 2]
One mark for each reason applied to the behaviourist approach. For two valid points
only - allow 1 mark. Likely answers will probably include: subjectivity of qualitative
data / open to interpretation; cannot be replicated; not open to quantification and
statistical analysis; specific so not amenable to generalization; not associated with
the scientific approach.
Credit relevant comparison to quantitative data collection.
Q40.
bulleted list.
AO1
One mark for each assumption clarified. Allow one mark for two identified. Likely
content: thought acts as meditational processes between stimulus and behavioural
response; mental processes can be regarded as information processing; computer
analogy / mind operates a similar way to a computer; the use of models to represent
mental processes; mental processes can be scientifically studied; the brain affects
cognitions and cognitive processes; the findings and methods of cognitive
psychology can be applied to other areas of psychology.
AO2
One mark for each application. Accept a wide range of topics.

For ‘thought acts as meditational processes between stimulus and behavioural
response’ relevant topics might be: trial and error learning vs. observational learning
or insight learning; depression.
For ‘mental processes can be regarded as information processing’ relevant topics
might be: memory.
For ‘mental processes can be scientifically studied’ relevant topics might be: stress
eg locus of control; memory.
For ‘the brain affects cognitions and cognitive processes’ relevant topics might be
forensic psychology.
For applications to other areas of psychology, relevant topics might be: child
development eg schemas; social cognition.
Q41.

Although the essential content for this mark scheme remains the same, mark schemes for
the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) take a different format as follows:
• A single set of numbered levels (formerly bands) to cover all skills

• Content appears as a bulleted list
• No IDA expectation in A Level essays, however, credit for references to issues,
debates and approaches where relevant.
[AO1 = 4, AO2 = 8]
AO1
Up to four marks for knowledge and understanding of key defining features of the
psychodynamic approach. Likely content: the role of the unconscious mind in
motivating behaviour; instinctual drives; psychodynamic conflict; the importance of
childhood experiences; the psychosexual / psychosocial stages of development; the
structure of personality.
Credit reference to methodology and therapies.
Credit description of relevant evidence up to one mark.
AO2
Up to eight marks for the discussion including analysis, evaluation and application of
knowledge.
Discussions should focus on the uniqueness of the psychodynamic approach and
comparisons with other approaches should be made in this context. Possible
discussion points in relation to other approaches: focus on power of the unconscious
mind vs. humanistic approach (focus on conscious subjective experience), SLT and
cognitive approach (internal conscious mediating processes); psychosexual stages
of development vs. behaviourism and biological approach (development as
continual process); conflict ridden person vs. humanistic approach (free individual
with potential for growth and fulfilment).
Credit relevant references to topic areas.
Discussions could include overlap and similarities with other approaches as well as
the defining differences such as: biological approach (inheritance of instincts and
evolution of behaviour); behaviourism (role of early experience); humanistic (person
centred and considers the individual); cognitive (study of the mind).
Maximum of 7 marks if there is no reference to other approaches

Mark bands
10 – 12 Very good answers

marks The answer is clearly focused on the uniqueness of the psychodynamic
approach in psychology and shows sound knowledge and understanding of
the approach. Discussion is full and includes thoughtful analysis. Most
references to other approaches are well developed and presented in the
context of the discussion as a whole. The answer is well organised and
mostly relevant with little, if any, misunderstanding.
The candidate expresses most ideas clearly and fluently, with effective use
of psychological terminology. Arguments are well structured, and coherent
with appropriate use of sentences and paragraphs. There are few, if any,
minor errors of grammar, punctuation and spelling. The overall quality of
language is such that the meaning is rarely, if ever, obscured.
7 – 9 marks Good answers

Answer shows knowledge and understanding of the psychodynamic
approach. Discussion is evident and the answer is mostly focused on the
issue of uniqueness although there may be some irrelevance and / or
misunderstanding. References to other approaches are apparent at the
middle and top of the band though these perhaps are not linked so clearly
to the discussion as for the top band. The candidate expresses most ideas
clearly and makes some appropriate use of psychological terminology. The
answer is organised, using sentences and paragraphs. Errors of grammar,
punctuation and spelling may be present but are mostly minor, such that
they obscure meaning only occasionally.
4 – 6 marks Average to weak answers

Answer shows some knowledge and understanding of the psychodynamic
approach. There must be some discussion for 5 / 6 marks. Answers in this
band may be mostly descriptive. There may be considerable irrelevance
and / or inaccuracy. Answers constituting reasonable relevant information
but without proper focus on the question are likely to be in this band.
The candidate expresses basic ideas clearly but there may be some
ambiguity. The candidate uses key psychological terminology
inappropriately on some occasions. The answer may lack structure,
although there is some evidence of use of sentences and paragraphs.
There are occasional intrusive errors of grammar, punctuation and spelling
which obscure meaning.
1 – 3 marks Poor answers

Answer shows very limited knowledge and understanding but must contain
some relevant information in relation to the question. There may be
substantial confusion, inaccuracy and / or irrelevance.
The candidate shows deficiencies in expression of ideas resulting in
frequent confusion and / or ambiguity. Answers lack structure, consisting of
a series of unconnected ideas. Psychological terminology is used
occasionally, although not always appropriately. Errors of grammar,
punctuation and spelling are frequent, intrusive and often obscure meaning.
0 marks No relevant content
Q42.
[AO3 = 4]
Up to two marks for two assumptions of the humanistic approach. One mark for
each assumption which will probably be embedded in the explanation.
Up to two marks for explaining why each assumption is at odds with the scientific
method. One mark for each explanation. Likely content:
Each person can exercise free will – explanation might focus on principle of
determinism in science.
Each person is a rational and conscious being and not dominated by unconscious
primitive instincts – explanation might focus on the principles of determinism and
reductionism in science.
A person’s subjective experience and understanding of the world is of greater
importance to understanding the person than objective reality – explanation might
focus on empiricism in science.
Humans should be viewed as a whole and not reduced to component parts –
explanation might focus on reductionism in science.
Humans strive towards achieving self-actualisation- explanation might focus on the
need for objectivity in science eg operational definition vs. subjectively defined;
hypothetical construct; no objective measure.
Each person is unique – explanation might focus on general laws of behaviour /
nomothetic approach.
Accept other valid answers such as unconditional positive regard / congruence / fully
functioning person / client centre therapy / focus on the self.
Q43.

effective. Effective comparison with at least one other
4 13 – 16
approach. The answer is clear, coherent and focused.

Some comparison with at least one other approach.
3 9 – 12
mostly effective. The answer is mostly clear and


bulleted list.
AO1
Marks for relevant knowledge and understanding of social learning theory. This most
likely will focus on the key assumptions of the approach: learning in a social context;
observational learning; imitation; identification; role of models, characteristics of
models; consequences of behaviour for models; vicarious reinforcement /
punishment, distinction between learning and performance; cognitive factors in
learning (for example attention, retention). Credit reference to methodology and use
of appropriate terminology eg reciprocal determinism, personal agency, self-efficacy,
etc.
AO3
Marks for analysis, comparisons with other approaches, evaluation of the approach
including its contributions and application of knowledge.
Discussion may focus on comparison with one other approach – though candidates
may well broaden their discussion to include more than one. All approaches are
acceptable but most likely will be the behaviourist approach. Strengths may cover:
the role of cognition in learning; the learning of complex social behaviours; the use
of the experimental method and focus on humans in research; applications to health
psychology, sport psychology and therapies requiring increase in self-efficacy.
Limitations may include: neglects the role of biology / heredity / maturation;
methodological aspects of research where linked to social learning theory; does not
explain the learning of abstract ideas.
Q44.
[AO2 = 4]
Up to two marks each for knowledge and explanation of each relevant strength.
Maximum of one mark for knowledge of one or two strength(s) / feature(s) that are
not explained or elaborated appropriately.
Likely answers: focus on experimental methodology; scientific aspect of the

approach; universal laws of learning; provides explanations for a range of
behaviours eg development; provides explanations for a specified behaviour eg
phobias; contributes to the nature-nurture debate; approach can be applied to
behavioural problems eg token economy etc.
Q45.
4 13 – 16 Knowledge is accurate and generally well detailed.

Discussion / evaluation / application / reference to
differences is thorough and effective. The answer is

Discussion / evaluation / application / reference to
3 9 – 12 differences is apparent and mostly effective. The answer
is mostly clear and organised. Specialist terminology is
mostly used effectively. Lacks focus in places.


bulleted list.
AO1
Features of the humanistic approach in psychology could include the concept of free
will; focus on self and self-concept; personal growth; (un)conditional positive regard;
each person is unique and should be treated as such; study of subjective
experience; client related therapy; Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs; self-actualisation.
Credit reference to Rogers; Credit reference to research methods used e.g.open-
ended interviews.
AO3
Discussion should focus on differences between the humanistic approach and the
psychodynamic approach. Likely differences: The humanistic approach focuses on
the present / future versus the retrospective accounts of the psychodynamic
approach; humanistic psychologists are more positive in their outlook of human
behaviour versus the negative views of the psychodynamic approach; humanistic
psychologists focus on the person’s conscious mind whereas the psychodynamic
approach focuses on the unconscious mind; humanistic psychologists focus on eg
Maslow’s drive for self-actualisation versus the psychodynamic view of motivational /
underlying physiological forces; the humanistic approach is based on free-will
versus the psychodynamic focus on determinism; different approaches to therapy
(directive versus client-centred).
Q46.
[AO1 = 2 and AO2 = 4]
Outline of social learning is generally detailed, clear and

coherent. Explanation of how social learning might have
3 5–6 occurred in the procedure is thorough with aspects of
social learning applied appropriately to the context. There
is effective use of terminology.
Outline of social learning is mostly clear but some detail is

missing. Explanation of how social learning might have
2 3–4
occurred in the procedure is mostly sound and appropriate.
There is some effective use of terminology.
Outline of social learning lacks detail and clarity.

Explanation of how social learning might have occurred in
1 1–2
the procedure is limited. Terminology is either minimal,
Content – outline:
• learning that involves observation, imitation / copying / modelling, identification

and vicarious reinforcement
• acknowledges role of cognition in learning, eg attention, motivation etc.
Possible applications:
• in the procedure children observed the actions of the boy in the film
• the psychologist exposed the children to a role model, the boy
• using role model / boy of the same age encouraged identification
• after exposure the children would model / imitate the boy’s behaviour, stroking
the puppy
• the psychologist’s comments acted as vicarious reinforcement making learning
more likely
• the learning might not be outwardly demonstrated but could still have been
internalised (because this is social learning and therefore need not be overtly
demonstrated at the time).
Credit other relevant applications.

Examiner reports
Q1.
This was answered very well by many students who demonstrated a good understanding
of both classical conditioning and Social Learning Theory and could apply the
concepts/features associated with these effectively to the novel behaviours in the stem.
Some responses did have muddled reference to the neutral stimulus (NS), the
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the conditioned stimulus (CS), in particular, that the
fear was the UCS rather than the 'being trapped' element. However, the majority were
impressive in their accurate application of schedule terms. It was acceptable for
responses to be a combination of both classical conditioning and avoidance behaviour.
Some students focused only on direct reinforcement and operant conditioning principles in
part B rather than the indirect effects of vicarious reinforcement.
Q2.
Many students had some understanding of genotype and phenotype but struggled to
apply their knowledge to this novel scenario about 'fillings'. Even some sound answers
had an imprecise use of terminology, especially references to monozygotic (MZ) twins or
identical twins as having 'similar' genes or having 'almost identical' genes. Many students
failed to appreciate that all identical twins have identical genes and that all people exhibit
traits that are a function of both genetic and environmental influences. Instead, they
suggested that the data could be explained as either a result of genes or of phenotype.
Q3.
There were some very good answers to this question and students had sound knowledge
of features of the cognitive approach. Responses to explaining two limitations of the
cognitive approach were less successful, sometimes lacking explanation or even being
incorrect. A significant number of responses, for example, seemed to suggest schemas
lead to stereotypes and therefore this limits the cognitive approach because stereotyping
is a 'bad thing.' Understanding that people are cognitive misers in the way they process
information and therefore might stereotype, is a useful piece of information, as such
awareness might in fact help us to deal with stereotyping in society. There were also a
number of attempts at limitations which were too extreme in their assertion such as,
cognitive psychology ignores emotion, ignores biology and ignores culture or only uses
experiments. Students need to construct more coherent discussions about apparent
weaknesses of approaches and should be more circumspect in the way they present
these ideas. Some students misread the question and produced answers that focused on
the cognitive approach to depression. These were rarely creditworthy.
Q20.
Students found it quite difficult to apply their knowledge of classical conditioning
accurately.
Knowledge of the terms NS, UCS, UCR, CS and CR. Often answers suggested that the
CS-CR band was the association rather than the new learning.
Q21.
Responses to this question were quite good although some students failed to focus on the
procedures, for example, ‘what does the researcher do with a Skinner box?’ and instead
described what the rat was learning.
Q22.
This was reasonably well answered with over half the students gaining at least half marks.
However, descriptive skills were demonstrated much better than the evaluation in terms of
strengths and limitations of the approach.
Q23.
Most students obtained the two marks for knowledge of assumptions of the behaviourist
approach. However, many students could not sustain a discussion on the value of the
approach and instead went into great length with their description. Those who provided a
discussion, often focussed on the pros and cons of research on animals and extrapolating
findings to human behaviour, which, given the stem, was not surprising. As the question
did not require reference to the stem, however, any discussion points on the value / limited
value were acceptable.
Q24.
Many students answered this question well, often gaining full marks. There were a
number of students who clearly demonstrated knowledge of how psychodynamic
psychologists neglect the rules of the scientific approach but failed to link the points made
to the stem. The question clearly required ‘reference to the study above’ and without
linking the concepts (e.g. implications of generalising from small samples, bias,
subjectivity, etc) to the scenario outlined in the ‘dream diary’, no marks could be accessed.
This was a shame and is indicative of the need of students to read the question carefully
and address the requirements of the question.
Q25.
This question required an outline of the cognitive approach and many students had
sufficient knowledge to gain full marks for this part of the question. The second part of the
question required a comparison between the cognitive approach and the psychodynamic
approach. On such a question, the A02 marks are only accrued for comparative points
identified and discussed. Many students wasted time and effort providing general
evaluative points on the cognitive approach, and some even described and evaluated the
psychodynamic approach too. Students are urged to read the question carefully and plan
their response so that they answer the question set. Deviating from comparison attained
no marks and led to irrelevance in the answer. Although there was an attempt by many
students to provide some comparison, this was often brief and required elaboration, e.g.
simply stating ‘the cognitive approach focuses on cognitions whereas the main focus of
the psychodynamic approach is on emotion’. This type of essay clearly highlights the need
for students to spend time thinking and planning their answer; a significant number of
students provided a ‘pre-prepared’ “describe and discuss the cognitive approach” essay
which failed to gain marks beyond the A01 for knowledge.
Q26.
This question was answered well, most students referring to the overlap between social
learning theory and cognitive or behaviourist approaches. A few students failed to explain
the overlap and gained only 1 mark.
Q27.
This question was answered well with a number of students gaining full marks. Most
students had sound knowledge of the assumptions of the humanistic approach and some
showed detailed insight into client-centred therapy and measuring techniques such as Q-
sort and Personal Orientation Inventory (POI). The answers were sometimes overly
descriptive and some students had difficulty providing sufficient discussion, but most
accessed some points regarding the lack of scientific rigour and use of qualitative
techniques, etc. Better answers compared the humanistic approach with other
approaches on concepts such as ‘freewill’ and ‘methodology’ and were able to give a
detailed discussion of both strengths and weaknesses of the approach. There were some
valid and thoughtful comparisons with other approaches, in particular key differences
between behaviourism and humanism and similarities / contrasts between humanism and
the psychodynamic approach.
Q28.
Most students answered this question well and were able to think of a suitable way Mr
Benson could use vicarious reinforcement, demonstrating a sound understanding of the
concept. The students who failed to attain full marks generally failed to include the fact
that the other pupils would need to ‘see’ or ‘observe’ the role model being reinforced for
appropriate behaviour.
Q29.
Most answers were correct, although students struggled with phenotype, often not
referring to the interaction of both environment and genes.
Q30.
Students found it quite difficult to apply their knowledge of the two approaches to Marc’s
behaviour, either controlled or violent. Psychodynamic explanations that referred to the
use of defence mechanisms and displacement were quite effective, but behaviourist
explanations were often weaker, as they failed to suggest that Marc would have learned
the actions.
Q31.
Responses to this question were very weak. Students seem to have a very limited
knowledge and understanding of this key approach in psychology and rarely described
anything beyond reference to a computer analogy. After the description of the approach,
many answers launched into a weak analysis of the strengths and limitations of cognitive
psychology, rather than identifying methods used in cognitive psychology and evaluating
these. In fact, all relevant methods would have been covered as part of students’
preparation for Section C, and it should have been relatively easy for them just to match
their knowledge of the cognitive approach with an evaluation of these methods, for
example, experimentation, observation, and case studies.
Q32.
The majority of students seemed to understand modelling.
Q33.
(a) Although most students scored some marks for this part, a significant number
omitted to include the key notions of identification and internalisation. Very weak
responses consisted of general psychodynamic theory without specific relevance to
moral development.
(b) The scenario seemed to prove helpful in this part, with many students being able to
explain the role of the superego, and stronger students detailing the unconscious
internal conflict Jackie would experience. As in the other Child Development topics,
experimental design was not always well addressed, with students frequently
identifying one design and then describing a different one. However, most students
did gain some credit for design and a further mark for correctly specifying the
independent and dependent variables.
Q34.
Many students were able to provide an appropriate defence mechanism and elaborate
this with reference to Emily’s behaviour. However, a significant number offered one
defence mechanism but then explained her behaviour in terms of an alternative defence
mechanism, such as: ‘Emily might be in denial. She has probably told herself that the
examination was not very important so it does not matter that she failed, (rationalisation).’
Q35.
This was generally quite well answered although some students did not focus on one
limitation of the psychodynamic approach which was then outlined more fully and instead
offered a number of possible limitations.
Q36.
This was reasonably well answered with a good spread of marks awarded. However,
students did find it difficult to access marks in the top two mark bands. There was a great
deal of muddle in some of the description offered by students, who could not distinguish
between the theoretical proposals of Rogers and Maslow. Many offered long lists of
named concepts such as: self, free will, hierarchy of needs, congruence and so on, but did
not demonstrate that they had clear knowledge of these key features. When concepts
were elaborated it was evident that students often had quite superficial, and in some
cases, inaccurate understanding of these and it was quite common to see comments such
as: ‘we do not have free will because there are laws,’ or ‘self-actualisation is when you get
all you want,’ or ‘the hierarchy of needs must be wrong because people in China cannot
satisfy basic needs.’ Evaluation of the approach was generally weaker than the
description and many responses were lists of statements of difference between
humanistic theory and other explanations of behaviour. These were often in the form, ‘the
humanistic approach says we have free will but the psychodynamic approach says we are
determined by the unconscious / the behaviourist approach says the environment
determines behaviour.’ Other attempts at analysis were in the form of unsubstantiated
claims that there is no evidence to support it or the therapy is very effective.
As already stated, the standard of literacy in this extended writing was often very weak,
with frequent spelling errors and poor structure and coherence.
Q37.
The vast majority of students could provide a clear definition of imitation.
Q38.
This was a straightforward question for which many students gained at least one of the
two marks for referring to numerical data. However, not all students provided a suitably
clear example of quantitative data collected by a psychologist who studied conditioning.
Those who managed to gain full marks often did so with, for example, reference to the
work of Pavlov and Skinner, by referring to the amount of saliva or time taken to respond.
Q39.
Almost all students gained at least one mark. Those who gained full credit did so by
appropriately referring to the nomothetic / scientific nature of the behaviourist approach
and disadvantages of qualitative data. Some students gave good and relevant justifying
commentary for comparisons with quantitative data collection. Students who only
achieved one mark, generally did so because they gave two vague or very brief reasons
or a generic evaluation of qualitative data not linked to investigations carried out by
behaviourists. A minority of students gave one reason only.
Q40.
In order to gain full marks, students were required to identify two clear assumptions of the
cognitive approach. Hence, students who simply stated ‘...mental processes and
schemata...’or ‘...we behave like a computer...’ did not gain the full two marks. Additionally,
the assumptions had to be applied to two topics. Such applications were sometimes
vague, for example, ‘... this can be seen in the topic of memory...’ without any further
elaboration. Some students were unclear about information processing, confusing this
assumption with ‘mediational processes that lie between stimulus and response’. The
assumptions were applied to a range of topics with the most common being depression,
memory and face recognition.
Q41.
This question clearly highlighted the fact that students need to plan their essays in the
context of the questions asked instead of writing a pre-prepared essay. The few students
who accessed the top band focused on what was unique about the approach and made
thoughtful and intelligent comparisons with other approaches. Unfortunately, many
students, though showing detailed knowledge and effective evaluation of the
psychodynamic approach, wrote a pre-prepared “Describe and discuss” essay. Other
students focused on irrelevant comparisons referring simply to Freud’s unscientific
approach as a unique feature, with incorrect statements such as ‘case studies are unique
to the psychodynamic approach’ or ‘the approach is unique because it is the only
approach that is unscientific’. It was disappointing that students focused on the
weaknesses of Freud’s psychodynamic analysis rather than the theoretical aspects of the
approach. Another frequently stated assertion was that the psychodynamic approach is
the only approach to take account of both nature and nurture. This essay clearly
emphasised the need for students to take time to carefully think about and plan their
answers.
Q42.
Many students performed well on this question with two assumptions of the humanistic
approach clearly placed in the context of the rejection of the scientific method. Generally,
students focused their answers on holism and the reductionist nature of science, and free
will and the determinism of the scientific method. Where students did not score full marks,
this was often because the student made generic points such as ‘you cannot generalise’
or the link to science was unclear. Some, for example, referred to the use of client-centred
therapy and it was not always apparent why this was a rejection of the scientific method.
Q43.
In the main students were knowledgeable about key features of social learning theory
(SLT) and many provided very detailed explanations of this with description of one or
more of the Bobo doll studies. However, there were some very inaccurate descriptions of
studies such as ‘... the group that saw the aggressive model copied the model’s
aggressive behaviour more than the group that did not see the aggressive model...’ Some
students have clearly been guided to make evaluative points about the methodology and
ethical issues raised by the Bobo doll studies. Although it is commendable that students
are made aware of such issues, students must be reminded always to consider whether
or not these are of direct relevance to the question set. Likewise, many raised the issue of
‘lack of ecological validity’ although they did not explain clearly why this was the case or
why this was problematic in the context of the question. Valid and thoughtful comparisons
with the behaviourist and cognitive approaches were made by more successful students.
Less effective answers made comparisons, but did not use these to draw out the
strengths and limitations of the theory. Evaluative points were not always well developed,
for example, some stated that social learning theory (SLT) was highly scientific as it made
use of laboratory experiments and that SLT ‘fails to take biological factors into account’,
with no further elaboration.
Q44.
Students found it quite difficult to express clearly the strengths of the behaviourist
approach. Unfortunately, many concepts identified as strengths were really features of the
approach and answers sometimes contained long descriptions of the work of Pavlov or
Skinner with no real attempt to link this material to a possible strength.
Q45.
This question required students to provide an accurate description of features and
concepts associated with the humanistic approach and then to organise their
understanding of the distinguishing features of the humanistic and psychodynamic
approaches to provide a discussion of differences between them. The descriptions of the
work of humanistic psychologists were varied and a number of students covered a good
range of concepts and were able to achieve 4 / 5 AO1 marks for their knowledge. It was
encouraging to read the answers of students who had developed an understanding that
was beyond rote learning and could therefore produce effective discussion of concepts of
free will and the unconscious, positive outlook and pessimism and non-directive and
directive therapy. However, many students did not seem to understand how to deal with
differences between the approaches beyond stating these. Some students listed
similarities rather than differences.

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Name: ________________________

Time: 370 minutes

Marks: 274 marks

Psychologists investigating theoretical models of cognitive processing study

A behaviourist researcher studying reinforcement carried out a laboratory

(a) Explain which type of conditioning is being investigated in this experiment?

Attempt Time taken for the cat to

A 9 times faster than it was at the start.

B 11 times faster than it was at the start.

C 15 times faster than it was at the start.

D 21 times faster than it was at the start.

Extra space ____________________________________________________________

Mean 15.9 10.6

Standard deviation 3.78 1.04

A Repression can lead to unpleasant memories causing distress

B Repression causes people to have difficulty accessing

C Repression involves people choosing to forget unpleasant

D Repression involves unpleasant memories being kept from

In a laboratory study of problem-solving, cognitive psychologists asked

Explain what is meant by ‘inference’ in relation to this study.

A The Id is responsible for pleasure-seeking behaviour

B The Id is responsible for unreasonable behaviour

C The Superego is responsible for bad behaviour

Dominic is unhappy and lacks confidence. He also thinks he is not very

A neurotransmitters and environment.

B inheritance and environment.

C genetic makeup and neurotransmitters.

D genotype and evolution.

A Evolution involves adapting to the environment.

B Evolution involves breeding of those best able to

C Evolution involves common genetic material between

D Evolution involves changes in behaviour from one

Social learning theorists refer to the role of mediational processes in learning.

‘The behaviourist approach has been presented to us as helpful in understanding human

Briefly discuss the value of behaviourism in helping us to understand human behaviour.

(b) What is meant by phenotype?

(a) Suggest how a psychodynamic psychologist might explain Marc’s behaviour.

Evaluate the research methods used by cognitive psychologists.

Is your child watching you?

Extra space ____________________________________________________________

A psychologist carried out a study of social learning. As part of the

Extra space ____________________________________________________________

1 mark for recognising this as EITHER an example of classical conditioning/associative

1 mark for elaboration eg reference to EITHER elements of Pavlovian conditioning -

Credit reference to the 2-process model.

1 mark for recognising this as an example of social learning/observational

1 mark for elaboration eg reference to aspects of social learning such as vicarious/indirect

Level Marks Description

Understanding of genotype and phenotype applied to the

Expect to find this content embedded in the application.

Level Marks Description

Knowledge of two features of the cognitive approach is

Knowledge of one or two features of the cognitive

Limited knowledge of at least one feature of the cognitive

Knowledge of at least one feature of the cognitive

• Behaviour is influenced by thoughts that can be both conscious and non-conscious

• The approach can be seen as mechanical in regarding human thinking as

Credit other relevant limitations.