Matching Books and Readers

Matching Books and Readers
Solving Problems
in the Teaching of Literacy
Cathy Collins Block, Series Editor
Recent Volumes
How to Plan Differentiated Reading Instruction:

Resources for Grades K–3
Sharon Walpole and Michael C. McKenna
Reading More, Reading Better

Edited by Elfrieda H. Hiebert
The Reading Specialist, Second Edition:

Leadership for the Classroom, School, and Community
Rita M. Bean
Teaching New Literacies in Grades K–3:

Resources for 21st-Century Classrooms
Edited by Barbara Moss and Diane Lapp
Teaching New Literacies in Grades 4–6:

Resources for 21st-Century Classrooms
Edited by Barbara Moss and Diane Lapp
Teaching Reading: Strategies and Resources for Grades K–6

Rachel L. McCormack and Susan Lee Pasquarelli
Comprehension Across the Curriculum: Perspectives and Practices K–12

Edited by Kathy Ganske and Douglas Fisher
Best Practices in ELL Instruction

Edited by Guofang Li and Patricia A. Edwards
Responsive Guided Reading in Grades K–5:

Simplifying Small-Group Instruction
Jennifer Berne and Sophie C. Degener
Early Intervention for Reading Difficulties:

The Interactive Strategies Approach
Donna M. Scanlon, Kimberly L. Anderson, and Joan M. Sweeney
Matching Books and Readers: Helping English Learners in Grades K–6

Nancy L. Hadaway and Terrell A. Young
Children’s Literature in the Classroom: Engaging Lifelong Readers

Diane M. Barone
Matching Books
and Readers
Helping English Learners
in Grades K–6
Nancy L. Hadaway
Terrell A. Young
THE GUILFORD PRESS

New York London
© 2010 The Guilford Press
A Division of Guilford Publications, Inc.
72 Spring Street, New York, NY 10012
www.guilford.com
All rights reserved
No part of this book may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval

system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission
from the Publisher.
Printed in the United States of America
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
Last digit is print number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Hadaway, Nancy L.
Matching books and readers : helping English learners in grades K–6 / Nancy
L. Hadaway, Terrell A. Young.
p. cm. — (Solving problems in the teaching of literacy)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-60623-881-3 (pbk.: alk. paper)–ISBN 978-1-60623-882-0
(hardcover: alk. paper)
1. English language—Study and teaching—Foreign speakers. 2. English
language—Study and teaching (Elementary) 3. Bilingualism. 4. Language
acquisition. 5. Reading (Elementary) I. Young, Terrell A. II. Title.
PE1128.A2H244 2010
428.2′4—dc22
2010020422
About the Authors
Nancy L. Hadaway, PhD, is Professor of Literacy Studies in the College of

Education at the University of Texas at Arlington. Her scholarly interests
have focused on the literacy issues of English learners. Dr. Hadaway has
served on various state and national committees of professional literacy
organizations; presented at numerous state, regional, national, and inter-
national conferences; and received grants from the Adolescent Literature
Assembly of the National Council of tTeachers of English and the Asso-
ciation of Colleges and Universities. She has been a committee member
for several children’s book awards, including the Orbis Pictus Award, the
Notable Books for a Global Society, and the Outstanding International
Books. Dr. Hadaway’s articles have appeared in Book Links, The Read-
ing Teacher, Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, Language Arts,
The English Journal, Childhood Education, Ethnic Forum, and Equity
and Excellence in Education, and she has written chapters in books on
literacy and multicultural education issues. She is coauthor or coeditor
of Literature-Based Instruction with English Language Learners, K–12;
Supporting the Literacy Development of English Learners: Increasing
Success in All Classrooms; and Breaking Boundaries with Global Litera-
ture: Celebrating Diversity in K–12 Classrooms.
Terrell A. Young, EdD, is Professor of Literacy Education at Washington

State University. He is a member of the International Reading Associa-
tion (IRA) Board of Directors for 2009–2012; received the IRA’s Out-
standing Teacher Educator in Reading Award in 2006; and was president
of the Washington Organization for Reading Development, the Wash-
ington State IRA affiliate, from 2000 to 2001. Dr. Young also served as
president of the IRA Children’s Literature and Reading Special Interest
Group from 2004 to 2006 and the National Council of Teachers of Eng-
v
vi About the Authors
lish Children’s Literature Assembly from 2006 to 2008. He has been a

committee member for many children’s book awards, including the IRA
Children’s Book Awards, the Notable Books for a Global Society, the
Notable Children’s Books in the Language Arts, the Orbis Pictus Award
for Outstanding Nonfiction in Children’s Literature, and the Washington
Children’s Choice Picture Book Award. Dr. Young’s scholarly interests
include literature-based practices, English language learners, and the
creative process of authors and illustrators. His articles have appeared
in Book Links, Childhood Education, Language Arts, and The Reading
Teacher. He is coauthor or coeditor of Caught in the Spell of Writing
and Reading: Grade 3 and Beyond; Supporting the Literacy Develop-
ment of English Learners: Increasing Success in All Classrooms; Happily
Ever After: Sharing Folk Literature with Elementary and Middle School
Children; Literature-Based Instruction with English Language Learners,
K–12; and Creating Lifelong Readers through Independent Reading.
Poem and Essay Authors
Jorge Argueta is the author of several children’s books. He is the winner

of the Americas Award for Latin American Literature and the Indepen-
dent Publishers Book Award for Multicultural Fiction for Young Adults for
his book Xóchitl and the Flowers (Xóchitl, la Niña de las Flores), among
many other awards. Mr. Argueta is a San Francisco Library Poet Laure-
ate. His heartwarming, bilingual English–Spanish stories and poetry are
the favorites of Latin American children and adults from all cultures.
Yangsook Choi grew up in Korea and moved to New York to study art.
She was selected as one of the most prominent new children’s book artists
by Publishers Weekly. Ms. Choi has written and illustrated many chil-
dren’s books and is the recipient of several awards, including the Interna-
tional Reading Association’s Children’s Book Award, a California Young
Reader Medal, and the Oppenheim Toy Portfolio Gold Award.
Lulu Delacre has been writing and illustrating children’s books since
1980. Her Latino heritage as well as her own life experiences inform
her books, among them The Bossy Gallito, Arrorró mi niño: Latino Lul-
labies and Gentle Games, and The Storyteller’s Candle—all winners of
the Pura Belpré Honor Award. Alicia Afterimage is her latest work. For
further information, visit www.luludelacre.com.
Maya Christina Gonzalez is an award-winning multicultural children’s

book artist, author, and educator. She has illustrated 20 children’s books
and written two. The first book Ms. Gonzalez both illustrated and wrote,
My Colors, My World, received the 2008 Pura Belpré Honor Award. She
recently began Reflection Press with her husband to support educators in
bringing creativity as a tool of empowerment into classrooms.
vii
viii Poem and Essay Authors
Uma Krishnaswami is the author of picture books including Chachaji’s

Cup and Monsoon, early readers (Yoga Class, Holi), and a middle-grade
novel, Naming Maya. Another middle-grade novel, The Road to Sunny
Villa—a Bollywood-style joyride with a determined young protagonist
supported by a cast of larger-than-life eccentrics—is forthcoming in
2011. Ms. Krishnaswami is on the faculty of the Vermont College of Fine
Arts MFA Program in Writing for Children and Young Adults.
J. Patrick Lewis is the author of 65 children’s poetry and picture books

to date. His recent titles include Kindergarten Cat, Mr. Nickel & Mrs.
Dime, Skywriting: Poems in Flight, First Dog’s First Christmas, and Self-
Portrait with Seven Fingers: A Life of Marc Chagall in Verse (with Jane
Yolen).
Asma Mobin-Uddin is a pediatrician who decided to write about the

Muslim American experience because she had difficulty finding good
books in this area to read to her children. She was born and raised in the
United States and is of Pakistani descent. Dr. Mobin-Uddin is the author
of three award-winning children’s books: My Name Is Bilal, The Best Eid
Ever, and A Party in Ramadan.
Pat Mora is a popular speaker and the author of award-winning books for
children, teens, and adults, including Zing!: Seven Creativity Practices
for Educators and Students. A literacy advocate excited about sharing
what she calls “bookjoy,” Ms. Mora founded the family literacy initiative
El día de los niños/El día de los libros, Children’s Day/Book Day (“Día”),
now housed at the American Library Association. For further informa-
tion, visit www.patmora.com.
Janet S. Wong is the author of 21 books, from picture books for toddlers
(Buzz) to poetry for teens (Behind the Wheel: Poems about Driving). Sev-
eral books highlight her Chinese and Korean heritage, such as This Next
New Year, A Suitcase of Seaweed, Apple Pie Fourth of July, and The Trip
Back Home. When she is not writing, Ms. Wong keeps busy by speaking
at schools, libraries, and conferences. For further information, visit www.
janetwong.com.
Preface
The Beginning of a Book
The seed for this book was planted many years ago when we and our friend
and colleague Sylvia Vardell all taught at the same university. We were
convinced that children’s trade books—not textbooks or leveled text—
were the perfect resource for helping English language learners develop
language, literacy, and content. As we worked in schools with teachers
and students and made presentations to K–6 teachers, we explored our
ideas and approaches with them. Our work eventually led to the publi-
cation of Literature-Based Instruction for English Language Learners,
K–12 (Hadaway, Vardell, & Young, 2002c). In that book, we introduced
the idea of criteria for helping teachers select literature for their English
learners. As we continued to explore the issue, we published “Matching
Books and Readers: Selecting Books for English Learners” in The Read-
ing Teacher (Vardell, Hadaway, & Young, 2006). This book is an exten-
sion of the ideas we have developed over the years, including our work in
The Reading Teacher article. We gratefully acknowledge Sylvia Vardell’s
ideas and influence that have helped us shape this project.
Whom Is This Book For?
In our dealings with classroom teachers, many have expressed the need
for a resource to help them find appropriate books for their English learn-
ers. This book addresses that need. There are many books published about
ix
x Preface
matching books to readers. The majority of them focus on using leveled

text while a few deal with genuine literature. Yet, none of them address
the particular needs of English learners. This book addresses that need
by providing K–6 teachers with a background about English learners and
the many benefits of using literature to help them develop language and
literacy. More specifically, it provides teachers with criteria and guid-
ing questions for selecting books for their students learning English. The
criteria consider both the student in terms of language proficiency level
and the text in regard to language and conceptual load and potential text
support features. We also consider cultural issues related to texts and
whether a book is a good cultural fit to the learner. In short, we make a
case for providing English learners with ready access to books that are
appropriate to their language and literacy development.
Organization of the Book
The basic question we explore in this book is “How can teachers select
and use children’s literature to foster the literacy development of English
learners?” The first section of the book offers an overview of English
learners and language acquisition while also proposing specific criteria
for matching literature to English learners. The second section of the
book features chapters for the major genres of children’s literature, fic-
tion, poetry, and nonfiction. Each chapter presents the value of the genre
to meeting the needs of English learners and suggested books to support
English learners’ language and literacy development.
In addition, children’s authors who write books that are especially
suited to English learners were invited to share their reflections about
language, literature, and culture, and these essays and poems are inter-
spersed throughout the book. These pieces provide further insights to
the value of using real literature with students learning English as a new
language.
Part I: Getting to Know English Learners

Chapter 1, “English Learners,” provides an overview of English learn-
ers, the fastest growing group in U.S. schools today, and highlights some
of their special needs. We explain the process of language acquisition,
provide an overview of how students develop literacy, and make a case
for the role of using literature in helping students learn English while
improving their reading and writing.
Preface xi
When matching English learners with books, educators must con-

sider specific language factors that influence comprehension. The more the
book material deviates from these criteria, the more teaching support will
be needed to assist English learners with the obvious language and struc-
tural difficulties. Thus, Chapter 2, “Matching Books to English Learners,”
presents four specific criteria with guiding questions that teachers can
use when selecting books for their elementary English learners.
Chapter 3, “English Learners’ Academic and Social Language:
Moving from Surviving to Thriving,” highlights two types of language
proficiency needed by English learners, social and academic language.
Social language is needed for socializing on the playground and in the
lunchroom. This language may take up to 2 years to develop. Academic
language deals with the language of the curriculum. Such language is
often not a part of students’ everyday vocabulary and takes from 5 to 7
years to develop (even longer for children who immigrated to the United
States without previous schooling). This chapter provides teachers with
the necessary support to help English learners develop the social lan-
guage needed to interact socially and to move beyond that to the aca-
demic language needed for school success.
Part II: Selecting and Using Books

with English Learners
Reading fiction dominates the elementary language arts curriculum, so
Chapter 4, “Selecting and Using Fiction with English Learners in Grades
K–6,” deals with issues in selecting and using fiction for English learn-
ers. Next, many teachers assume that poetry is too difficult for English
learners, but poetry offers a unique format that can foster oral language
development and reading fluency. Therefore, Chapter 5, “Selecting and
Using Poetry with English Learners in Grades K–6,” examines the issues
in selecting and using poetry with English learners. Finally, nonfiction
is the preferred reading of many children, and it also provides students
with the academic language they need to unlock the content areas. Thus,
Chapter 6, “Selecting and Using Nonfiction Literature with English
Learners in Grades K–6,” highlights the critical issues in selecting and
using nonfiction with English learners.
Appendices and Children’s Book Lists

There are four helpful resources in the Appendix to this book. Appendix
A, mentioned in Chapter 1, includes suggested books for both teachers
xii Preface
and students to expand their understanding of English learners. This is

not an exhaustive list, but the suggested titles offer an opportunity to
explore issues related to English learners. Appendix B takes the four
text selection criteria introduced in this book and matches those to the
five TESOL proficiency levels, noting specifics to keep in mind at each
step of the text selection process. Appendix C suggests social (“survival”)
language topics with examples of books matched to those. And, to help
teachers choose book pairs or text sets for each of the narrow reading
formats presented in Chapter 3, Appendix D has an extensive list of rec-
ommendations.
Finally, we offer a complete bibliography of the children’s books
cited in the text. These books span a wide variety of genres and themes
that effectively meet the needs of both language and content instruction
across the curriculum and elementary grades. At the end of each entry
(as well as in the text citations), we have coded each book as a guide to
help teachers choose books best suited for their classrooms, considering
Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) proficiency
level of the students and the general grade level (primary, intermediate,
all grades, K–6). We have also coded each book with an indication of the
broad genre of the book (fiction, nonfiction, poetry). We chose this sys-
tem because grade-level reading indications are not necessarily helpful
or accurate when working with English learners. Among English learn-
ers, we can have children at any of the five proficiency levels, and we have
beginning readers at every grade level. Our coding scheme is merely an
approximation; many of these books can be used across the K–6 curricu-
lum depending on the objective of the lesson and the amount of support
provided by you, the teacher.
Coding scheme for books cited in the text
and in the bibliography
Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages

(TESOL) Proficiency Level is indicated by TL 1, 2, 3, 4, 5;
generally a range of levels is indicated.
1 = Starting
2 = Emerging
3 = Developing
4 = Expanding
5 = Bridging
Grade Level
P = Primary grades, K–2
I = Intermediate grades, 3 –6
A = All grades K–6
S = Secondary or adult (this level is for the resource books
listed in Chapter 1)
Type of book is indicated by P, F, NF.

P = Poetry
F = Fiction
NF = Nonfiction
Coding Scheme Example: TL1, P, F = TESOL Level 1

proficiency; Primary grades, K–2; Fiction
xiii
Acknowledgments
The contributions of many people have made this book a reality. We first
wish to recognize the support we received from the editorial staff of The
Guilford Press. We are grateful for the time, skills, and guidance they
devoted to this project. We also want to thank the reviewers who read our
initial proposal and made helpful suggestions.
In addition, we would like to acknowledge the nine authors who
shared their personal insights about English learners, language learning,
multiculturalism, and literature in the essays and poems included in this
book.
Finally, on a personal note, we want to express our appreciation to
our families. In particular, Nancy wishes to dedicate this book to the
memory of her husband, Art Sikes. Terry wishes to thank his wife, Chris-
tine, and their children for their unwavering support.
Without all of these partners, this book would not have been pos-
sible.
xiv
Contents
Pizza 1
Janet S. Wong
Pa rt I. Get ti ng to K now
English Le a r n ers
How to Say Thy Name 5

Yangsook Choi
Ch a p t er On e . English Learners 9
Writing the Muslim American Experience 29

A sma Mobin-Uddin
C h a p t e r Two . Matching Books to English Learners 33
Only a Joke?: Humor as a Bridge between Cultures 55

and Languages
Uma K rishnaswami
Ch a pter Three. English Learners’ Academic 59

and Social Language:
Moving from Surviving to Thriving
Creativity Begins at Home 81

Pat Mora
xv
xvi Contents
Pa rt II. Selecti ng a n d Usi ng Books

w ith English Le a r n ers
I Know the River Loves Me 85

M aya Christina G onzalez
C h a p t e r F ou r . Selecting and Using Fiction with English 89

Learners in Grades K–6
Fear and Joy in Leaving Your Country 125

Jorge A rgueta
Ch a pter Fi v e. Selecting and Using Poetry with English 129

Learners in Grades K–6
Books as Mirrors 159

Lulu Delacre
Ch a pter Si x . Selecting and Using Nonfiction Literature 161

with English Learners in Grades K–6
I’m Learning to Speak English 197

J. Patrick Lewis
App e n d i x A . Books for Learning about Immigrants 199

and English Learners
App e n d i x B . Guidelines for Matching Literature to English 201
Learner Proficiency Levels
App e n d i x C . Children’s Books for Social Language 205
(Basic “Survival” Topics)
App e n d i x D . Narrow Reading Suggestions 209
for Different Formats
Children’s Books Cited 215
References 237
Index 249
Pizza
Janet S. Wong
My grandmother came from Korea last week.

She will be here for one month.
She doesn’t know English.
Only “Hello, how are you?”
And numbers. Prices.
Today we are at Disneyland.

She does not want anything to drink.
She points to the soda. Five dollars.
“Pi-sah” she says over and over,
“expensive” in Korean.
I buy a slice of pepperoni and hand it to her.

“Pizza,” I say.
She nods like a bobblehead doll.
“Pi-SAH!” she says,
and pushes the plate away.
Copyright by Janet S. Wong.
1
Pa r t I
Getting to Know
English Learners
How to Say Thy Name
Yangsook Choi
“Bucket, come over here, the ceiling is leaking!” My

parents would call out to me when the almighty rain
drops pelted on our shingle-roofed house. Their chuckles
would follow. I was only a little child in a small town in
Korea, yet I could be the hard-working bucket who saved
my house from a flood, just because my name, Yangsook,
is pronounced similar to the word for a nickel bucket. At
school once, a teacher asked me to stand by, while she was
demonstrating a proper way to mop our classroom.
While friends, teachers, and even my parents who
gave me my name joked around about Yangsook, I was
proud to have a name that I could live up to. Yang, my
first name, means kind and gentle-spirited. Sook, a
generational name given to all my female cousins, means
pure and beautiful. Once I hit high school, the era of my
name banter was over. Or I thought.
When I crossed the Pacific Ocean after college, 10,493

km away from home for a land called America, little did I
expect to enter a new era of name banter. This time, I’ve
turned out to be a banterer myself. While most people do
a good job pronouncing my name correctly, I feared count-
less foreign names that mingle in this country.
Everyone I know is at war of one sort or the other,
perhaps against finance, sickness, or career, but it had
never occurred that a language would stand against me.
I found myself in a battlefield where I have to consistently
fight off miscommunication. Even with a weapon of an
electronic dictionary or thesaurus, there are things that
could only come after years of training to be a language
warrior.
Copyright by Yangsook Choi.
5
In the early years of speaking English, my American
classmate once asked me, “How come?” I replied, “By bus.”
One day I fed my classmates with my home-made Korean
curry dish, then asked, “Do you want some snakes?” My
brain meant to say snacks, but my tongue said otherwise.
They understood me, though. They knew I wasn’t running
a snake farm in my tiny apartment.
But expressions, nuances, and metaphors prickle my
brain like tiny needles. And genders are a different level
of biology as I could never comprehend the concept behind
why a ship is a female. Articles are mind-boggling, still to
this day.
If all this syntax is too much for my brain to juggle,
English pronunciation of names are outside of my brain
beyond measure. Intonation can be quite tricky, but when
it comes to pronunciation, some names make me stutter
and spit. Names are ferocious, baffling, and deceptive at
times.
My throat would do a better job distinguishing a viral
sore throat from a bacterial sore throat than the “r” and
“l” sound, which are nonexistent in Korean. I would call
Lane as Rain, Wale as the sea whale, not (wa-il-y). Ms.
Rice came out as Ms. Lice from my hard-twisted tongue.
For a while I wished to meet no Hall, the most challeng-
ing name. I would pronounce it hail, or hell, but never the
right Hall.
At least people knew who I was talking about when
I said Hairy Belly, not to insult Halle Berry. But the cab
driver had no idea what street I asked him to take me
when I said Houston, (hjstn) like Whitney Houston whom
I used to listen to growing up as Pop Songs were a source
of learning English. I later found out that the street in
downtown Manhattan is pronounced (Ha-oo-sten).
My English has become much stronger over the years.

I dream in English when I sleep. My brother in Korea
asks me if the Americans understand my broken English.
I told him that my English is not broken, it’s poetic. I
certainly do not want to break a language, nor a name.
6
As I have gotten a habit of asking people to teach me how
to say their name right, I often get to learn about tradi-
tions, cultures, or interesting things behind a name. I still
butter my tongue to say names correctly. But once I drop
my barriers and begin to build bridges, the battleground
disappears. English becomes a tool to communicate with.
My fear is gone, my horizons are broadened, and I humbly
receive grace from many who show me patience.
7
C h a p t e r o NE
English Learners
You’re not going to understand

a lot of what we say at first, Ms. Hernandez says.
This is called ESL class.
You and your classmates
will be learning English together.
It means they won’t always
understand you.
And you won’t always
understand them.
—K atherine Applegate, Home of the Brave
(Feiwel & Friends, 2007)
English learners are the fastest growing population in the schools today.
About 3.9 million public school students were reported to be limited Eng-
lish proficient (LEP) in 2001, a number that nearly doubled in less than
a decade (Kindler, 2002). Data further indicated that the number and
percentage of students with non- and limited English proficiency in the
national enrollment continued to grow in 36 states, with 18 states expe-
riencing more than 10% growth. English learners will represent 25% of
the total student population by 2026 (Garcia, 2000).
Other than the label, English learner, and the shared challenge of
learning a new language, however, these students may have very little
in common. They differ in the languages they speak and their cultural
backgrounds, the socioeconomic status they hold, the level of fluency in
their home language and English, their prior schooling and home literacy
experiences, and their immigration or residency status. From children of
middle class urban backgrounds who are literate in their home language
and comfortable with school routines to children from strife-ridden coun-
tries with little or no schooling, English learners arrive in U.S. schools
9
10 GETTING TO KNOW ENGLISH LEARNERS
with many different needs. Notwithstanding these differences and needs,

Carola and Marcelo Suárez-Orozco (2001) have documented the remark-
ably positive social attitudes—toward schooling, authority figures, and
the future—of immigrant English learners as they enter school.
Once in school, English learners, both immigrant and native born,
encounter many challenges. While English learners at the primary level
may be able to adjust to a new language and culture and make academic
progress, the changing academic and cognitive demands of increasingly
print-based instruction around the third or fourth grade present prob-
lems (Olsen, 2006). The volume and broad scope of academic language
in discussions, reading, and writing may appear daunting to some native
English speakers, but for students learning English, it can be overwhelm-
ing.
The quality of schooling can ease or complicate the transition to a
new language for English learners and additionally, for immigrants, to
a new country and culture. Unfortunately, English learners often find
themselves in segregated, poor, and conflict-ridden schools. Further com-
pounding the academic issues, many immigrant children face negative
social mirroring that adversely affects their developing identities (Suárez-
Orozco & Suárez-Orozco, 2001). Consequently, the educational progress
indicators of the past decade continue to reflect a constant achievement
gap between English learners and English-fluent students (Olsen, 2006).
This chapter provides an overview of the diverse group labeled
English learners highlighting some of their educational and psychoso-
cial needs. Central to addressing the range of differences and developing
language abilities that English learners bring to school is coherent, cul-
turally sensitive, and meaningful instruction and curricula. The premise
of this book is to encourage the use of children’s literature as an integral
part of instruction and curriculum.
The Many Faces of English Learners
From refugees, immigrants, asylum seekers, and sojourners who move

back and forth across borders to children who were born in the United
States or who have lived here the majority of their lives, English learners
are an incredibly diverse group. The first step in creating an effective
learning environment is understanding the learner and looking beyond
the single label, English learner (Olsen, 2006). As a quick reference,
teachers should get to know their English learners by learning the follow-
English Learners 11
ing about them (Suárez-Orozco & Suárez-Orozco, 2001; Ovando, Collier,

& Combs, 2003):
• Country of origin
• Age at immigration
• Length of residence in the United States
• Extent of ties with the home country
• Political and economic situation in the home country
• Reasons for immigration
• Other countries lived in prior to arriving in the United States
• Home language literacy
• English language knowledge
• Language exposure other than English and the home language
• Amount and quality of schooling in the home language
• Quality of schooling in the United States
• Residency status
Table 1.1 considers one organizational framework for thinking about dif-
ferent English learners based on their time in the United States and their
previous schooling. For instance, English learners with consistent previ-
ous schooling in their home country, hence, instruction in their home lan-
guage, tend to catch up academically as compared with English learners
who bring a history of interrupted schooling from their home country.
TABLE 1.1. Types of English Learners and Their Characteristics

Newly arrived with Newly arrived with limited Long-term English
adequate schooling formal schooling learner
•• Recent arrival (less •• Recent arrival (less •• Seven or more years

than 5 years in North than 5 years in North in North America
America) America) •• Below grade level in
•• Adequate schooling in •• Interrupted or limited reading and writing
native country schooling in native •• False perception of
•• Soon catch up country academic achievement
academically •• Limited native-language •• Adequate grades but
•• May still score low on literacy low test scores
standardized tests •• Below grade level in •• ESL or bilingual
math instruction, but no
•• Poor academic consistent program
achievement
Note. Based on Freeman and Freeman (2007).

The age English learners arrive in United States classrooms and

begin the process of learning their new language also plays a crucial
factor in becoming fluent in English. Collier (1989) found that children
who arrived in the United States before age 12 with at least 2 years of
schooling in their native country reached the 50th percentile on reading,
language arts, science, and social studies tests within 5 to 7 years in U.S.
classrooms. Younger children, ages 4 to 6 with little or no schooling in
their native language, had not reached the 50th percentile after 6 years.
Closely connected to any schooling in the native country is first-
language literacy. Both the school and the home contribute to first-
language literacy. “Parents who read to and talk with their children
in their home language help their children develop language skills in
ways that will facilitate their learning of English” (Bermúdez, 1994). For
instance, children who have been read to and who read at home, what-
ever the language, bring a more developed knowledge of print and print
conventions (Krashen, 1987). Without a firm foundation in their native
language, younger children may confuse English language concepts with
those in the first language. Indeed, “research in second-language acquisi-
tion suggests that the best predictor of success is the skill amassed in the
child’s first language” (Suárez-Orozco & Suárez-Orozco, 2001, p. 137).
While teachers need to capitalize on the home-language literacy
that children bring to school, they must also be aware of the similari-
ties and differences between English and the home language in order
to understand potential roadblocks. The more a student’s first language
differs from English the greater the challenge. As a case in point, while
there are many similarities between English and Spanish, there are dif-
ferences. There are no contractions such as don’t, isn’t, and so on in Span-
ish, and Spanish dialogue is marked by dashes rather than quotation
marks. Further, there are differences between English and Spanish with
the following consonants: d, v, ll, h, j, r, rr, z, ñ, x (Helman, 2004; Colorín
Colorado, 2007). The Spanish /d/ is more similar to /th/ as in then in Eng-
lish. Additionally, Spanish does not have the following sounds (Helman,
2004; Colorín Colorado, 2007):
• Vowel digraphs: ou, ow, eigh, au, aw, oo

• Consonant digraphs: sh, th, wh, ph
• Consonant blends: sk/sc, sl, sm, sn, sp, st, sw, sts, scr, skw, spl,
spr, str, tw
• Initial sounds: kn, qu, wr, sk
• Final sounds: ck, ng, gh
• Endings: -ed (pronounced /d/ or /t/ or /ded/ or /ted/)
English Learners 13
• Endings: -s (pronounced /s/ or /z/ or /ez/ or /es/)

• Endings without a vowel: -ps, -ts
From an instructional standpoint, teachers can assist English learn-

ers by integrating children’s literature that authentically highlights cer-
tain phonemes or language differences and bringing these to students’
attention (Yopp, 1998). Some excellent examples of books to share with
English learners include the following: Nancy Shaw’s Sheep Take a Hike
(1994, TL1–2, P, F), Sheep on a Ship (1989, TL1–2, P, F), Sheep Out to
Eat (1992, TL1–2, P, F), Sheep in a Shop (1991, TL1–2, P, F), Sheep Trick
or Treat (1997, TL1–2, P, F), Sheep Blast Off (2008, TL1–2, P, F), Sheep
in a Jeep (1986, TL1–2, P, F), and Raccoon Tune (2003, TL1–2, P, F) or
Anna Dewdney’s Llama Llama Mad at Mama (2007, TL1–2, P, F), Llama
Llama Misses Mama (2005, TL1–2, P, F), and Llama Llama Red Pajama
(2005, TL1–2, P, F).
Conversely, the more similar the home language is to English in terms
of alphabet, the more easily these learners’ writing skills will transfer to
English (Odlin, 1989). Of over 400 languages spoken across the United
States, Spanish is the predominant language with 79% of English learners
speaking Spanish. The similarities between English and Spanish are many
including the use of the Roman alphabet, a high percentage, 30–40%, of
cognates (words in English with a related Spanish word), similar sentence
structure except for a couple of word order exceptions, and finally, the
same basic processes—phonemic awareness, decoding, fluency, compre-
hension, and writing mechanisms—are involved in learning to read and
write (Colorín Colorado, 2007). Among other English learners, 2.0% speak
Vietnamese, 1.6% speak Hmong, 1.0% speak Cantonese, and 1.0% speak
Korean; followed by Haitian Creole, Arabic, Russian, Tagalog, Navajo,
Khmer, Mandarin, Portugese, Urdu, Serbo-Croatian, Lao, and Japanese.
Many of the languages in this group are distinctly different from English
in terms of alphabet, sentence structure, and morphology.
Finally, English learners vary tremendously in terms of their fam-
ily’s socioeconomic status. Among immigrants, for instance, those who
are highly skilled move into highly paid jobs affording them access to
middle-class neighborhoods and schools. Low-skilled immigrants enter
poorly paid jobs and settle in neighborhoods with limited contact with
middle-class Americans. “This in turn will affect the kinds of English
that the children will be exposed to . . . and the quality of schools they
attend” (Suárez-Orozco & Suárez-Orozco, 2001, pp. 61–62).
To help teachers and children in the classroom understand the tre-
mendous diversity of experiences and backgrounds of immigrant and
native-born English learners and the many adjustments they face, a

resource list at the end of this book in Appendix A provides suggested
books for both teachers and students to expand their understanding. This
is not an exhaustive list, but the picture books for teachers and students
and the chapter books and novels for teachers offer a beginning oppor-
tunity to explore more contemporary issues related to diversity, not just
language issues.
The Many Facets of Language Acquisition

and Development
The next step, and a critical one, in more effectively meeting the needs
of English learners is understanding the process of acquiring a second
language (Fillmore & Snow, 2000; Hamayan, 1990). The connection
between first- and second-language acquisition is supported by a wide
body of research that indicates the similarity of linguistic and cognitive
processes at play (Ravem, 1968; Milon, 1974; Natalicio & Natalicio, 1971;
Dulay & Burt, 1974; Ervin-Tripp, 1974). For instance, children use a cre-
ative construction process to learn a second language, just as they do with
their first language (Dulay & Burt, 1974). In addition, researchers have
noted a striking similarity between the general stages of language acqui-
sition. Since most teachers in the United States are monolingual—fully
80% of California teachers working with English learners are monolin-
gual (Hass, 2002)—Table 1.2 serves as a beginning point for awareness
with a comparison of the more familiar first-language acquisition stages
and those for acquiring a second language. The amount of time noted
for each stage of the process is approximate (Krashen & Terrell, 1983) as
many factors influence the timeline of language acquisition.
Toddlers demonstrate their understanding and growing awareness
of their first language during the preproduction phase by responding
nonverbally. For English learners, regardless of their age, there is also a
preproduction stage. This “silent” period (Krashen & Terrell, 1983) is just
as critical in second-language acquisition as it is with one’s first language.
The silent period establishes a level of comfort with the language, so that
learners feel confident to progress to the next step.
As children listen and become familiar with a language, they even-
tually move to the early production phase. In first-language acquisition,
children generally progress to this stage between 9 months and 2 years of
age. They begin to experiment by producing one- or two-word responses.
For English learners, this process may last up to 6 months with an empha-
English Learners 15
TABLE 1.2. Comparing First- and Second-Language Acquisition

First-language Second-language
acquisition acquisition
Language acquisition stages timeline timeline
Preproduction Birth–9 months Several hours–

Listening, silent phase months
Early production 9 months–2 6 months

Producing one- or two-word responses years
Speech emergence 2–5 years 1 year

Generating phrases and short sentences
Intermediate fluency 5 years–on 1–2 years

Verbally negotiating their environment
and accomplishing daily needs
Academic fluency 5 years–on 5–7 years

Using the language of school for
academic achievement
sis on basic survival needs. This can be a confusing period as the learner
sorts through a great deal of “noise” to comprehend just the basics. Yet
very little, if any, of that comprehension can be expressed. Part of this
process is reflected in the thoughts of a young immigrant, Farah, while
on the class field trip in One Green Apple (Bunting, 2006, TL3–5, A, F).
Our teacher gathers us around her. She talks to the class. Then
she looks at me in a kind way. “One,” she says. She touches an
apple, then picks it. “One,” she says again. I am to take only one,
as the other students have done. I nod. I want to say, “I under-
stand. It’s not that I am stupid. It is just that I am lost in this new
place.” But I don’t know how to tell her. (p. 12)
The speech-emergence phase is a time of phrase and short-sentence

generation. When learning a first language, this stage extends for several
years from approximately 2 to 5 years of age. This is a time of great exper-
imentation—trial and error—as children construct their knowledge base
through hypotheses about the correct vocabulary and structure of lan-
guage. For English learners, the speech-emergence stage may take up to
1 year and most of the emphasis is on basic social language.
By age 5, individuals learning their first language reach the stage
of intermediate fluency. At this point, they are able to verbally negotiate
their environment. English learners take 1 to 2 more years to reach inter-

mediate fluency once the earlier stages have been mastered. Academic
fluency is the last stage of language acquisition and is the phase most
closely associated with formal schooling.
The general language acquisition stages noted earlier map to the pro-
cess of developing language within the school setting as noted in Table
1.3. English learners’ language develops through five stages. These stages
and the associated learner characteristics are described in the Teachers
of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) PreK–12 English
Language Proficiency Standards. Table 1.4 provides an overview of the
characteristics.
According to TESOL PreK–12 English Language Proficiency
Standards (2006), Level 1 English learners initially have limited or no
understanding of English as is the case with Mari in Marianthe’s Story:
Painted Words and Spoken Memories (Aliki, 1998, TL3–5, A, F) when
she “reads” the nonverbal cues of her teacher and classmates in order to
participate in class. Level 1 students rarely use English for communica-
tion; instead, they respond nonverbally to simple commands, statements,
and questions. As English learners become more comfortable with their
new language, they venture out of their silent period and try to speak. As
their oral comprehension increases, English learners at this stage imitate
others, repeating after the teacher, peers, or other speakers. They also
use gestures and facial expressions to indicate the meaning of what they
are saying. In terms of constructing meaning from print sources, Level 1
learners need strong visual and graphic support. Daily read-alouds using
simple picture books that provide explicit cues to meaning with one-to-
one correspondence of print to illustration give learners at this level a
jump-start on English language development. Teachers can choose alpha-
TABLE 1.3. Language Acquisition Stages Mapped to TESOL

Language Proficiency Levels
Language acquisition stages TESOL language proficiency levels
Preproduction Level 1, Starting

Early production Level 2, Emerging
Speech emergence Level 3, Developing
Intermediate fluency Level 4, Expanding
Academic fluency Level 5, Bridging
Note. Data from TESOL (2006).

English Learners 17
TABLE 1.4. TESOL Language Proficiency Levels

and Learner Characteristics
Proficiency
levels Learner characteristics
Level 1, Initially:
Starting •• Limited or no understanding of English
•• Seldom uses English to communicate
•• Responds nonverbally to simple commands, statements, and
questions
•• Visual literacy (“reading”) through pictures and environmental
print
Later:
•• Begins to repeat and imitate others by using single words, simple
phrases
•• Begins to use English spontaneously
•• Reads familiar words, phrases, and very simple sentences with
support
•• Writing consists of copied letters, words, phrases
Level 2, •• Understands phrases and short sentences

Emerging •• Shares limited information in simple everyday and routine
situations
•• Uses memorized phrases, groups of words, and formulaic language
•• Uses simple structures correctly but still produces basic errors
•• Uses general academic vocabulary and familiar everyday
expressions
•• Reads familiar phrases and sentences and simple academic
vocabulary with support
•• Makes writing errors that often interfere with communication
Level 3, •• Understands more complex speech but still may require repetition
Developing •• Uses English spontaneously but has difficulty expressing all of his
or her thoughts due to a limited vocabulary and lack of command
of language structure
•• Speaks in simple, comprehensible, and appropriate sentences, still
frequently marked by grammatical errors
•• Proficiency in reading varies considerably
•• Comprehends texts for which he or she has background knowledge
Level 4, •• Language skills are adequate for most daily communication needs
Expanding •• Communicates in English in unfamiliar settings with occasional
difficulty with complex structures and abstract academic concepts
•• May read with considerable fluency
•• Able to locate and identify specific facts within the text
(cont.)
TABLE 1.4. (cont.)

Proficiency
levels Learner characteristics
Level 4, •• Has problems with texts with concepts presented in a

Expanding decontextualized manner
(cont.) •• Has problems with complex sentence structure, abstract
vocabulary, or vocabulary with multiple meanings
•• Reads independently with occasional comprehension problems,
especially with grade-level information
Level 5, •• Able to use fluent and spontaneous communication on a range

Bridging of personal, general, academic, or social topics in a variety of
contexts
•• Interacts with native-speaking peers with minimal language
support or guidance
•• Has good command of technical and academic vocabulary as well
as idiomatic expressions and colloquialisms
•• Produces clear, smoothly flowing, well-structured texts of
differing lengths and degrees of linguistic complexity
•• Errors are minimal, difficult to spot, and generally corrected
when they occur
bet, counting, and concept books with their simple language and focus on
vocabulary and key concepts to provide direct linguistic support.
There are numerous alphabet, counting, and concept books that
teachers can choose. The most basic counting books, for instance, present
the numbers 1 to 10 with phrases or simple sentences as in the bilingual
counting book, Counting Ovejas (Weeks, 2006, TL1, P, F), appropriate
for Level 1 English learners. When the young boy in this book is unable
to sleep, he counts sheep. With each two-page spread, sheep of vary-
ing colors appear and then on the opposite page are bid farewell (“Una
oveja blanca./ One white sheep./ Adios, oveja blanca!/ Good-bye, white
sheep!”). Island Counting 1 2 3 (Lessac, 2005, TL1–2, A, F) is another
good choice with simple sentences: “Seven beach umbrellas soaking up
the sun.” Zoo Flakes (Howell, 2002, TL1–3, A, NF) is a basic alphabet
book with different animals for each letter; for example, “C is for camel.”
What Color Is Nature? (Swinburne, 2002, TL1–2, P, NF) helps English
learners master the colors in English with a straightforward question–
answer format, or for a bilingual option, teachers can use Spicy Hot Col-
ors/ Colores Picantes (Shahan, 2004, TL1–5, A, NF). There are many
concept books to help develop vocabulary in the early stages of language
English Learners 19
development. One choice that is both a concept and an alphabet book is

Add It, Dip It, Fix It: A Book of Verbs (Schneider, 1995, TL1–2, P, NF).
English learners encounter 24 verbs in alphabetical order in simple two-
word entries.
In terms of picture books to engage Level 1 English learners, one
interesting possibility is Niwechihaw, I Help (Nicholson, 2008, TL1–2, P,
F), a bilingual book in Cree and English. Each two-page spread shows the
grandson following his grandmother and doing what she does: “Kohkom
gets ready./ I get ready.” In The Zoo (Lee, 2007, TL1–2, P, F), a young girl
goes to the zoo with her parents but then wanders off, falls asleep, and
dreams about the animals while her parents frantically search for her.
The dream sequences are in color and wordless and can spark discussion
in the classroom. Another book that takes advantage of wordless picture
sequences is How to Heal a Broken Wing (Graham, 2008, TL1–3, P, F).
In the city, young Will sees a pigeon collide with a tall building and fall
to the pavement. He and his family take the bird home and nurse it to
health. The simple sentences are often broken into phrases and clauses on
separate pages. Interspersed throughout are multiple boxed pictures with
a sequence of events and wordless pages that could lead to discussion for
oral language development. These elements make this book accessible to
Level 1 English learners.
At Level 2, English learners understand phrases and short sen-
tences, and they communicate limited information in simple everyday
and routine situations by using memorized phrases, groups of words, and
formula such as paired statements for greetings: “Hi! How are you?/ I am
fine.” They use selected simple structures correctly and can engage in
basic retelling of information (what, where, when), but they still system-
atically produce basic errors. At this proficiency level, English learners
begin to use general academic vocabulary and familiar everyday expres-
sions. Errors in writing are present that often hinder communication.
Books with high-frequency vocabulary and predictable text are under-
standable to English learners at this stage of language development.
Alpahabet, counting, and concept books can continue to be used at this
proficiency level because they range in language and information from
very basic to more complex. For instance, Capital! Washington D.C. from
A to Z (Melmed, 2003, TL2–5, A, NF), has one to two sentences as the
main text for each entry and then other sentences surrounding multiple
illustrations. This type of alphabet book has possibilities for Level 2 and 3
English learners. The simple presentation in Cathryn Sill’s series of books
including About Amphibians (2000, TL2–4, A, NF) or About Fish (2002,
TL2–4, A, NF) are ideal for introducing content concepts to Level 2 Eng-
lish learners. Another chance to emphasize content concepts and vocabu-

lary is offered by Ann Morris’s simple nonfiction concept books about the
more familiar topics of food (Bread, Bread, Bread, 1993, TL1–4, A, NF),
clothing (Shoes, Shoes, Shoes, 1998, TL1–4, A, NF or Hats, Hats, Hats,
1993, TL1–4, A, NF), or lifestyles (Weddings, 1995, TL1–4, A, NF) with
photographs and examples from around the world. For opportunities to
read along and have English learners join in on familiar words or recur-
ring phrases, teachers can use the humorous predictable book, Look Out,
Suzy Goose! (Horácek, 2008, TL2–3, P, F), that features onomatopoeia
and strong verbs. Suzy goes into the woods for some peace and quiet.
She is not alone, however, “Tiptoe, Tiptoe, padded the hungry fox. ‘I spy
goose for dinner.’ He followed Suzy into the woods.”
Level 3 English learners understand more complex speech but still
may require some repetition. They use English spontaneously but may
have difficulty expressing all their thoughts due to a limited vocabulary
and command of language structure. They speak in simple sentences that
are comprehensible, appropriate, and more regular grammatically but
are still frequently marked by errors and some interference from their
first language. Moving beyond basic retelling of information, English
learners can now explain how and why. English learners also experi-
ment more with writing at this level; they can convey more information
and organize their thoughts into some logical sequence. However, their
concern is more with communication, so instances of translation or first-
language interference are still common. Proficiency in reading may vary
considerably. Students are most successful constructing meaning from
texts for which they have background knowledge. The survey books of
Jim Arnosky and Gail Gibbons are excellent choices for English learn-
ers at this proficiency level as are some informational storybooks with a
blended format (discussed in more detail in Chapter 6) such as the Magic
School Bus series or Oscar and the Bat: A Book about Sound (Waring,
2008, TL2–3, A, F). As a means of helping English learners discuss their
personal adjustments, I Hate English (Levine, 1995, TL3–5, A, F) is a
picture book that depicts the struggle of a young girl from Hong Kong
who is new to the United States and reluctant to learn a new language. As
she begins to acquire more and more English, she worries that she will
lose touch with her native heritage, culture, and language. Many English
learners may identify with her situation.
At Level 4, English learners’ language skills are adequate for most
day-to-day communication needs. They communicate in English in new
or unfamiliar settings but have occasional difficulty with complex struc-
tures and abstract academic concepts. English learners at this level can
English Learners 21
read independently and may do so with considerable fluency. They are

able to locate and identify specific facts within the text. However, they
may have occasional comprehension problems, especially when reading
grade-level information and expository text. In particular, they may not
understand texts where concepts are presented in a decontextualized
manner, the sentence structure is complex, or the vocabulary is abstract
or has multiple meanings. A wonderful example of multiple meanings and
word play that some authors use is seen in Art’s Supplies (Tougas, 2008,
TL3–5, A, F): “Then the pastels arrived. They blended in smoothly./ Ink
arrived with a splash and left a lasting impression./ The scissors were cut-
ting jokes all night long. They really had the tape rolling.” In Mini Grey’s
Traction Man Meets Turbo Dog (2008, TL4–5, I, F), humor, fantasy, and
British vocabulary (trash bin) combine to potentially confuse English
learners when Traction Man loses his pet, Scrubbing Brush, and then
discovers him in the trash bin: “Traction Man squirts the Bin-Things with
Germo and they hiss and wither./ Run and don’t look round! Whatever
you do, don’t listen to the tormenting cries of the Bin-Things!” Humor and
word play, as in these examples, are still difficult to comprehend for Eng-
lish learners at this level. On the other hand, more literal literature that
addresses academic concepts with simple technical language can help
pave the way to both English language development and content knowl-
edge. The photo essays of George Ancona and Diane Hoyt-Goldsmith are
an excellent mechanism for linking to the content curriculum or textbook
and providing a personal view of many topics within the social studies.
Also, using text sets with books that have content and language at differ-
ent reading levels and content depth are a means of supporting English
learners. The process of creating text sets is discussed in more detail in
Chapter 3 and again, in Chapter 6 with nonfiction books.
Finally, at Level 5, English learners can express themselves fluently
and spontaneously on a wide range of personal, general, academic, or
social topics in a variety of contexts. They are poised to function in an
environment with native-speaking peers with minimal language support
or guidance. These students have a good command of technical and aca-
demic vocabulary as well as idiomatic expressions and colloquialisms.
They can produce clear, smoothly flowing, well-structured texts of dif-
fering lengths and degrees of linguistic complexity. Errors are mini-
mal, difficult to spot, and generally corrected when they occur. At this
stage, English learners are closing in on native English-speakers in the
grade level classroom. This level of proficiency or academic language
proficiency is the ability we most closely associate with achievement in
school. Guidance may be needed with figurative language, symbolism,
and archaic vocabulary. For English learners in our schools, acquiring

this level of academic fluency may take 5 to 7 years or longer (Thomas
& Collier, 1995). This may not appear to be such a hardship to English
learners entering American schools in prekindergarten or kindergarten.
However, native English speakers already have a firm grasp of language
when they enter school whereas children learning English as a second
language must also juggle the content of their classes “so that by the time
they can function in English they are not hopelessly behind in their other
subjects” (Suárez-Orozco & Suárez-Orozco, 2001, p. 142).
Given the linear presentation of the stages of language acquisition
and emerging language proficiency, teachers may assume that language
acquisition is an orderly and predictable process. Nothing could be far-
ther from the truth. While teachers can expect a progression in terms
of the language characteristics displayed along the way from a silent
period to one- or two-word utterances and then short sentences, the tim-
ing and depth of language development depends on many variables. As
mentioned earlier, one factor in language acquisition is the quality of
instruction. Yet, many English learners attend schools hypersegregated
by poverty and race (Suárez-Orozco & Suárez-Orozco, 2001). Moreover,
they are more likely to be taught by teachers with limited training in
second-language acquisition. Such training could help teachers under-
stand the diverse needs of English learners and select and implement
effective curriculum and instructional strategies.
The Many Factors in Choosing Curriculum

and Instruction for English Learners
Current debate about the best curriculum and instructional techniques

for literacy instruction has centered on the issue of scripted instruction or
“commercial reading programs that have highly structured lessons, often
specific time allotments for teaching specific skills, and often word-for-
word scripts of what the teacher is to say” (Cassidy & Cassidy, 2004–2005,
p. 1). Such programs are frequently touted as necessary to providing teach-
ers the essential elements of effective reading instruction and critical to
filling in gaps and building a firm foundation for literacy skills among
struggling learners, particularly minorities and English learners. Yet, crit-
ics are concerned that such programs limit teachers’ ability to address the
complex nature of literacy and provide for the diverse needs of many class-
rooms since teachers must execute the plan of the commercial program
without making adjustments (Cassidy & Cassidy, 2004–2005). Indeed, in
English Learners 23
research conducted with English-only children in urban school settings,

Moustafa and Land (2002) found scripted reading instruction to be less
effective than reading instruction where teachers are allowed to exercise
their professional judgment and match instruction to instructional needs.
The debate over the best curriculum and instructional techniques to
support English learners in acquiring academic language on the level of
their native English-speaking peers has been hampered by issues such
as limited experimental evidence and some common misconceptions
about effective instruction for English learners (Harper & de Jong, 2004).
Understanding these misconceptions and their implications can help all
educators create a strong program to support the language development
and school achievement of English learners.
Topping the list of misconceptions about English learners is that
their needs “do not differ significantly from those of other diverse learn-
ers” (Harper & de Jong, 2004, p. 152). Stemming from this is the belief
that “exposure and interaction will result in English-language learning”
(p. 153). Indeed, some children’s picture books intended to create an
awareness of the difficulties in language adjustment, may actually con-
tribute to misconceptions. For instance, Unhei in The Name Jar (Choi,
2001, TL4–5, A, F) leaves Korea and enters an American school 1 week
later. Throughout the story, little mention is made of any struggle related
to understanding English although Unhei’s mother asks at the beginning
of the book, “Did you understand the teacher?” When Unhei nods, her
mother responds, “I’m glad you are learning English well. . . .” Unhei is
able to understand and interact with her peers, and the only source of
concern, as the title seems to indicate, is her name. She debates whether
she should adopt an American name that is easier to pronounce and may
lead to less teasing at school. In another picture book, Hannah Is My
Name (Yang, 2004, TL4–5, A, F), readers meet a young Chinese girl
who enters first grade and the only English she knows is “Hannah is
my name.” She makes rapid progress, however, and after a brief period
of time—what appears to be a semester or less—Hannah is able to read
one of the Curious George books independently when she and her father
visit the books and periodicals section of the Woolworth’s store. Finally,
in The Upside Down Boy (Herrera, 2000, TL3–5, A, F), Juanito moves in
record time from non-English speaking, struggling to understand words
such as recess and beautiful, to writing a poem in English complete with
metaphorical images as a result of his teacher reading a new poem aloud
to the class each day for only a week.
Krashen (1987) and others have advocated the importance of com-
prehensible input for language learning, yet, we know that the progres-
sion of grade-level classrooms, textbooks, and standardized assessments

require students to negotiate increasingly complex and abstract concepts
(Lightbown & Spada, 1990; Spada & Lightbown, 1993). Therefore, teach-
ers must provide targeted instruction, modeling the academic language
needed to perform the required tasks. Fillmore (2002, n.p.) explains that
academic English tends to
• Be more precise and specific in reference (personal, object, con-

cepts, time, place, relational, etc.) than everyday English.
• Make greater use of vocabulary that is Latin or Greek in origin.
• Be more complex syntactically.
• Be more dependent on “text” than on “context” for interpreta-
tion.
• Be more cognitively demanding than everyday English.
• Use distinctive grammatical constructions and devices, vocabu-
lary, rhetorical conventions, and discourse.
• Be learned in school—but not without instructional attention.
Related to the misconception that exposure alone will provide for lan-
guage acquisition is the idea that the interaction between English learn-
ers and their peers in group work provides adequate input and practice
for English language development. On the one hand, research indicates
that small-group learning activities in cooperative learning can be an
effective vehicle for learning content and learning in a second language
(Klingner & Vaughn, 1996). For instance, Muñiz-Swicegood (1994) found
that by working in small cooperative groups learning how to generate
and answer questions about what they were reading, students scored bet-
ter on reading comprehension measures than students using basal read-
ing approaches. Calderon suggests that “cooperative learning is effective
when students have an interesting well-structured task such as a set of
discussion questions around a story they just read, producing a cognitive
map of the story, or inventing a puppet show to highlight character traits”
(2001, p. 280). Conversely, others stress that even with a highly struc-
tured cooperative learning activity, English learners may not possess the
proficiency needed to participate effectively in the task by using language
skills such as questioning, agreeing, disagreeing, interrupting, present-
ing an opinion, or asking for clarification or assistance (Pica, 1994; Swain,
1985, 1995). Therefore, teachers must consider both the task structure
and the linguistic demands of classroom activities including the language
of classroom discourse and small-group participation.
English Learners 25
Closely linked to the misconception of homogeneity across groups—

that the needs of English learners are not that dissimilar from other
learners and that the process of language learning, be it a first or another
language, is not that different—is the idea of within-group similarity.
In other words, all English learners develop their new language “in the
same way and at the same rate” (Harper & de Jong, 2004, p. 154). Noth-
ing could be farther from the truth; the diversity among English learners
in the classroom is quite challenging. And, while there are identifiable
stages of language development as highlighted in the preceding section,
there are a variety of family, cultural, and language factors that can assist
or cause difficulties for language acquisition. For instance, more rapid
progress in language learning can occur depending on the literacy foun-
dation brought to school. As noted earlier, language acquisition research
indicates that an individual’s knowledge and ability in the first language
is the best predictor of success for second-language acquisition (Snow,
1993), and as children’s first teachers, parents help to lay that foundation.
In several children’s picture books, readers are afforded glimpses of fam-
ily literacy in the home language or in English. For instance, in Good-
bye, 382 Shin Dang Dong (Park & Park, 2002, TL4–5, A, F), Jangmi
writes letters in Korean to her friend, Kisuni, back home, and Jangmi’s
father is obviously proficient in English as he reads an American news-
paper and teaches Jangmi the meaning of her name in English, “Rose.”
Similarly, Yoon’s father (My Name Is Yoon, Recorvits, 2002, TL3–5, P,
F) teaches her to print every letter in the English alphabet before she
attends her first day of school. Lastly, in My Diary from Here to There
(Perez, 2002, TL4–5, A, F), Amada doesn’t yet know English, but her
literacy in Spanish is evident as she lovingly fills her journal with writing.
These examples represent linguistic competence that can assist in learn-
ing a new language. A different type of family issue that can influence
language acquisition is depicted in The Color of Home (Hoffman, 2002,
TL4–5, A, F), as Hassan, a young Somali, has to work through difficult
emotional issues he has brought with him to America because his uncle
was killed by soldiers before his family fled Somalia.
A final point that Harper and de Jong (2004) offer is that teachers
must examine the role of language in teaching and learning. Indeed, one
of the pervasive suggestions for working with English learners has been
to combine the teaching of language and content. This issue has impor-
tant implications for content teachers who do not view themselves as lan-
guage teachers and who are largely unaware of the language demands
of their discipline. As a general rule, content teachers view their role as
providing the conceptual background for a specific discipline such as sci-

ence or math. Further, because they have a specialization in that content
area, they tend to forget the distinctive literacy demands of the curricu-
lum in their field. Recent research has also questioned the effectiveness
of combining content and language teaching noting that invariably this
led to sacrifices in the area of language development (Gersten & Baker,
2002). Echevarria, Vogt, and Short (2008) attempt to address these criti-
cisms with the SIOP (Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol), which
requires significant teaching skills in both English language development
and content instruction along with clearly defined language and content
objectives, modified curriculum, supplementary materials, and alterna-
tive assessments.
In order to effectively address language and content objectives,
teachers must carefully consider both the language and the cognitive
“load” of instruction (Meyer, 2000). In terms of language load, content
teachers should take into account the vocabulary of the discipline includ-
ing the specific terms, both technical and common words, as well as the
language of classroom interaction and instructions. The cognitive load
refers to the difficulty of the concepts presented in class and the level of
the materials used to convey the material. A primary example of cogni-
tive load is the content textbook that often drives subject area instruction
in the intermediate grades and beyond. The organization of a text can be
classified as considerate (reader-friendly) or inconsiderate (Armbruster &
Anderson, 1985). A reader-friendly, considerate text presents information
so that even a reader with limited background knowledge feels that the
information will be relatively easy to learn. Unfortunately, most content
textbooks are not considerate; thus, they increase the cognitive load for
the learner. Children’s literature, on the other hand, offers a perfect solu-
tion to the problems of inconsiderate texts with a variety of books with
reader-friendly characteristics. The many genres of literature accompa-
nied by the array of formats, subjects, and authorial styles provide a rich
source of meaningful input for English learners and serve to push stu-
dents beyond the normal limits of both home and school language. Such
a range of topics and language afford the flexibility to meet the diverse
linguistic proficiency levels and cultural backgrounds found in today’s
classroom.
In terms of planning content, Gersten and Baker (2002, n.p.) argue,
“effective teachers intentionally vary cognitive and language demands to
achieve specific goals. In short, when cognitive demands are high, lan-
guage expectations are simplified.” There is after all “a profound differ-
ence between having a superficial conversational ability in a language
English Learners 27
and having the deeper level of competence required to understand dif-

ficult new subjects, to express subtleties of meaning, and to write a well-
argued and well-phrased term paper” (Suárez-Orozco & Suárez-Orozco,
2001, p. 138). As an example, Figure 1.1 presents a view of curriculum
and instruction in relationship to language demands. The left two quad-
rants (Quadrants I and II) focus on informal or social and less academic
language that makes fewer demands on English learners. Quadrant I
involves language that is both easy to understand as well as highly con-
textualized through teacher and peer as well as text support while Quad-
rant II addresses social language with less of the face-to-face context or
Nonacademic Academic or
or Lower-Cognitive-Load Activities Higher-Cognitive-Load Activities
Quadrant I Quadrant III
•• Developing survival vocabulary/ •• Developing academic vocabulary
social language •• Understanding academic
CONTEXTUALIZED LANGUAGE
•• Following demonstrated directions
LOWER-LANGUAGE LOAD
presentations accompanied by
and classroom routines visuals, demonstrations, etc.
•• Playing simple games with visual •• Participating in hands-on
cues content activities and academic
•• Engaging in face-to-face discussions
interactions •• Making brief oral presentations,
•• Answering lower-level questions e.g., debriefing from group work
•• Understanding written texts
through discussion, illustrations,
and visuals
•• Writing simple science and social
studies reports with format
provided
Quadrant II Quadrant IV
CONTEXT-FREE LANGUAGE
HIGHER-LANGUAGE LOAD
•• Following simple verbal •• Understanding academic

instructions presentations without visuals or
•• Developing initial reading demonstrations
skills: decoding and literal •• Making formal oral presentations
comprehension •• Engaging in inferential and critical
•• Reading and writing for personal reading
purposes •• Writing compositions and reports
•• Writing answers to lower-level in content subjects
questions •• Solving math word problems
without illustrations
•• Taking standardized tests
FIGURE 1.1. Curriculum and instruction planning framework. Based on Chamot and
O’Malley (1987).
text support that can enhance understanding. To the right, Quadrants

III and IV focus on academic language that is more challenging to Eng-
lish learners but essential to their success in school. However, the tasks
in Quadrant III involve language that is more contextualized. In other
words, academic content is introduced through hands-on or highly visual
instruction and materials with text support that provides the scaffolding
to master the concepts. Quadrant IV focuses on the most challenging lan-
guage for all learners. The presentation of academic content without visu-
als or demonstrations to assist understanding is very demanding. When
working at the Quadrant IV level, teachers need to build the appropriate
background knowledge for students prior to the lesson and text assign-
ment. In Chapter 2, this same framework is presented again with chil-
dren’s literature recommendations for each quadrant.
Conclusion
In summary, educators need to “guard against a ‘one-size-fits-all’ mind-

set, looking for the one best program for all [English learners]. Instead,
the focus must be on implementation of optimal programs in local schools
for local communities” (Christian, 2004, p. 5). Teachers must focus on the
students’ needs to determine the best fit for the materials used. Litera-
ture offers the flexibility and strong support to fit the range of English
learners’ language development.
“The real challenge for schools today is not the growing number of
[English learners], but the school’s continuing need to do a far better job
of delivering instruction to them in English” (Christian, 2004, p. 5). A
committed teacher with a beginning understanding of English learners’
family background, issues in cultural adjustment, and some basic prin-
ciples of language acquisition is a foundation that can make all the dif-
ference to a child’s success in school. The next chapter examines criteria
for choosing wisely from the tremendous variety of available children’s
literature and selecting materials that match the proficiency levels of
English learners.
Writing the
Muslim A
merican Experience
A sma Mobin-Uddin
As a pediatrician, I have always encouraged new parents

in my practice to introduce books to their infants very
early in life. When I had my first child, I was excited to
do the same. I bought wonderful books for my daughter—
fuzzy chicken books, alphabet board books, mommy-
loves-you-so-much-she-can’t-stand-it books, and together,
we shared them all. But there was one type of book I
searched and searched for but could not find: books that
accurately reflected our cultural and religious experience
being a Muslim American family.
My children and I were all born in and grew up in
America as Muslims. We are not alone in combining this
national and religious identity. “There are more American
Muslims than there are American Episcopalians, Jews,
or Presbyterians,” Harvard professor Diana Eck noted on
the website about her book, A New Religious America. Yet,
I found very few children’s books in America’s libraries or
bookstores that authentically represented the experience
of this community.
So I had two main reasons for starting to write books
for children. I wanted to introduce accurate books about
the Muslim American experience to the general commu-
nity, and I wanted to write books that Muslim American
kids would see themselves in.
My first book, My Name Is Bilal, is about a Muslim
American boy, Bilal, who is afraid to let his classmates
know that he is Muslim. Trying to hide his religious
identity, he tells his class that his name is Bill. His sister,
who wears the traditional Islamic headscarf, is being
harassed, and Bilal is feeling guilty about not standing
up for her. As he learns more about his religious heritage
Copyright by Asma Mobin-Uddin.
29
and the beloved figure in Islamic history for whom he is
named, Bilal grows more comfortable with his religious
identity and finds the courage to be himself.
Part of Bilal’s struggles for self-acceptance reflects
the struggle for identity that I went through growing
up as a Muslim child in a small Ohio town that had few
Muslim families. The specifics of the story in My Name
Is Bilal reflect struggles in the Muslim American expe-
rience. I hope that by encouraging kids and adults to
discuss issues relating to religious and ethnic diversity,
the book will lead to greater tolerance, understanding,
and respect in our communities. However, my overall
purpose in writing this book was not limited to raising
awareness about this community. I wanted the book to
inspire children in general to be true to themselves and to
learn to accept and cherish their own identity, instead of
being afraid of what others might think about them. My
Name Is Bilal won the Paterson Prize for Books for Young
People, grades 4–6.
My second book, The Best Eid Ever, is about a Muslim
American girl on Eid al-Adha, the biggest holiday of the
Muslim year. Aneesa’s parents are away at the Hajj pil-
grimage and her grandmother from Pakistan has come to
spend Eid with her. Initially, she misses her parents and
feels sad that she has to spend the holiday without them.
After meeting a refugee family at the morning prayer
service, Aneesa and her grandmother carry out a plan
to make sure the family’s holiday is special. The themes
in this book are ones that resonate with most children,
regardless of cultural background. These themes include
facing a holiday without a loved one, the special relation-
ship between a child and her grandparent, and the real-
ization that what makes a holiday special is not how much
you get but how much you give. The Best Eid Ever was
recognized with a 2008 Skipping Stones Honor Award, a
2009 Storytelling World Resource Award, and the 2008
Middle East Outreach Council Book Award Honorable
Mention.
30
In A Party in Ramadan, young Leena is excited about
fasting during the upcoming month of Ramadan with her
family. Then she faces a challenge when she is invited to
a classmate’s party during the time she is not supposed to
eat or drink anything during the day. How Leena nego-
tiates being true to her faith and having fun with her
friends is the basis of this story. This book was selected
for a 2009 Parents’ Choice Award (Approved category).
Children’s books have always been an important way
that kids have learned about others. Books and educa-
tion about other cultures can help children from diverse
backgrounds connect with each other on a human level,
bypassing the walls of mistrust, anger, and ignorance
that adults sometimes build. Educating children about
other cultures early in life lays the groundwork for a
lifetime of acceptance, respect, and understanding.
During my entire childhood growing up in Ohio, I
never once read a book that had a Muslim girl charac-
ter in it. To be able to share these types of stories with
my own three children today is especially important to
me. I really enjoy seeing my children’s delight when they
identify with the characters and recognize themselves,
their traditions, and their heritage in the books we read.
31
C h a p t e r Tw o
Matching Books to English Learners
Slowly like clouds lifting, things became

clearer.
Sticks and chicken feet became letters.
Sputters and coughs became words.
And the words had meanings.
Every day Mari understood more and more.
Misapeechi became Mr. Petrie.
Waisha became Rachel, Kista became Kristin,
Ahbe became Albert, and Patik became
Patrick.
—A liki, Marianthe’s Story: Painted Words
and Spoken Memories
(Greenwillow, 1998)
English learners do not have the luxury of an extended time frame to

acclimate to their new language. They experience heavy cognitive
demands when asked to quickly learn both language and content to par-
ticipate fully in the school curriculum. Placing comprehensible materials
in English learners’ hands helps them develop and practice as readers and
writers in a new language. Research underscores the importance of time
spent reading and time spent reading appropriate texts. “There is consid-
erable evidence that providing access to books results in more reading
and better reading and considerable evidence that providing time to read
results in better reading” (Krashen, 2003, p. 26). Further, readers who
practice the reading process often with textual material matched to their
abilities become fluent, build their vocabulary, and increase their skills
while children who read less or do not have books matched to their abili-
ties increasingly fall behind their peers (Stanovich, 1985).
33
The process of matching text to reader is complex, however. Many

teachers are uncertain about the factors that influence readability and
consequently, may choose books that are too easy or too hard. The aim
is to find books that are in a reader’s “zone of proximal development”
(Vygotsky, 1978) or that furnish optimal input for the English learner
(Krashen, 1985). In other words, learners need texts that are fine-tuned,
slightly beyond their independent reading level, but not so far beyond
that they are not able to handle them without teacher support. Texts that
are too easy will not contribute to English language development, and
texts that are too hard will be beyond the student’s grasp and lead to
frustration (Scarcella, 1990). As teachers select books of increasing dif-
ficulty, but within the zone of proximal development, they must support,
or scaffold, readers so they continue to grow and attain higher levels of
functioning.
To assist teachers, many tools for matching texts to readers have
been developed including readability formulas, decodability, vocabulary
control systems, and qualitative leveling (Mesmer, 2008). Each of these
methods has strengths and weaknesses, but a critical missing variable is
that they do not specifically address the growing population of English
learners in schools. They provide general grade levels or indications of
readability, in the case of readability formulas, or they are based on begin-
ning reading needs, not necessarily those of English learners. Teachers
working with English learners must consider some unique needs and
additional language factors that influence literacy and language develop-
ment. The goal, however, is always selecting quality reading text. Thus,
this chapter considers current tools for matching texts to readers, the gap
between what exists and what is needed, and important criteria teachers
must consider when selecting books for English learners.
Tools for Matching Books to Readers
Readability formulas (e.g., Fry, Flesch–Kincaid) are among the oldest text
analysis tools and represent an objective measure to estimate textual dif-
ficulty in terms of reading grade level. Such formulas examine word level
and/or sentence difficulty. Longer, multisyllabic words and longer, more
complex sentences are indicators of more difficult text. While readability
formulas are reliable and offer an easy method to calculate a quantitative
measure of difficulty, they have limitations. For instance, the grade-level
estimates are not exact and can vary from one-half to several grade levels
depending on the formula used, they are not sensitive enough for begin-
Matching Books to English Learners 35
ning readers, and perhaps, most importantly for English learners, they do
not necessarily reflect readers’ interests, background knowledge, content,
or motivation (Mesmer, 2008). Readability formulas are an estimate—a
beginning point, and teachers need to clearly understand that reading is
a transactional process between the reader and the text. Therefore, they
must consider not only the text but also the students and the educational
context.
Basal collections, high-interest/low-readability materials, and mate-
rials written for struggling readers and English learners have routinely
been adapted using readability formulas. To modify the text, authors
employ “fractured and narrow” language that many students find unnat-
ural (Goodman, Shannon, Freeman, & Murphy, 1988). These authors
often write to the formulas restricting sentence length and word diffi-
culty. “The text is narrowed by the process of revision. The revision may
involve shortening sentences, substituting more frequent for less frequent
words and phrases, using shorter words, simplifying syntax, eliminat-
ing or modifying plot features. Or it may be a synthetic text, one that
is produced by the authors and editors of the basals to fit their scope
and sequence criteria” (Goodman et al., 1988, p. 85). In general, students
find this unnatural text difficult to understand. The language is less pre-
dictable, and it is difficult for them to apply their understanding of story
structure and English syntax to their reading.
Lexiles and Degrees of Reading Power (DRP) are second-generation
readability formulas (Mesmer, 2008). Using technology, Lexiles and
DRPs have more comprehensive word difficulty lists, and they sample
substantive portions of text. Based on these tools, the resulting read-
ability is measured not in grade levels but in unique units. The Lexile
Framework breaks text into hundreds of difficulty steps from 200 to 1,700
and the DRP from 15 to 85. While these tools allow for more sensitivity
than grade-level measurements, teachers may not understand the Lexile
or DRP units and again, they are measures focused on the text and not
the reader. For instance, it is possible to have a text with fairly simple to
decode but uncommon words that would receive a high readability score
(easy to read) when in fact it is not.
Because readability formulas are not sensitive or precise enough
to match texts to beginning readers, supports such as decodable text,
vocabulary control, and qualitative leveling have been used. Decodable
readers or phonics readers assist readers with letter–sound knowledge
while vocabulary-controlled materials “pace the introduction of new
words within and across stories” (Mesmer, 2008, p. 89). Qualitatively lev-
eled books are ones that gradually increase in difficulty according to a
text gradient (Mesmer, 2008). The leveling is holistic, based not on quan-
titative features such as number of words in a sentence as in readability
formulas but on qualitative information about many text features. Quali-
tative leveling considers language issues (sentence complexity, organiza-
tion, style, and predictability), content features (familiarity, genre, and
vocabulary), and text format (length, print, layout, and illustrations). Each
of these support systems can assist beginning readers; however, the first
two methods in particular, with their single-criterion and controlled
material often result in boring or stilted stories since they are “manufac-
tured” text.
Matching Books to English Learners
The previously mentioned tools focus on the text, but the written word is
just one part of the reading equation. The reader also influences the text-
matching process. Teachers must consider factors such as readers’ abilities
(reading level, attention, memory), their motivation (purpose for reading,
interests, self-efficacy), and their knowledge (first language, prior knowl-
edge, and print and alphabetic understanding) (Mesmer, 2008). Under-
standing English learners’ backgrounds and abilities helps teachers to
select texts, shaped, of course, by language-acquisition research. Text
selection should be based on an understanding of what English learners
are learning about their new language, how they learn it, and the text
features that can provide support for language and literacy development.
In addition, decisions need to be related to the language and literacy
strategies and skills that English learners are acquiring, and those that
they are moving toward learning (Hiebert, 1998).
Unfortunately, teachers worry that English learners will not be able
to handle authentic materials such as trade books given that they are
often encountering the reading/writing process for the first time along-
side learning English. And, even when English learners enter our schools
later and have mastered the reading process, teachers frequently feel
more secure with “special” materials adapted for this population. Thus,
publishers have responded to these concerns by creating artificial text
with vocabulary and sentence structure targeted at various reading lev-
els and with adaptations through readability formulas or decodable or
vocabulary-controlled stories. However, these “simplified” materials rob
English learners of an authentic language opportunity and may contrib-
ute to boredom, frustration, and the feeling that they are being labeled
“remedial.” Hiebert (1998) further maintains that “engaging literature—
rather than—the highly controlled contrived texts invites children to

reread, a primary way to learn about the relationship between oral and
written language” (p. 199). Also, Johnson (1981) argues that students who
read adapted materials may have difficulties transitioning to and reading
materials of normal length and structural patterns that contain linguistic
cues and low-frequency words. Finally, and perhaps most importantly in
this age of accountability and high-stakes testing, various research studies
(Rosenshine, Meister, & Chapman, 1996; Guthrie, Schafer, VonSecker,
& Alban, 2000) have established “unequivocally that using abundant
diverse texts for reading instruction produces higher achievement than
using fewer, more constrained materials” (Guthrie, 2003, p. 124). So, just
as the classroom reflects diversity, selected reading materials should be
varied, cutting across the genres as noted in Figure 2.1.
Allen (1994, p. 112) recommends that selected texts should accom-
plish the following with English learners:
• Encourage them to choose to read.

• Help them discover the values and functions of written language.
• Permit them to use written language for a wide range of pur-
poses.
• Be appropriate for their age and interest level.
• Take into account their cultural and conceptual background.
• Make use of their native languages when possible.
• Support their acquisition of English.
Fiction: Picture Books Poetry

•• ABC and Counting Books •• Anthologies and Single-Topic/
•• Concept Books Thematic Collections
•• Wordless Picture Books •• Single-Author Collections
•• Predictable Books •• Poem and Song Picture Books
•• Picture Storybooks Nonfiction
Fiction: Traditional Literature •• ABC and Counting Books
•• Folktales (Usually in Picture Book Form) •• Concept Books
Fiction: Transitional Readers, •• Survey Books
Chapter Books, Novels •• Photo Essays
•• How-To and Activity Books
•• Contemporary Realistic Fiction •• Journals and Diaries
•• Historical Fiction •• Biography (Including Picture
Book Biographies)
FIGURE 2.1. Overview of genres.

• Offer a rich array of genres.

• Have text structures that support their understanding.
These recommendations are actually more complicated than they sound.

Age suitability is typically linked to grade levels. However, English
learners may enter school alongside their native English-speaking peers
in kindergarten, or they may come to school later after immigrating to
the United States On entering school, some English learners may have a
firm grasp of their home language and may have been actively involved
in reading and writing behaviors that precede and help to develop liter-
acy. Other English learners may not come to school with well-developed
oral language or early reading and writing experiences (e.g., visual lit-
eracy and scribbling), even in their home language. As a result, picture
books, traditionally considered to be for younger children, may be the
most fitting literature choice even with older English learners. Highly
visual books help provide scaffolding as students begin by “reading the
pictures.” This can build confidence and independence, too. Fortunately,
the sophisticated illustrations as well as the mature content and themes of
some recently published picture books make them more suitable for older
audiences. Despite the fact that many picture books are adaptable across
grade levels, some themes may not be appropriate for younger readers.
Conversely, older readers may believe they have outgrown picture books,
but numerous illustrated trade books address relevant and mature con-
tent issues with multiple layers of meaning to explore. Brothers in Hope:
The Story of the Lost Boys of Sudan (Williams, 2005, TL4–5, I, F) and
The Enemy: A Book about Peace (Cali, 2009, TL3–4,I,F) are two picture
books that deal with the difficulties and senselessness of war, and both
are more appropriate for the intermediate grades and beyond.
While textbooks are “one size fits all,” literature comes in different
shapes and sizes—from picture books with just one word on each page to
transitional readers, chapter books, and novels. Literature can fit all learn-
ers and provides flexibility for instructional purposes. In the next section,
specific criteria for matching literature to English learners are presented.
Considering Criteria for Selecting Literature

for English Learners in Grades K–6
To determine the criteria for text selection for English learners, research
findings related to language acquisition and beginning reading were
considered and several important points emerged. First and foremost,

teachers need to choose instructional texts with features that promote
language acquisition and literacy development for English learners. For
instance, several features of whole texts support beginning English learn-
ers including the total amount of text, its predictability, imagability and
familiarity of concepts, and word density (the ratio of different or unique
words to total words) (Hiebert, 1998). Thus, Level 1 English learners
need shorter texts with high-frequency words, phonetically regular
words, and a repetition of word patterns. Over time as English learn-
ers move to a Level 2 or 3 language proficiency level, denser text with
more unique words can be used. Teachers must also consider features
of text that can distract English learners from attending to and applying
key skills and strategies. The most common distractions or obstacles are
text that is too dense or long and text that has unfamiliar concepts (Hie-
bert, 1998). Alternatively, illustrations and predictable syntax (repeated
phrases and episodes) are supportive text features. Still, these supports
should be varied because readers may over rely on illustrations and fail to
develop word-recognition skills (Hiebert, 1998). Finally, English learn-
ers need numerous experiences with texts as this helps them to focus
on critical features and to remember them (Juel, 1991), and they need
exposure to a variety of texts so they learn to “associate oral and written
language, to understand the functions and forms of written language,
and to distinguish the language of books from typical speech” (Hiebert,
1998, p. 213).
Taking these findings from the research on language acquisition and
literacy development, Table 2.1 highlights four criteria to guide book selec-
tions for English learners: (1) level of content familiarity or background
knowledge, (2) level of language, (3) level of textual support, and (4) level
of cultural fit, and poses guiding questions for each area that teachers can
use to more effectively select books. These criteria and the accompany-
ing guiding questions are developed more fully in the remainder of this
chapter, and then they are applied to fiction, poetry, and nonfiction in the
chapters that follow with examples of suggested books for K–6 English
learners. Teachers should keep in mind that there is no rigid or “correct”
sequence to the texts selected or the features in those texts, just as there
is no fixed sequence of skills and elements that English learners must
master as they learn their new language and develop literacy. English
learners need to be involved in many texts to move to an advanced level
of proficiency in English.
TABLE 2.1. Criteria and Guiding Questions for Selecting Literature

Criteria Guiding questions
Level of content •• What content and concepts are presented in the text? What is the
familiarity or content/conceptual load of the text? Basic and familiar? New but
background general? New and specialized?
knowledge •• Is this presentation an introduction to the content and concepts
How close a fit or is it continued conceptual development at a higher level?
is the text to the •• What is the English learner’s level of content familiarity or
English learner’s background knowledge related to the content and concepts? Is
content knowledge the concept very familiar, familiar, unfamiliar, or not common?
or background •• What content background knowledge does the learner have on
experiences? the topic/focus of the text?
•• Has the topic/focus of the text been previously covered in the
curriculum? When? At what level? What was the level of success
of English learners?
•• Is the topic/focus of the text likely to be part of the readers’
background experience? How so? How can the teacher best link
English learners’ previous experiences/understandings to the
text?
Level of language •• What is the vocabulary load of the text (e.g., basic and familiar,
How close a fit sophisticated/advanced and unfamiliar, concrete or abstract,
is the text to the general or technical/specialized, idiomatic, formal or informal,
English learner’s vocabulary with multiple meanings, figurative language)?
vocabulary •• How many new vocabulary words are presented?
and syntactic •• Does the text present new vocabulary in meaningful contextual
knowledge and language?
overall proficiency •• How likely is the English learner to encounter the vocabulary in
level? this text in other reading?
•• What is the English learner’s previous experience with the
vocabulary of the text (completely new, some exposure, should be
part of active vocabulary)? Is the vocabulary currently or likely to
be part of the English learner’s speaking vocabulary? Listening
vocabulary? Reading vocabulary? Writing vocabulary?
•• If the text is predictable, what is the size of the predictable unit
and what percent of the text does the predictable unit account
for?
•• What is the syntactic structure of the text? Word level? Phrase
level? Single simple sentences per page? Multiple simple
sentences? Short paragraphs with simple sentences? Compound
sentences? Complex sentences? Compound/complex sentences?
Embedded clauses?
•• How familiar is the English learner with those syntax patterns?
Does the English learner use that syntax pattern in speaking?
Writing?
(cont.)
TABLE 2.1. (cont.)

Level of language •• What types of text structure does the text use? Chronological?
(cont.) Sequential? Description? Listing? Cause–effect? Problem–
solution?
•• How familiar is the English learner with this text structure
pattern? Has the English learner encountered this pattern
previously?
•• What is the genre of the text?
•• How familiar is the English learner with this genre?
Level of textual •• Are there visuals (photographs or illustrations)?
support •• Are the visuals clear and direct? One-to-one correspondence
What types of of visuals to text? General connection to text? Primarily for
support does the aesthetic purposes?
text provide and •• Are there graphic aids in the text (charts, maps, tables, graphs)?
how familiar is the •• How much does the English learner know about these types of
English learner graphic aids? Has the English learner successfully used these
with these types of types of aids in previous reading? Is the general format of the aid
text support? new or familiar (e.g., different types of graphs, picture, bar, line,
circle)?
•• What types of text features are used? Print style such as bold
or italics? Headings and subheadings? Captions and labeling of
visuals/graphics? Table of contents, index, glossary?
•• How familiar is the English learner with these types of text
features?
Level of Cultural •• Is the text culturally neutral (with general diversity portrayed but
Fit no focus on a specific group)? Culturally generic (with a group
How close a featured but less specific detail provided)? Culturally specific
fit is the text (with explicit details about a group portrayed)?
to the English •• Does the text reflect the background and/or experiences of recent
learner’s cultural immigrants? U.S.-born English learners?
or experiential •• Are the characters similar or different than English learners in
background the classroom?
(ethnic, language, •• Have English learners had an experience like one described in
geographic, the story?
religious, •• Have English learners lived in or visited places like those in the
socioeconomic, story?
gender)? •• How far removed is the story from current times?
•• How close is the main character’s age to English learners’?
•• Is the main character the same gender as the reader?
•• Do the characters talk like the English learners and their
families?
•• Is this author/author style familiar to English learners?
Level of Content Familiarity or Background Knowledge

Level of content familiarity or background knowledge relates to the cog-
nitive or conceptual load for the student as opposed to the text’s language
load, vocabulary, and syntax. All readers bring their background knowl-
edge and previous exposure and understanding, or lack of knowledge,
about concepts to a text. In comparing the different genres of literature
addressed in this book, generally, nonfiction books have the highest cog-
nitive, or conceptual, load for all learners as discussed in Chapter 6 on
selecting and using nonfiction books. The content density of much infor-
mational writing makes this genre more challenging to English learn-
ers who will be learning new content and concepts via a new language.
Of course, more universal or very familiar topics in any genre will be
more accessible to the reader, and both poetry and fiction tackle content
and concepts that may prove challenging, as in single-topic collections of
poetry on math and science topics or picture books that explore different
historical eras or cultures unfamiliar to the reader. As teachers examine
text with this criteria in mind, they are considering the fit of the con-
ceptual level of the text with the English learner’s content knowledge or
background experiences. A few questions can help the teacher with text
selection in the area of content familiarity and background knowledge.
• What content and concepts are presented in the text? What is the
content/conceptual load of the text? Basic and familiar? New but
general? New and specialized?
• Is this presentation an introduction to the content and concepts or
is it continued conceptual development at a higher level?
• What is the English learner’s level of content familiarity or back-
ground knowledge related to the content and concepts? Is the con-
cept very familiar, familiar, unfamiliar, or not common?
• What content background knowledge does the learner have on the
topic/focus of the text?
• Has the topic/focus of the text been previously covered in the cur-
riculum? When? At what level? What was the level of success of
English learners?
• Is the topic/focus of the text likely to be part of the readers’ back-
ground experience? How so? How can the teacher best link Eng-
lish learners’ previous experiences/understandings to the text?
When students already know about a concept in their own language,

transitioning to a book in English about the same concept is not so over-
whelming as they can build on their current knowledge base. For Level
1 English learners, texts need to be related to basic or “survival” topics
and concepts that are needed quickly by these students who are new to
English and perhaps new to the United States. Books focused on basic
concepts such as time, money (The Coin Counting Book, Williams, 2001,
TL1–3, A, NF), school, colors (Carlos Likes Colors, Spanyol, 2003, TL1,
P, F), clothing, days of the week, months of the year, signs and symbols,
foods, weather (Where Does the Wind Blow? Rink, 2002, TL2–3, A, F),
family, homes and houses, occupations, and animals furnish essential
initial reading material. Ann Morris’s concept book on transportation,
On the Go (1994, TL1–4, A, NF), Taro Miura’s books on measurement,
Ton (2006, TL1–2, P, NF) and tools used in various jobs, Tools (2007,
TL1–2, P, NF), Kathleen Krull’s introduction to the Supermarket (2001,
TL2–4, A, NF), and Jeff Smith’s humorous book about getting dressed,
Little Mouse Gets Ready (2009, TL1–2, P, F) offer minimal text, simple
details, and clear illustrations as scaffolds so that English learners can
master concepts.
As noted earlier, for all text selections, teachers need to consider
features in the text that promote language acquisition along with liter-
acy development, and for this specific criteria, conceptual development.
For instance, authors use analogies or comparisons of new information
to knowledge that readers may already possess. Single-topic poetry
collections, or thematic poetry collections, on content subjects such as
math, science, and social studies offer a focus on one topic with dif-
ferent poems that may allow for repetition of concepts or information.
Also, many nonfiction authors use layers of information in their books,
a type of spiral curriculum, that revisits the information with increas-
ing depth. These layers of information are presented on the same page,
but content presented within the main text may also be supplemented
with additional content information and resources at the end of the text.
Multilayer text is helpful for meeting the needs of English learners at
different proficiency and conceptual levels. If multilayer books are not
available on certain concepts, however, part of the process of text selec-
tion is to enable teachers to build collections of books, or text sets, that
target different levels of content density, a practice discussed in Chapter
3 with narrow reading. Of course, teachers will support English learn-
ers and the content by selecting books related to classroom activities
already going on—a lesson, a special event, or a shared experience. This
provides for needed repetition and reinforcement of concepts encoun-
tered in the text.
Level of Language
The language load is related to word- and text-level issues. At the word
level, teachers must consider the word density or the ratio of different or
unique words to total words (Hiebert, 1998) along with the use of high-
frequency words, phonetically regular words, and word patterns. Other
word-level concerns take account of concrete versus abstract vocabulary,
literal versus figurative language, the level of academic language, and
the use of dialect or slang. At the text level, considerations center around
the amount of text, the type of text from simple phrases or sentences to
more complex ones, and the use of predictable, repetitive text. To select
appropriate books for English learners, the teacher must judge how close
a fit the text is to students’ vocabulary and syntactic knowledge and their
overall language proficiency level. Some guiding questions as teachers
examine books for language include the following:
• What is the vocabulary load of the text (e.g., basic and familiar,
sophisticated/advanced and unfamiliar, concrete or abstract, gen-
eral or technical/specialized, idiomatic, formal or informal, vocab-
ulary with multiple meanings, figurative language)?
• How many new vocabulary words are presented?
• Does the text present new vocabulary in meaningful contextual
language?
• How likely is the English learner to encounter the vocabulary in
this text in other reading?
• What is the English learner’s previous experience with the vocab-
ulary of the text (completely new, some exposure, should be part of
active vocabulary)? Is the vocabulary currently or likely to be part
of the English learner’s speaking vocabulary? Listening vocabu-
lary? Reading vocabulary? Writing vocabulary?
• If the text is predictable, what is the size of the predictable unit
and what percent of text does the predictable unit account for?
• What is the syntactic structure of the text? Word level? Phrase
level? Single simple sentences per page? Multiple simple sen-
tences? Short paragraphs with simple sentences? Compound
Embedded clauses?
• How familiar is the English learner with those syntax patterns?
Writing?
• What types of text structure does the text use? Chronologi-

cal? Sequential? Description? Listing? Cause–effect? Problem–
solution?
• How familiar is the English learner with this text structure pat-
tern? Has the English learner encountered this pattern previ-
ously?
• What is the genre of the text?
• How familiar is the English learner with this genre?
Beyond judging if the language of the text is accessible to the English

learner, teachers should also take into account the potential of the text to
develop language and literacy skills such as increasing word knowledge or
introducing different sentence patterns that might contribute to growth
in writing and speaking ability. While basic vocabulary and syntax assist
beginning English learners to comprehend text, they need encounters
with varied text, so that their language ability is constantly developing.
Comparing the language load of fiction, poetry, and nonfiction, all
can vary from basic to complex, and each genre has factors that contrib-
ute to difficulties or distractions to the English learner. Nonfiction text
can be challenging because of the academic language and technical and
specialized vocabulary. Poetry and fiction, on the other hand, may be
highly descriptive with intensity of feeling and use of abstract and figura-
tive language. The issues related to the level of language in each genre
are discussed in separate upcoming chapters.
As with content complexity, good authors use techniques that support
beginning English learners with the language of the text. For instance,
authors use words with high imagery, ones with clear and concrete
images, such as nouns and actions, as these are more easily understood
even without illustrations (Paivio, 1968; van der Veur, 1975). On the other
hand, most high-frequency words (e.g., the, of, and, a, to, in, is you, that,
it) are low-imagery words and must be memorized. Along with familiar,
concrete terms, authors may use simple, direct phrases or sentences. Or,
when more elaboration is needed, they may use multilevel text; a simple
sentence to introduce and then multiple sentences to a paragraph or more
of text for additional explanation. In addition, authors can present new
vocabulary in meaningful context that supports comprehension of the key
terms. An author’s writing style influences the language level and read-
ability of text. Some authors choose a conversational tone or voice even
for nonfiction text, and English learners may find informal and personal
informational text more engaging. A characteristic of expository writing
is the use of organizational patterns or text structures such as chronologi-

cal, sequential, description, listing, cause–effect, comparison–contrast,
and problem–solution. These text structures are signaled by key terms
to point out the pattern of organization. Finally, predictability is another
way that authors support readers with the language load as how texts are
structured influences meaning-making (Beck, McKeown, Omanson, &
Pople, 1984). Hiebert (1998) notes two aspects of predictability that are
particularly important to the reader: the size of the repeated unit and
the proportion of the text accounted for by the repeated unit. The more
that repetition is in the text, the more beginning English learners are
able to apply their knowledge and to read fluently. As English learners
develop their language proficiency and literacy ability, scaffolds such as
high-imagery words and predictable, repetitive text are gradually with-
drawn so that learners practice their skills and knowledge in their new
language.
Level of Textual Support

“Interesting texts are well organized, illustrated, and aligned with the
child’s conceptual knowledge base” (Guthrie, 2003, p. 124). In fact,
cognitive psychologists found that how texts are structured influences
meaning-making (Beck et al., 1984; Stein & Glenn, 1979). In terms of
organization, a text can be classified as considerate (reader-friendly) or
inconsiderate (Anderson & Armbruster, 1986). A considerate text presents
information so that even a reader with limited background knowledge
feels that the information will be relatively easy to learn. For instance,
visual layout is one organizational issue. As English learners turn from
page to page, they know what to expect in alphabet and counting books
and question–answer books as these books have a consistent and predict-
able organizational pattern that make them user-friendly. In terms of text
selection, teachers try to find considerate books, ones with strong text
support, for English learners. To evaluate the level of text support, teach-
ers can ask the following questions:
• Are there visuals (photographs or illustrations)?

• Are the visuals clear and direct? One-to-one correspondence of
visuals to text? General connection to text? Primarily for aesthetic
purposes?
• Are there graphic aids in the text (charts, maps, tables, graphs)?
• How much does the English learner know about these types of
graphic aids? Has the English learner successfully used these

types of aids in previous reading? Is the general format of the aid
new or familiar (e.g., different types of graphs, picture, bar, line,
circle)?
• What types of text features are used? Print style such as bold or
italics? Headings and subheadings? Captions and labeling of visu-
als/graphics? Table of contents, index, glossary?
• How familiar is the English learner with these types of text fea-
tures?
When word knowledge is limited, readers rely on other cues to help

them “figure out” the meaning of text. The illustrations in children’s
books today are often ideal for this purpose. As Hiebert (1998, p. 212)
notes, “Clear and salient illustrations of the key concepts in a book are a
primary means whereby children are ‘invited’ into books.” The concept
books of Tana Hoban, in particular, are driven by vivid photographs that
depict spatial relationships in Over, Under, Through (2008, TL1–3, A,
NF) or antonyms in Exactly the Opposite (1997, TL1–3, A, NF). The use
of large color photographs in Seymour Simon’s many nonfiction books
(Wolves, 2009; Whales, 2006; Sharks, 2006, TL3–5, A, NF) also help stu-
dents unlock the meaning of the text. Lois Ehlert cleverly uses illustra-
tions along with increasing page size to highlight the life-cycle stages of
a butterfly in Waiting for Wings (2001, TL1–3, A, NF). In Biggest, Stron-
gest, Fastest, Steve Jenkins (1995, TL1–4, A, NF) supplies the reader
with helpful graphics to compare the size of various animals to familiar
objects for the reader. This visual dimension of some books makes them
especially helpful as a link to the more difficult content and concepts
across the curriculum. To be useful, however, illustrations must connect
to concepts and words that English learners are familiar with. For exam-
ple, On the Way to the Beach (Cole, 2003, TL2–4, A, NF) appears to be
a basic text about the plants and animals at the beach. The author offers
a simple sentence: “I sat at the edge of the marsh and peered through the
tall cordgrass. I saw . . . .” Readers turn the page and unfold it to display
a list of all the animals (e.g., a snowy egret, a diamondback terrapin) in
the marsh. There is no other support to directly link the animals in the
illustrations to their names. Further, of the nine animals listed, none are
common except the mosquito.
In comparing the genre, nonfiction literature and expository text-
books may have the most forms of textual support from photographs and
captioned illustrations, bold and italicized print, graphic aids (e.g., charts,
graphs, maps), and text features such as the index, glossary, and table of
contents. These features support the conceptual load of nonfiction text
helping the reader construct meaning. There is far less text support with
poetry where the emphasis is more on the language itself. Poets use vivid
description to create visual images or rhythm and rhyme to create a musi-
cal quality to the text. The poem picture book may be one exception as
this is an illustrated version of a single poem as the text. The single-poem
focus with accompanying illustrations supports English learners’ com-
prehension.
Level of Cultural Fit

The multicultural nature of classrooms and schools calls for books that
speak to diverse cultures, language groups, and lifestyles. Books with
this cultural connection help students, both those new to this country
as well as those born here, see that many cultures and experiences are
represented and valued here. Looking for books that are culturally rel-
evant to the lives of students is an important variable in text selection.
For the purposes of the criteria for text selection, cultural fit is used to
encompass ethnicity or cultural background, language, geography, reli-
gion, socioeconomic status, and gender. As teachers are thinking through
issues of cultural fit, they are trying not to limit books to only those that
reflect the children in their classrooms, although teachers should be con-
cerned about selecting books with a range of cultural representations so
that all children can see themselves reflected in literature. Instead, they
are making decisions about the cultural accuracy and the depth of cul-
tural detail as well as the type of background knowledge students, in
particular, English learners, may need to comprehend the text. As teach-
ers examine books for cultural accuracy and detail, they should take into
account whether a book is culturally specific with explicit details about
a group, culturally generic with a group featured but less specific detail
provided, or culturally neutral with general diversity portrayed but with-
out a focus on a specific group. Culturally specific books are the ulti-
mate goal for cultural relevance, but for Level 1 and 2 English learn-
ers, culturally specific books about unfamiliar cultures and topics may
be too challenging in terms of terminology and background knowledge
needed for comprehension. Also, in terms of English learners, teachers
can determine whether a book reflects the experiences of recent immi-
grants or U.S.-born English learners. Immigration, for instance, may not
be a familiar topic for U.S.-born English learners. Too, teachers should
not make assumptions about students simply because they are part of a
cultural group. All Latino children are not familiar with quinceañeras or
posadas celebrations nor are all Asian children acquainted with the lunar
New Year festivities.
As teachers consider the issue of cultural fit, they can use these guid-
ing questions, some suggested by Freeman and Freeman (2004). All of
these criteria, characters, and settings for instance, may not apply if the
text is nonfiction.
• Is the text culturally neutral (with general diversity portrayed but

no focus on a specific group)? Culturally generic (with a group fea-
tured but less specific detail provided)? Culturally specific (with
explicit details about a group portrayed)?
• Does the text reflect the background and/or experiences of recent
immigrants? U.S.-born English learners?
• Are the characters similar or different than English learners in
the classroom?
• Have English learners had an experience like one described in
the story?
• Have English learners lived in or visited places like those in the
story?
• How far removed is the story from current times?
• How close is the main character’s age to English learners’?
• Is the main character the same gender as the reader?
• Do the characters talk like the English learners and their fami-
lies?
• Is this author/author style familiar to English learners?
In comparing the genre, fiction, poetry, and nonfiction all have many
culturally relevant texts that could be effectively used with English learn-
ers. Among the many culturally relevant nonfiction books, there are pic-
ture book biographies that depict historical figures as well as photo essays
that provide a detailed snapshot of a cultural group. There are also bilin-
gual and multicultural poetry collections including Francisco Alarcón’s
collections (1997, 1998, 1999, 2005, 2008, TL3–5, A, P), Laughing Out
Loud, I Fly: A Carcajadas yo Vuelo by Juan Herrera (1998, TL4–5, I,
P), and My Mexico/ México Mío by Tony Johnston (1996, TL3–5, I, P).
And, in the fiction category, the many aspects of migrant work and His-
panic family life are beautifully depicted in Tomás and the Library Lady
(Mora, 1997, TL4–5, A, F) while How My Parents Learned to Eat (Fried-
man, 1984, TL3–5, A, F) and This Next New Year (Wong, 2000, TL2–4,
A, F) celebrate the rich traditions of families from different cultures. Just
as with limited content knowledge, though, English learners may need
additional support to access books with cultural information that is dis-
tant from their own experiences. In one research study, Johnson (1981)
found that the cultural origin of a story had more effect on the compre-
hension of English learners than the level of syntactic and semantic com-
plexity in both adapted versus unadapted text.
In the United States, there has been an increase in the number of
bilingual books published for children in a variety of formats (Ernst-
Slavit & Mulhern, 2003) from those with the complete text in two lan-
guages (Carmen Garza’s In My Family/ En Mi Familia, 2000, TL3–5, A,
NF) to those published in different versions, one book for each language
(e.g., Gary Soto’s Too Many Tamales, 1994, TL3–4, A, F, and Que Mon-
ton de Tamales!, 1996, TL3–4, A, F), as well as books in English inter-
spersed with words and phrases from another language (Pat Mora’s Con-
fetti: Poems for Children 1996, TL2–5, A, P). While the majority of books
with complete text in two languages are English–Spanish, many other
languages are being used in children’s literature as reported in the first
Bilingual Books for Children Booklist from the Association of Library
Services for Children (2005). This list of high literary quality books pub-
lished from 1995 to 1999 includes selections in Chinese, Hopi, Inuktitut,
Japanese, Khmer, Korean, Russian, Swahili, Thai, Tibetan, Vietnamese,
and of course, Spanish.
Certainly, bilingual books can be a positive reflection of the lin-
guistic diversity of the classroom. Such books support children’s English
acquisition by connecting the new language to the more familiar home
language. In addition, children who are already literate in the first lan-
guage don’t need to “learn to read” in another language. English learners
need exposure to their new language in meaningful formats, ones that
affirm their cultural background and might possibly encourage language
maintenance and not just a transition to English only. Bilingual books
are not just for the culturally and linguistically diverse student, however.
All children need opportunities to see the diversity of languages in the
United States. While children will be aware of the prevalence of Spanish
in this country (almost 80% of English learners in the schools are native
Spanish speakers), they may be completely unaware of the many other
languages used in their community or state.
The four text selection criteria—level of content familiarity or back-
ground knowledge, level of language, level of text support, and level of
cultural fit—are just one part of the text selection process, however. The
integration of selection criteria with language proficiency levels is the

next part of the process and is presented in the following section.
Linking Language Proficiencies

to Text Selection Criteria
In Chapter 1, the proficiency levels are presented in Table 1.4 as a means

of helping teachers understand the characteristics of English learners at
the various language development phases. In the preceding section of
this chapter, the four criteria for text selection are discussed and pre-
sented in Table 2.1. The next step in making sure that English learners’
proficiency levels are considered as an integral part of the text selection
criteria is to integrate the two tables as a type of checklist for teachers
to use as they examine texts while always keeping in mind the English
learners in their classrooms. The result is Appendix B, presented at the
end of this book, that matches each of the five proficiency levels—Level
1, Starting; Level 2, Emerging; Level 3, Developing; Level 4, Expanding;
and Level 5, Bridging—with the four text selection criteria noting specif-
ics to keep in mind at each step of the process.
Teachers also need to consider the reading approach when match-
ing books. English learners often need support to read books in their
new language, so teachers need to read aloud the most difficult books.
Reading aloud offers students the highest level of teacher support and
is critical for helping students experience text they could not read on
their own. Indeed, Capellini notes that books teachers read aloud to chil-
dren can be “two or three grade levels above the children’s reading level,
with the children participating interactively or the teacher modeling
reading strategies in think-alouds and the use of rich language” (2005,
p. 60). Moderately challenging books are appropriate for English learn-
ers when they receive additional support either through teacher guid-
ance (such as shared or guided reading) or in partner reading situations.
Shared and guided reading approaches are critical in helping students
develop skills and strategies they need in order to read independently.
Reading with partners and group response are also critical in supporting
students. The easiest books are best for independent reading and pro-
vide students with opportunities for what Allington (2009b) refers to as
high-success reading. “High-success reading is accurate reading, fluent
reading, and reading with understanding” (2009b, p. 51). Such reading
requires that students read with 99% accuracy. Reading independently
is the goal for all students. Indeed, teachers may be surprised to see that
some of their English learners understand more of what they read than
what they hear.
Linking Texts to Instruction

When selecting any reading material, teachers should consider instruc-

tional goals. Too often, the textbook drives instruction, and reading “real”
books is reserved for free time. Although free reading time is certainly
valuable, literature should not be relegated to that use alone. Moreover,
textbook instruction often dominates the content areas outside the lan-
guage arts—science, math, social studies—when literature could be so
easily linked to any lesson or curricular theme within the traditional
scope and sequence.
Instructional planning for the range of language proficiency levels
among English learners, sometimes in the same classroom, can be a chal-
lenging task as noted in the last section of Chapter 1 with the discussion
of the Curriculum and Instruction Planning Framework. Because the
intent of this book is to help teachers incorporate literature throughout
their instruction with English learners, Figure 2.2 extends the framework
introduced in Chapter 1 by suggesting activities and literature matched
to each of the four quadrants. The literature suggestions in the upper
quadrants (Quadrants I and III) have more text support, and therefore
less of a language load, to help English learners’ comprehension while
the lower quadrants have limited or no text support. The left two quad-
rants (Quadrants I and II) have literature suggestions with less academic
language thereby lessening the cognitive load on English learners. With
Level 1 English learners, in particular, time is needed to learn the basic
language and routines of school. Yet, content concepts must not be forgot-
ten, even with learners at the beginning proficiency levels, so the right
quadrants (Quadrants III and IV) present literature suggestions that
focus on developing academic language.
Conclusion
This chapter has outlined criteria that teachers can use to select books for
English learners and then match those criteria to the TESOL PreK–12
English Language Proficiency Standards. This is an important process
because placing meaningful materials in English language learners’
Nonacademic or Academic or
Lower-Cognitive-Load Activities Higher-Cognitive-Load Activities
Viewing/listening activities Participation activity
Follow a demonstration/directions. Make a model, chart, graph.
Examples: Examples:
• Teacher read-aloud of predictable • Participating in hands-on academic
book and students join in on repeated lessons: math manipulatives, discovery
LOWER-LANGUAGE LOAD
phrase science, drawing maps
• Total Physical Response lessons with • Participating in shared, guided, and
literature; students follow actions partner reading
• Making a timeline of events
Literature Suggestions: Books on • Writing with structured support
universal/familiar topics with simple
language and clear illustrations with text- Literature Suggestions: Books on
to-visual correspondence including the content-related topics or using academic
following: counting books, concept and language with illustrations with text-
alphabet books, wordless books, poem to-visual correspondence including the
and song picture books, predictable following: concept and alphabet books,
books with predictable unit accounting survey books, life cycle books, photo
for significant portion of the text essays, folktales in picture book format,
picture book biographies, how-to and
activity books, single-topic/theme poetry
collections
Discussion activity Translation activity
Interaction is conducted in more Transform the content from the previous
informal language. activities into academic language to
state the main idea of the lesson.
Examples: HIGHER-LANGUAGE LOAD

• Literature circles with personal Examples:
response to reading • Listening to academic presentations
• Writing personal response to reading without visuals
• Independent reading of texts for the
Literature Suggestions: Books on content areas
familiar topics with simple language and • Writing for the content areas
limited illustrations or ones that are more
general and aesthetic in nature including Literature Suggestions: Books on a wide
the following: counting books, concept variety of topics including the following:
and alphabet books on general topics, chapter books without illustrations,
fiction and traditional literature, single- journals, diaries, complete, partial,
author poetry collections and collective biographies (not picture
book biographies), traditional literature
collections, poetry anthologies
FIGURE 2.2. Curriculum and instruction planning framework with literature sugges-
tions. Based on Chamot and O’Malley (1987).
hands helps them develop and practice as readers and writers in a new
language. However, the process should not stop at this point. Teachers
need to call English learners’ attention to the many options available
for reading and language learning. This can be accomplished through a
variety of techniques. Naturally, the teacher can begin by reading aloud
regularly to provide a fluent model of reading as well as the implicit invi-
tation to the “reading club” so essential to ongoing language and literacy
development. In addition, teachers can draw attention to featured authors
or books with bulletin board or center displays, and they can spotlight a
book of the week through a book talk or by reading aloud selected por-
tions. Further, according to Routman, “The availability of reading mate-
rials greatly impacts children’s literacy development. The most effective
reading programs are generally supported by large classroom libraries.
The better the libraries, the better the reading achievement as measured
by standardized tests” (2003, p. 64).
Once teachers have sparked student interest, they need to step back
and provide a regular time and freedom of choice for English learners to
enjoy the books and continue to make additional suggestions as students’
language proficiency develops and their reading tastes mature. With vari-
ety and time to pore over these books, English learners notice the many
powerful ways the written word can be used—to inform, to entertain,
and to persuade. In short, they discover the power and pleasure of their
new language through books.
The next chapter explores two different types of language proficiency
that are important for English language development—social language
and academic language—and how literature can be used to develop both
types of language. While social language may be the beginning of the
process of language learning, English learners must quickly move toward
academic language for school success.
Only a Joke?
Humor as a Bridge between Cultures
and Languages
Uma K rishnaswami
In his exploration of humor, Berger (1997) writes that

in the everyday world humor is seen as a disruption of
routine, an intrusion into more important arenas of life.
For most of us, humor is an almost unnoticed part of an
average day. How often, however, does someone then say,
“But, seriously. . . ,” thus returning the conversation to
the previous, more earnest subject? According to Berger,
“The comic is posited as an antithesis to serious concerns”
(p. 6). The conventional formula by which we try to pull
back from a humorous observation that might offend, from
a joke that has “gone too far,” is the apology, “But it was
only a joke!”
Only a joke. Naturally, when writers embark on
the serious business of crossing cultural and linguistic
boundaries in their work, they rarely start out with “only
a joke.” Children’s and young adult author Cynthia Leitich
Smith (2004) has written about the dearth of books with
cultural resonance that are also funny. Inquiring into the
challenges of publishing multicultural humor, she finds
“answers . . . rooted in the writing itself, in the history and
politics, in often misguided perceptions, and perhaps most
of all in our grown-up psyches.”
When I began writing and submitting work to pub-
lishers, I too wanted to be taken seriously. Knowing that
my understanding of the structure of story came from
traditional tales that I had heard as a child, I started
by retelling them. Luckily for me, I selected a character
whose power lies in his comic aspects—the elephant-
Copyright by Uma Krishnaswami.
55
eaded Hindu god Ganesha. Using this comic character to
h
open the doors to a rich and complex tradition, I began to
understand how humor itself opens doors that otherwise
seem impassable. Without really meaning to be funny, I
discovered the power of humor.
The Broken Tusk: Stories of the Hindu God Ganesha
quickly raised linguistic challenges. It would have been
easiest to use English approximations for the Sanskrit
words common to the tradition that I sought to convey.
That is what conventional writing instruction advises.
But I wanted those words to add their unique rhythm
and cadence, to serve as a kind of auditory background
music to the story. Sometimes such terms, designated as
“foreign” by style manuals, became critical to meaning.
When Ganesha dances in the face of a possible curse,
deflecting his antagonist’s anger into amusement, nothing
but the onomatopoeic “Tham—thakita—tham!” of south
Indian classical dance instruction could possibly convey
the particular nuance of flat-footed grace demanded by
the scene.
Sometimes an inside joke can be used simultaneously
as a nod to readers who know it and an invitation to those
who don’t. The word hapa, once a derogatory label derived
from the Hawaiian word for half, has been adopted as a
term of pride by many Asian Americans of mixed racial
heritage. In Janet Wong’s middle-grade verse novel, Minn
and Jake, Jake’s racial background is never mentioned.
In the sequel, Minn and Jake’s Almost Terrible Summer,
we learn that Jake has a Korean grandmother. That
makes him one-quarter Korean, or as he says, “Quarpa.”
By punning on such an insider’s term, the author invites
not only Minn to share in the joke, but the reader as well.
In fact when Minn feels cheated because Jake never told
her this important fact about himself, the reader under-
stands what Minn does not. In reply, Jake continues
half-jokingly, but with unmistakable intent, “And did I
ever tell you that I like taking bubble baths and playing
Halo 2 until midnight?” Here is the comic tackling serious
56
matters indeed, of identity, identification, and the heart of
knowing a person.
Finally, humorous narrative can be used to invite an
exploration of language and its myriad permutations. In
two of my picture books, The Happiest Tree: A Yoga Story,
and Bringing Asha Home, Hindi words are woven into the
text, their meaning made contextually clear. A character
falls gup-choop silent in astonishment. Her parents refer
to her affectionately as rani. The significance of a bracelet
and the holiday bearing its name, is revealed in a scene
in which the narrative camera is not directly focused on
this cultural material. Instead the reader is diverted by
the protagonist’s friend, who complains that his new baby
sister “cries all the time. She can’t do anything.”
In the world of young adult books, we have made
some progress since Cynthia Leitich Smith quoted a
young African American reader as asking, “Why is it that
it’s only the white kids in books who seem to laugh and
have fun?” To some degree this is because satire as a form
refuses to accept the dichotomy between laughter and the
serious world. Gene Luen Yang’s graphic novel, American
Born Chinese and Sherman Alexie’s The Absolutely True
Diary of a Part-Time Indian both rely on humor to weave
culture, language, history, and circumstance together in
new ways for young adult readers.
In picture book and middle-grade multicultural
books, however, the tilt remains toward serious and
worthy. This is ironic, as children in general are much
more open to laughter and playfulness than are we
adults. We who write for children should be mining those
joyful instincts for rich, evocative, culturally grounded
material. When young readers are able to laugh while
reading a story written in one language and containing
the linguistic threads of another, they also become sub-
liminally aware that it is possible to engage in play in all
languages. Far from being “only a joke,” this combination
of laughter and understanding is no less than the heart of
what makes us human.
57
References
Alexie, S. (2007). The absolutely true diary of a part-time Indian

(E. Forney, Illus.). New York: Little, Brown.
Berger, P. L. (1997). Redeeming laughter: The comic dimension
of human experience. New York: Walter de Gruyter.
Krishnaswami, U. (2005). The happiest tree: A yoga story (R.
Jeyeveeran, Illus.). New York: Lee & Low.
Krishnaswami, U. (2006a). Bringing Asha home (J. Akib, Illus.).
New York: Lee & Low.
Krishnaswami, U. (2006b). The broken tusk: Stories of the
Hindu god Ganesha (M. Selven, Illus.). Little Rock, AR:
August House. (Original work published 1996)
Leitich Smith, C. (2004). Multicultural humor, seriously. Posted
to cynthialeitichsmith.blogspot.com/2004/07/multicultural-
humor-seriously.html.
Wong, J. (2001). Minn and Jake. New York: Frances Foster.
Wong, J. (2008). Minn and Jake’s almost terrible summer. New
York: Frances Foster.
Yang, G. L. (2006). American born Chinese. New York: First
Second.
58
Chapter Three
English Learners’ Academic

and Social Language
Moving from Surviving to Thriving
Soon the thick of the monsoon would arrive, and a thousand

raindrops would hit our clay-tiled roof all at once. But I wouldn’t
be here to listen to them. I would be halfway around the world
in a strange, foreign place called 112 Foster Terrace, Brighton,
Massachusetts, U.S.A.
—Frances and Ginger park, Good-Bye, 382 Shin
Dang Dong (National Geographic, 2002)
Imagine that you are a child and you have just found out that your family
is moving. Not only will you leave your friends and many family mem-
bers behind, but you are about to enter a new place with a language and
customs that are completely unfamiliar. The sounds and symbols of this
new language are completely different. Yet, you attend school and try to
navigate and communicate in this new environment and make friends
among the strangers around you. It is challenging and sometimes fright-
ening. The language demands intensify in the classroom, as you struggle
to pay attention to lesson after lesson and to find the right word in order
to respond in class. In addition, you sometimes feel overwhelmed as you
race to catch up to your peers who don’t have to juggle new and complex
concepts in an unfamiliar language.
Moving to a new place or entering school for the first time requires
adjustments. Add to that, learning a new culture and a new language,
and the transitions become more complex. As individuals learn a new
language and culture, they are acquiring several different types of profi-
59
ciency. This chapter contrasts two types of language proficiencies needed

by English learners in school—social and academic language. On mov-
ing to a new country or learning a new language, one’s first need is to sur-
vive—to get basic needs met. Thus, the initial part of this chapter offers
ideas for developing English learners’ social or “survival” language so
that they can interact and understand basic classroom instructions. Vari-
ous categories of survival language are introduced with books matched to
those topics as well as strategies to help English learners master this level
of language. The next sections of this chapter provide guidelines for mov-
ing students beyond social language to the academic language needed for
school achievement.
Social versus Academic Language
James Cummins (2003) has highlighted two types of language proficiency

that individuals learning a language need—social and academic lan-
guage. Social language does not require formal schooling to develop. It
grows naturally out of everyday interactions. This is the language needed
for socializing on the playground and in the lunchroom and hallways.
Unfortunately, teachers sometimes mistake the social ability that English
learners first develop for the fluency needed to succeed in the classroom.
They may believe students are more fluent than they are based on their
growing ease with everyday language. Research has shown that English
learners acquire social language in 1 to 2 years as they interact socially
(Collier, 1989; Cummins, 1981, 2003; Cummins & Schecter, 2003).
Academic language, on the other hand, is the focus of the curricu-
lum, textbooks, and formal instruction. Such language is often not a part
of students’ everyday vocabulary and takes from 5 to 7 years to develop—
even longer for children who immigrated to the United States without
previous schooling (Collier, 1989; Cummins, 2001). Echoing the focus
of high-stakes testing, accountability, and the No Child Left Behind Act
(2001), an increased emphasis on academic content and language is clear
in the newly revised TESOL PreK–12 English Language Proficiency
Standards. Four of the five standards are devoted to the ability to commu-
nicate information, ideas, and concepts necessary for academic success
in language arts, mathematics, science, and social studies, respectively,
as highlighted in Table 3.1. Only the first standard is targeted at com-
municating for social, intercultural, and instructional purposes. Standard
1, however, is not devoted solely to social language. Communicating for
instructional purposes can have different levels of complexity. The basic
Academic and Social Language 61
TABLE 3.1. Comparison of Instructional Emphasis:

Social versus Academic Language Based on TESOL
English Language Proficiency Standards
Standards more
focused on social
language Standards focused on academic language
•• TESOL Standard •• TESOL Standard 2: English language learners

1: English communicate information, ideas, and concepts necessary
language learners for academic success in the area of language arts.
communicate •• TESOL Standard 3: English language learners
for social, communicate information, ideas, and concepts necessary
intercultural, for academic success in the area of mathematics.
and instructional •• TESOL Standard 4: English language learners
purposes within communicate information, ideas, and concepts necessary
the school setting. for academic success in the area of science.
•• TESOL Standard 5: English language learners
communicate information, ideas, and concepts necessary
for academic success in the area of social studies.
routines of the classroom (e.g., fold your paper, read pages 1–5, write your
name on the first line, label the picture) can be classified as social lan-
guage that helps English learners get along in the classroom. The other
dimension of instructional language is more complex, more academic;
for instance, understanding the language of cooperative learning roles
(reporter, recorder, etc.) or the instructions for participating in literature
circles (support your point of view with evidence from the reading).
Viewed as a continuum (WIDA Consortium, 2007), English learners
in schools move from simple and informal social language in the initial
language proficiency levels toward more complex and formal academic
language in the later language proficiency levels as illustrated in Figure
3.1. From an instructional standpoint, the movement from social to aca-
demic language is not completely linear and does not exclude exposure
to academic language as part of early lessons. Academic language cannot
wait until social language is fully developed just as reading and writ-
ing cannot wait until oral language is fully developed (Pilgreen, 2006).
While the initial need for English learners is vocabulary for social and
instructional interaction, children in the primary grades have more
time to develop both social and academic language. At the intermedi-
ate grades and beyond, however, English learners are in a more difficult
race to catch up with their English-speaking peers. They need social and
Social Language ⇒ Academic Language

Tier I Vocabulary ⇒ Tier II and III Vocabulary
(Beck, McKeown, & Kucan) ⇒ (Beck, McKeown, & Kucan)
Initial Language Proficiency Levels ⇒ Later Language Proficiency Levels
Concrete ideas and concepts ⇒ Abstract ideas and concepts

Explicit meaning ⇒ Implicit meaning
Familiar situations ⇒ Unfamiliar situations
Informal registers ⇒ Formal registers
General vocabulary ⇒ Technical vocabulary
Single words and phrases ⇒ Extended discourse
Nonconventional forms ⇒ Conventional forms
FIGURE 3.1. A continuum of language development. Based on Gottlieb, Cranley,

and Cammilleri (2007).
instructional language, yet, even more important is a focus on academic

language. The older English learners are when they enter school, the
less likely they will have enough time remaining in school to master the
academic language proficiency for school achievement. The key, then,
is making academic language comprehensible in the early stages of lan-
guage learning by carefully considering the academic concepts taught
and focusing on those that are more concrete and explicit.
Social Language
English learners may enter school with diverse proficiency levels. Those
who begin school at Level 1 proficiency will have limited or no under-
standing of English. In the process of language acquisition, they move
from the familiar, general, and concrete to the more unfamiliar, special-
ized, and abstract. Social language cannot be sidestepped. Just as with
first-language acquisition, beginning English learners need basic vocabu-
lary to interact with others and to understand how to negotiate daily rou-
tines in and out of school. As their oral comprehension increases, these
learners begin to use their newly acquired language but their verbaliza-
tions consist of repeating what they hear and using memorized chunks of
language—routines such as greetings.
Similar to social language is the vocabulary that Beck, McKeown,

and Kucan (2002) refer to as Tier I, the most basic words of a language
(e.g., happy, clock). These are the words that native English speakers
come to school already knowing through their interactions in the home
language in their early preschool years. These words are learned and
reinforced through social interaction. While Beck et al. contend that
Tier I words “rarely require instructional attention to their meanings in
school” (p. 8), this may not be the case for all learners. English learners
may not know Tier 1 words when they come to school, or they may know
them in their home language but not have acquired the English label for
the word. Indeed, a portion of the standardized placement testing done
with English learners to determine their oral proficiency level in English
when they first enter school is focused on social language (e.g., subtests
such as Simon Says, Choose a Picture, What’s in the House? Listening
Comprehension targeted at understanding everyday conversations). For
those English learners who do not have well-developed oral language,
social language needs to receive explicit instructional attention since it
is the foundation for academic language development (Schrank, Fletcher,
& Alvarado, 1996).
Krashen and Terrell (1983) support the thematic presentation of
vocabulary for English learners arguing that such a strategy offers the
student an immediate network of relationships linking new words and
concepts. One excellent resource for beginning vocabulary is Maisy’s
Amazing Big Book of Words (Cousins, 2007, TL1–2, P, NF). Grouped into
thematic categories such as getting dressed, on the farm, things that go,
and so forth, more than 300 basic vocabulary words are presented with
each word accompanied by a bright illustration. The two- to four-page
groupings of words by themes make word study easy for English learners,
supportive family members, and teachers.
Building social language and Tier I vocabulary with English learn-
ers is similar to the oral language development that occurs during first-
language acquisition. Unfortunately, some English learners do not have
the opportunity to develop oral language proficiency in their new lan-
guage before entering school, but many of them bring a wealth of oral
language experiences in their home language. Oral language develop-
ment plays a powerful role in both acquiring a language and providing
a foundation for reading and writing (Lesaux, Geva, Koda, Siegel, &
Shanahan, 2008). English learners who come from a home environment
with ample opportunity for oral language development in the home lan-
guage have the advantage when they enter school. They possess a wide
vocabulary and conceptual background because they have participated

in opportunities to talk about daily concerns and activities with care-
givers, siblings, peers, and relatives. Through these chances to talk and
listen, they gained many intuitive understandings about language and
how it functions—how the language sounds in various circumstances
from formal to informal, and how sentences are structured, how differ-
ent words are used with different audiences and for different occasions.
These understandings count when they enter school since they only need
new English labels for the concepts and structures they already know
in the home language. According to researchers, a firm background in
the home language is a strong indicator of eventual success in learning
another language (Collier, 1989; Cummins, 1980, 1981). Conversely, Eng-
lish learners may not bring a well-developed oral language background to
school. This lack of word knowledge is a chief indicator of the restricted
amount of elaborated language that children experience at home (Wells,
1986), and these gaps can present problems in learning a new language.
Selecting Books and Instructional Strategies

to Reinforce Social Language
Social and instructional language is routinely used throughout a normal

day, but the vocabulary is often not made explicit. This is where teachers
can make a difference for English learners. They can become aware of
these vocabulary needs. What are the types of social language needed?
Figure 3.2 provides a list of social or basic “survival” topics needed early
in the language learning process.
Once teachers are aware of these topical areas for social language,
they can collect books and plan activities to help English learners maxi-
mize their vocabulary acquisition. In selecting books for social (survival)
language, teachers need to also keep in mind the characteristics of Level
1 and 2 English learners who need to develop social (survival) language,
and they can use the four criteria for text selection introduced in Chapter
2. First, in terms of the level of familiarity or background knowledge,
the content/topic of the book should be related to universal or familiar
concepts thereby lessening the conceptual load. Next, for the level of lan-
guage, the vocabulary used needs to be basic, concrete, and/or familiar,
and the whole text should be brief and written at the word, phrase, or
simple sentence level. Like the conceptual load, the language load should
not be challenging. Third, the level of text support should be significant.
•• Basic directions and signs •• Movement

•• Calendar •• Numbers to 100
•• Clothing •• Parts of the body, actions
•• Colors •• Recreation and activities
•• Feelings •• Routines
•• Food •• Safety
•• Games •• School and classroom
•• Greetings •• Self and family
•• Home and household •• Shapes
•• Hygiene •• Shopping
•• Jobs •• Social behavior
•• Letters of the alphabet •• Spatial relations
•• Measurement •• Time
•• Money •• Weather
FIGURE 3.2. Social language (basic “survival”) topics.
The text should have support features such as clear labeling and/or visu-
als that are clear and direct and generally, have a one-to-one correspon-
dence of visual to text. Finally, in terms of the level of cultural fit, the text
needs to have a universal or familiar focus for all learners or it needs to
closely reflect the background and experiences of the learner. Appendix
C at the end of this book provides a list of social (survival) language topics
and examples of books matched to those.
With help from their teachers and peers, English learners quickly
learn English labels for concepts that are already known in their home
language. To assist this process, teachers can use language-mediation
strategies—basically adjusting language to facilitate comprehension and
communication. As teachers share and discuss literature with the class,
they can use the following language-mediation strategies (Olmedo, 2003)
for the benefit of all learners, but particularly for English learners:
• Direct teaching of key vocabulary before, during, and after read-

ing
• Labeling and using visuals and objects in lessons
• Using concept-building and vocabulary-building graphics
• Writing key words while reading
• Underlining key words on the whiteboard
• Rephrasing or restating
• Previewing and summarizing key points
• Simplifying key words

• Elaborating and extending key words
• Providing antonyms and synonyms for key words
• Demonstrating the meaning of a word
• Creating comparisons/similes
• Pointing out similarities and differences in key words/concepts
• Pointing out prefix/suffix
• Giving examples/non-examples
• Using clear intonation
• Repeating and emphasizing key words
• Simplifying grammar and vocabulary
• Adjusting the pace
• Actively involving students in doing something to reinforce learn-
ing
Linking appropriate literature with engaging instructional activi-

ties can aid the process of learning social language. Several techniques
work well to highlight social language, and literature can be an integral
part of these strategies. Again, these activities are helpful for all learners,
whether they are just learning English or not.
Using Read-Alouds
Reading to students is “a supportive approach where a skilled reader,
acting on the author’s behalf, reads to a less skilled audience” (Mooney,
2004, p. 73). Teachers who read aloud to their students provide a model of
fluent, expressive reading. Moreover, they share their passion for reading
and demonstrate reading’s many functions: reading for pleasure, gaining
information, meeting personal needs, and solving problems. Reading to
students plays a fundamental role in “inviting listeners to be readers”
(Fisher, Flood, Lapp, & Frey, 2004, p. 8).
Unfortunately, many teachers do not see the value of reading aloud
to students. Yet, many reasons exist for reading to students. Indeed,
numerous literacy authorities and research studies contribute support for
reading aloud to English learners.
• Children learn language by hearing it repeatedly in meaningful

contexts (Trelease, 2006).
• Reading aloud leads to greater vocabulary learning (Elley, 1989;
Morrow & Brittain, 2003).
• When listening to their teachers read aloud, children are exposed
to words they are unlikely to hear in spoken language (Sénéchal,

Lefevre, Thomas, & Daley, 1996).
• Reading aloud nurtures listening skills, which is important since
listening comprehension precedes reading comprehension (Tre-
lease, 2006).
• Reading aloud introduces students to more and new syntactic and
grammatical forms in English (Sénéchal et al., 1996).
• Reading aloud helps students become familiar with the reading
process and how print on the page corresponds to spoken lan-
guage.
In examining this list of reasons for reading aloud, it is apparent that

the benefits of reading stories deal more with language development than
literacy development. Typically, reviews of reading aloud include such
benefits as improved reading comprehension and enhanced beginning
reading. Yet, a review of research studies indicated that the approach
“has more modest effect on the literacy development of non-mainstream
children than is commonly believed” (Anderson, Anderson, Lynch, &
Shapiro, 2003, p. 209). Some researchers suggest that too much emphasis
on reading aloud can take away time better used for decoding, compre-
hension, fluency, or vocabulary instruction (i.e., Teale, 2003).
Researchers, however, note that it is the quality of engagement that
occurs during reading that results in positive literacy and language effects
(Morrow & Brittain, 2003). In short, “Most effective read-alouds are
those in which children are actively involved asking and answering ques-
tions and making predictions rather than passively listening” (McGee &
Schickedanz, 2007, p. 742). These read-alouds are called interactive or
dialogic. Teale (2003, pp. 131–132) recommends teachers use the follow-
ing strategies to maximize engagement and more fully benefit students:
• Encourage children to use their background knowledge in mean-

ingful ways when approaching the book.
• Ask questions and invite reactions that keep students engaged in
the book—especially generative questions that promote a variety
of responses.
• Read in a lively, engaging way.
• Encourage children to make predictions about what will happen
next or what a character will do.
• Keep discussions focused on important text ideas.
• Talk about a few of the words or phrases in the book in ways that
build children’s vocabulary knowledge.
Additional ideas for involving students during a read-aloud include
• Encouraging students to retell or dramatize stories (Cornell,

Sénéchal, & Brodo, 1988; Pellegrini & Galda, 1982).
• Reading several books on a similar topic and having students
manipulate objects related to the concepts or characters from the
text (Rowe, 1998; Wasik & Bond, 2001).
• Reading a book repeatedly (Crago & Crago, 1976).
• Describing illustrations (Reese & Cox, 1999).
These strategies are especially important as English learners develop

more and more competency in their new language.
Using Physical Activity

One popular instructional method that actively engages language learners
is Total Physical Response (TPR). James Asher (1982) based his method
on the premise that an effective way of learning another language is much
like learning a first language. Somewhat like the children’s game, Simon
Says, children listen to commands and respond nonverbally. TPR lessons
are active with the teacher using commands and modeling actions with
the whole class, small groups, and individuals. Students do not speak
until they have listened and observed the commands many times. For
TPR lessons, Asher suggests that teachers begin with “survival” language
or basic content and concepts first needed by language learners.
Supplementing traditional commands (e.g., point to your toe, your
foot) of TPR with literature, teachers can read aloud poems or books and
have students point to the various body parts noted. For instance, Shel
Silverstein’s poem, “Boa Constrictor” (Where the Sidewalk Ends, 2000,
TL1–5, A, P) mentions parts of the body. Similarly, Byron Barton’s Bones,
Bones, Dinosaur Bones (1990, TL1–3, P, NF) and Bob Barner’s Dem
Bones (1996, TL1–3, A, NF) are good choices because of their simple and
repetitive language. Other books that are natural links to physical activ-
ity include Monkey and Me (Gravett, 2008, TL1, P, F), Dog Day (Hayes,
2008, TL2–4, A, F), and Pretend You’re a Cat (Marzollo, 1997, TL1–2, P,
F) with their vivid descriptions of animal movements that prompt chil-
dren to imitate the actions, and Go, Go, Go! Kids on the Move (Swinburne,
2002, TL1–2, P, NF) that depicts children’s favorite ways to move (“I
walk./ I skip./ I hop./ I run.”). Lessons incorporating movement need not
require standing up and moving about the classroom. Instead, students
can match photos, sequence pictures or sentence strips at their desks, or
English learners can hold up a card with a word or phrase repeated dur-
ing a read-aloud. Picture songbooks often have actions as well as words
to involve students, as is the case with If You’re Happy and You Know
It, Clap Your Hands! (Carter, 1997, TL1–3, P, F) and The Eensy-Weensy
Spider (Hoberman, 2004, TL1–3, P, F), and these songs can be sung and
performed while seated. The idea is to incorporate movement alongside
print, getting children involved in physically responding, not just pas-
sively listening.
Using Dramatic Play

Drama provides another active language learning approach. Among the
many possibilities for implementing drama in the classroom are pup-
petry, storytelling, Readers’ Theatre, and role play. Chris Raschka’s Yo!
Yes (1993, TL1–2, A, F) is a great book for a creative dramatics interpre-
tation. This picture book illustrates an offer of friendship between two
young boys. The interactions between the boys can be used as a nonver-
bal role play as the teacher reads the book aloud, or students can chant
the words since each boy only uses one or two words per page of action.
For an example of social language in the real world, teachers might use
Rachel Isadora’s Yo, Jo! (2007, TL1–3, A, F). This simple picture book
depicts greetings among friends in the neighborhood with a focus on
slang and colloquial terms, yo, hey, whassup. Again, this book is perfect
for role play and a class discussion can address issues of informal and
formal language since slang terms are particularly confusing for English
learners in the early stages of language learning. Another basic book, Say
Hello (Foreman & Foreman, 2008, TL1–2, P, F), focuses on being left
out on the playground noting that “When someone’s feeling left out, low,
it doesn’t take much to say . . . ‘Hello!’ ” Harriet Dancing (Symes, 2008,
TL2–4, A, F) has a repeated phrase several times in the book: “Twist and
turn and skip and hop./ This way and that way./ That way and this way./
Spin around until you stop!” that is ideal for acting out to punctuate a
read-aloud. Finally, predictable pattern books are also perfect for drama
activities. Stuck in the Mud (Clarke, 2008, TL2–3, A, F) is a pattern story
that has each of the animals getting stuck in the mud to help little chick:
“Horse pushed/ and he pulled/ again and again . . ./ but then he was stuck/
with Sheep, Dog, Cat, and Hen.” In a similar vein, The Turnip (Morgan,
1996, TL2–3, A, F) and Out of the Egg (Matthews, 2007, TL2–3, A, F)
are two additional pattern stories with a sequence of events seemingly
designed for dramatization. Figure 3.3 combines book suggestions for
both physical activity and dramatic play.
Total Physical Response Method

•• Where the Sidewalk Ends by Shel Silverstein
•• Dog Day by Sarah Hayes
•• Monkey and Me by Emily Gravett
•• Go, Go, Go! Kids on the Move by Stephen Swinburne
•• Bones, Bones, Dinosaur Bones by Byron Barton
•• Dem Bones by Bob Barner
•• Pretend You’re a Cat by Jean Marzollo
•• If You’re Happy and You Know It, Clap Your Hands! by David Carter
•• The Eensy-Weensy Spider by Maryann Hoberman
Drama
•• Yo! Yes by Chris Raschka
•• Say Hello by Jack and Michael Foreman
•• Stuck in the Mud by Jane Clarke
•• Out of the Egg by Tina Matthews
•• Hattie and the Fox by Mem Fox
•• Yo, Jo! by Rachel Isadora
•• The First Music by Dylan Pritchett
FIGURE 3.3. Using children’s literature to encourage physical activity and dra-
matic play.
Academic Language
Children are generally quick to incorporate social language since it helps

them get along with others and begin to make friends. All the while,
some acquisition of more formal vocabulary should be occurring simul-
taneously. Academic language includes the subject area vocabulary for
the English language arts, social studies, science, and math as well as
health and physical education and the visual and performing arts. More-
over, English learners must interact in the classroom as they construct,
process, and apply the language of the subject matter with the language
of the learning activity. Whole-class discussion, group work, and paired
interactions using literature and reinforcing the language through reader
response, journal writing, and such offer a means to tap into the language
of the assigned tasks and the process and application of learning (e.g., the
writing process or prewriting through brainstorming).
Again drawing on their vocabulary research, Beck et al. (2002) refer
to two other vocabulary tiers beyond the basic words of Tier I. These two
tiers correlate to academic language. Tier III words are low-frequency
technical vocabulary items related to the content of school subjects (e.g.,

photosynthesis, axis). Beck et al. argue that since these words are not of
high utility to most learners, they should be taught only when needed—
in the context of content classrooms when directly encountered in lessons
or reading. In other words, teachers need to weigh carefully the time
investment in Tier III terms and the ultimate payoff for English learners
(e.g., transfer to other content areas). Tier II words, on the other hand,
are frequently used words that occur in many domains, often academic
in nature. These words add to an individual’s language ability and have
a tremendous impact on school achievement. They are the language of
literature and more formal writing and speaking (e.g., fortunate, absurd).
These words reflect more sophisticated word choice and descriptive
language; for instance, the use of elated or ecstatic instead of the more
common word, happy, and they add to individuals’ language ability and
influence school achievement. One example of more sophisticated word
choice is Karma Wilson’s How to Bake an American Pie (2007, TL3–5,
I, F). Weaving together metaphors from cooking (leaven, ladle, whisk,
and garnish) and illusions to America’s history, Wilson offers images such
as “Pat out/ a crust of/ fruited plains,/ then spread it/ as far as you dare./
Fold in some fields/ of amber grains,/ enough for/ all people/ to share.”
When students have a deep understanding of vocabulary with a devel-
oped network of word relationships, synonyms, and antonyms, the larger
their literate vocabulary will be. Beck et al. propose that attention to Tier
II vocabulary is the most productive use of instructional time.
Using the Curriculum and Instruction Planning Framework intro-
duced in Chapter 1 and further developed in Chapter 2, Figure 3.4 high-
lights the escalating language demands that students encounter by mov-
ing from more contextualized language environments such as one-to-one
text-to-visual children’s books and face-to-face communication (upper
Quadrants I and III) to communication without predictable routines and
limited visuals for support (context-free language) (lower Quadrants II
and IV) and from social/informal language (left Quadrants I and II) to
academic language (right Quadrants III and IV). It also suggests helpful
approaches a teacher can take to guide this learning. For instance, the
plan begins with a read-aloud of Ten Things I Can Do to Help My World
(Walsh, 2008, TL1–4, P, NF), which is ideal for Level 1 English learner
participation, but the book also has some additional ideas with more
elaborated language for students at Levels 2–4 to think about and dis-
cuss. The focus in Quadrants I and II is simply to explore in an informal
way the general ideas about personal activities to help our world while in
Quadrants III and IV, the emphasis moves to the academic language of
Nonacademic or Academic or
Lower-Cognitive-Load Activities Higher-Cognitive-Load Activities
Viewing/listening activity Participation activity
Follow a demonstration/directions. Make a model, chart, graph.
Examples: Examples:
• Teacher reads aloud Ten Things I Can • The last tip in Ten Things I Can Do to
Do to Help My World (Walsh, 2008). Help My World is about recycling. As a
Only the main 10 activities are read class, define the term.
aloud. • In groups, compare Ten Things I
LOWER-LANGUAGE LOAD
• Teacher divides class in two groups Can Do to Help My World with the
and displays (LCD or overhead) a chart information in the following books: We
with two columns: (1) the beginning Are Extremely Very Good Recyclers
and (2) the ending of sentences for the (Child, 2009), informational storybook;
10 main activities and the students Recycle: A Handbook for Kids
read their assigned part—start or (Gibbons, 1996), nonfiction; Where
finish. Does the Garbage Go? (Showers,
• Optional activity: While teacher 1994), nonfiction.
reads the text aloud again, students • Develop an individual illustrated chart
use physical actions to perform the and idea plan for personal/home
actions. recycling.
• Beyond the 10 main activities in the • Develop an illustrated poster and idea
book, there is an additional related tip plan for proposed classroom/school
on each page with more developed recycling plan.
sentence structure and vocabulary. The
teacher can share these tips for English
learners at Levels 2–4.
Discussion activity Translation activity
Interaction is conducted in more Transform the content from the previous
informal language. activities into academic language to
Examples: state the main idea of the lesson.
• Students are paired and discuss which Examples:

HIGHER-LANGUAGE LOAD
of the activities from the read-aloud • Present class/school recycling proposal

they do at home (Level 1 English to the other classrooms and to school
learners) and suggest activities that are administrators.
similar (Levels 2–4). • Conduct research on the Internet
• Class discusses the phrase, “fun and related to other school and community
easy eco-tips” from the book cover and efforts in recycling.
tries to come up with a definition for
eco-tip and eco-friendly in their own
words.
• Compare the list of Ten Things I Can
Do to Help My World with the list
of ideas in the endpapers of We Are
Extremely Very Good Recyclers. Note
ideas that are similar or different
(Levels 2–4).
FIGURE 3.4. Curriculum and instruction planning framework moving from social/
informal language to academic language. Based on Chamot and O’Malley (1987).
recycling and proposed action plans to accomplish personal, school, and/

or community recycling efforts. Along with the more basic Ten Things I
Can Do to Help My World, English learners can also explore ideas pre-
sented in several other books focused only on recycling including the
informational storybook, We Are Extremely Very Good Recyclers (Child,
2009, TL3–5, A, F) and two nonfiction books, Recycle: A Handbook for
Kids (Gibbons, 1996, TL3–5, A, NF) and Where Does the Garbage Go?
(Showers, 1994, TL2–4, A, NF).
Selecting Books and Instructional Strategies

to Reinforce Academic Language
Teachers support the acquisition of academic language through (1) mod-

eling academic language in their instruction and with the literature they
use; (2) engaging students in challenging, theme-based curriculum to
develop academic concepts; (3) activating and building students’ prior
knowledge; (4) contextualizing academic language with visuals, gestures,
demonstrations, read-alouds, and read-alongs; (5) focusing on strategic
thinking, problem solving, and comprehension techniques; (6) organiz-
ing collaborative activities with rich oral language opportunities; and
(7) using hands-on learning activities that involve academic language
(Thomas & Collier, 1995; Reed & Railback, 2003).
Linking trade books to instruction is a way to provide support and
reinforcement to English learners. Fiction is an excellent resource to fol-
low up on the lesson and to develop language and content connections.
In addition, fiction and folklore offer a story “hook” that adds a personal
quality to the study of content. Poetry can set the stage for a content
lesson and provide a brief but powerful introduction of new content con-
cepts as well as supplying rich language and visual images to assist with
understanding vocabulary terms. For instance, J. Patrick Lewis offers
“How Many Humps” in Doodle Dandies: Poems That Take Shape (2002,
TL2–5, A, P), which helps readers to distinguish the two types of camels,
by taking the first letters of their names and turning them on their sides
to remember which camel has one hump (Dromedary) or two (Bactrian).
Pairing books or creating text sets is another excellent support tech-
nique. For instance, Angus suggests the idea of “perfect pairs” or “two
related picture books, a picture book and an informational book, poetry
and a book, or other books that go together in some way” (2007, p. 143).
An example of a perfect pair might be two of the many books about a
baby hippo who “finds” a new mother after a tsunami such as the fiction
picture book, A Mama for Owen (2007, TL2–4, A, F) by Marion Bauer

and the nonfiction book, Owen & Mzee: The Language of Friendship
(Hatkoff, Hatkoff, & Kahumbu, 2007b, TL3–5, A, NF).
Similarly, Short, Harste, and Burke (1996) describe text sets as col-
lections of books that are conceptually related in some way, such as a
common theme or topic. The idea of perfect pairs or text sets is most often
used for students to read multiple texts to extend their understanding and
to gain multiple perspectives (Lehman & Crook, 1998). With English
learners, perfect pairs or text sets may have books with different reading
and content levels, which is ideal for the different language proficiencies
of the students. Building on the previous perfect pair example of Owen &
Mzee: The Language of Friendship, teachers might group the following
books (listed from simple to more challenging):
• Mama: A True Story, in Which a Baby Hippo Loses His Mama

during a Tsunami but Finds a New Home, and a New Mama by
Jeanette Winter (2006, TL1–2, P, NF)
• Owen & Mzee: Best Friends by Isabella Hatkoff, Craig Hatkoff,
and Paula Kahumbu (2007, board book, TL2–4, A, NF)
• Owen & Mzee: A Day Together by Craig Hatkoff and Isabella Hat-
koff (2008, board book, TL2–4, A, NF)
• A Mama for Owen by Marion Dane Bauer (2007, TL2–4, A, F)
• Owen & Mzee: The True Story of a Remarkable Friendship by Isa-
bella Hatkoff, Craig Hatkoff, and Paula Kahumbu (2006, TL3–5,
A, NF)
• Owen & Mzee: The Language of Friendship by Isabella Hatkoff,
Craig Hatkoff, and Paula Kahumbu (2007b, TL3–5, A, NF)
Some English learners with more developed language proficiency may

be able to read all the selections within a set, but others may only be able
to access one book or a part of the set. If students are not able to inde-
pendently read the books chosen to reinforce concepts and academic lan-
guage, teachers can select excerpts to read aloud and discuss as a class,
drawing attention to important words to list on the class word wall. Such
text collections are practical for the diverse conceptual and language
backgrounds of English learners in a single classroom. Building text sets
with nonfiction books is discussed further in Chapter 6.
Krashen and Terrell (1983) were perhaps the first to suggest narrow
reading of books by the same author. Extending on that idea, narrow
reading can be more broadly defined as reading in only one genre, one
subject matter, or the work of one author. This may be the best technique
for supporting English learners as it addresses some of the reading dif-

ficulties for English learners (Hadaway, 2009). For instance, textbooks
such as basals, anthologies, or readers offer a variety of authors, topics,
and themes. Such broad reading can be confusing with the presentation
of much new vocabulary, repeated introductions to unfamiliar styles, and
a lack of context, all resulting in deliberate decoding rather than compre-
hension. Research suggests it takes 12 encounters with a word in order to
improve comprehension (Stahl & Nagy, 2006). So, teachers must plan on
providing multiple opportunities and experiences using new vocabulary
if they hope to make a difference in students’ recognition and under-
standing of word meaning. Therefore, narrow reading/input may be more
appropriate for English learners. “The case for narrow reading is based
on the idea that the acquisition of both structure and vocabulary comes
from many exposures in a comprehensible context, that is, we acquire
new structures and words when we understand messages, many mes-
sages, that [we] encode” (Krashen, 2004, n.p.).
One reported benefit of narrow reading is the opportunity for read-
ers to encounter key vocabulary multiple times. Since a topic has its own
related vocabulary, narrow reading in that area should help English
learners build a network of relationships linking new words and con-
cepts. There are some caveats that teachers should bear in mind concern-
ing the repetition of vocabulary and narrow reading by theme. Gardner
(2008) found limited repetition of vocabulary in narrative (fiction) the-
matic collections. In thematic collections of expository material, there
was more repetition of terms in tighter rather than looser themes; for
example, predators (tight theme) versus animals (loose theme) or bees
versus insects. Although the repetition of vocabulary is not the only ben-
efit of narrow reading, teachers should consider this issue when choosing
instructional themes.
In addition, narrow reading can help by the repetition of writing
style and format. Each author, for instance, has an individual style—
similar syntax patterns and vocabulary choice. Moreover, many authors
write extensively in an area so that pairs of books or a thematic collec-
tion of books might be organized, thus linking the strength of repeated
vocabulary in a theme with a consistent writing style. For instance,
Seymour Simon has many books on the planets and the solar system,
on weather, and on the human body, any of which could be the start-
ing point for a thematic expository collection. Additionally, Gail Gibbons
and Jim Arnosky have multiple titles about various animals. For each of
these authors, their books have structural similarities. Both Gibbons and
Arnosky make use of detailed and colorful illustrations with labeling of
key vocabulary and captions, so that English learners can learn not only
content and vocabulary but also important text features.
So, narrow reading provides more context and allows readers to
increase their background knowledge, both of which facilitate compre-
hension. With themes and topics as the emphasis, teachers can maximize
the opportunity for transfer of knowledge from one lesson to another.
Thematic strands can connect lessons in one subject area or across mul-
tiple subjects. It is also possible to link a topic in science, math, or social
studies to the language arts via the strategies and activities that are the
instructional focus, as well as through fiction or poetry, to add a per-
sonal dimension to the content. Literature is easily interwoven into this
approach. Whatever the focus, themes and topics offer English learners
an immediate network of relationships linking new words and concepts
as well as a motivating context for learning.
Genre or subgenre can also serve as a way to organize narrow read-
ing. Nonfiction series books, for instance, such as those published by
Franklin Watts (How Would You Survive series, TL4–5, I, NF), King-
fisher (Young Knowledge series, TL3–5, A, NF), and DK (Eyewitness
series, TL4–5, I, NF) have a standard organization, and the predictable
format helps English learners navigate through the content. Nonfic-
tion subgenre, in particular, lend themselves to narrow reading that can
lead to text tapping or write-like activities (Meeks & Austin, 2003). A
collection of alphabet books, journals and diaries, question-and-answer
books, life cycle books, or the story of . . . books can be used to not only
build background knowledge but also to serve as mentor texts (Dorfman
& Cappelli, 2007; Ehmann & Gayer, 2009) to support English learners’
attempts at similar writing.
In short, narrow reading gives English learners support to continue
past the “first few pages effect” (Yang, 2001, p. 452). And, students who
read more in a content area acquire more background knowledge of that
area and thus, find subsequent reading in that area easier. All the while,
they are acquiring more language (Yang, 2001; Brozo & Flynt, 2008).
Narrow reading provides for review, repetition, and reinforcement—
critical factors in language acquisition.
What does narrow reading look like in the classroom? Figure 3.5
offers an overview of various narrow reading formats such as the use of
books by the same author, series books with a similar focus, books with
similar subject matter (including different approaches within this format
such as stairstep, branching out, and wide angle to close up), and books
with similar writing format. Once teachers have chosen a narrow reading
•• Books by the same author

•• Series books with similar focus
•• Books with similar subject matter
•• A collection of books with a stairstep approach/layering difficulty levels
•• Branching out: Books that help students to explore different facets of
a subject
•• Wide angle to close up: Books that help students move from general
to specific
•• Books with a similar writing format (e.g., narrative/expository, journal,
question–answer, alphabet, life cycle/timeline/process, the story of . . .)
FIGURE 3.5. Narrow reading formats.
format, the next step is selecting books. In addition to the recommenda-

tions that follow, there is an extensive list of example book pairs or text
sets for each narrow reading format in Appendix D at the end of this
book.
Teachers can use several different ways of organizing books within a
thematic narrow reading experience. First, a thematic collection can be
organized with a stairstep of books, a type of teacher-driven leveling with
books that range in difficulty, based on content coverage, issues of length,
print, layout, and illustrations, to meet the needs of English learners’ dif-
ferent proficiency levels. For example, in a thematic unit on wolves, Jim
Arnosky’s Wolves (2001, TL1–3, A, NF) is a simple overview of one day
with a wolf family as they explore, play, eat, rest, and protect each other.
With only one sentence per two-page spread, this book is ideal for an
initial introduction as a read-aloud to begin discussion or as independent
reading once the topic for the lesson has been presented. Stepping up in
difficulty is Sandra Markle’s Growing up Wild: Wolves (2001, TL3–5, A,
NF). Beginning with the wolves’ birth, the text is divided into half-page
color photos with accompanying paragraphs that describe their growth,
play, and learning. Next, Seymour Simon’s Wolves (2009, TL3–5, A, NF)
provides even more information in alternating photographs and page-
length text that details the family structure and behaviors of wolves. This
is just a limited example of the many books that can form the basis of a
collection about wolves for English learners to explore. Other outstand-
ing nonfiction authors such as Gail Gibbons and Jean Craighead George
have written books about wolves that could be added to this collection,
and students can use the content textbook or online resources as well. The
premise of this type of collection is to provide books of varying difficulty
levels with both overlapping and different information so that English

learners have multiple opportunities to encounter new content concepts
and vocabulary and thus, to acquire both language and knowledge.
Another thematic format is branching out or exploring different fac-
ets of a subject. For this organizational format, teachers can start with a
word web graphic organizer. Putting a theme, such as desert at the cen-
ter, the class uses narrow reading to explore the many aspects of deserts
including geography in Desert Trek: An Eye-Opening Journey Through
the World’s Driest Places (Le Rochais, 2001, TL2–5, A, NF), desert
animals in Who Lives Here? Desert Animals (Hodge, 2008, TL2–4, A,
NF) or Dig, Wait, Listen: A Desert Toad’s Tale (Sayre, 2001, TL2–4, A,
F), and desert plants in Desert Giant: The World of the Saguaro Cactus
(Bash, 2002, TL3–5, A, NF). English learners can be grouped in a vari-
ety of ways for this exploration. Different groups can be assigned one
aspect of the theme and after reading and research, share their findings
with the class, or a group can be divided with each member focusing
on one part of the theme so that the group explores all the facets of the
subject. Throughout the process, the word web can be expanded by add-
ing vocabulary and information that is discovered through reading and
discussion.
The final thematic format presented here is wide angle to close up
or general to specific. Sometimes students want to explore further and
this organizational format allows students to do just that. As an exam-
ple, collective biographies can lead to specialization. Starting with brief
portraits of various people, a collective biography such as Bo Zaunders’s
Feathers, Flaps, & Flops: Fabulous Early Fliers (2001, TL3–5, A, NF)
might spark a student’s interest in one particular person to study in depth,
for example, Bessie Coleman, the first African American to earn a pilot’s
license, spotlighted in Fly High! The Story of Bessie Coleman (Borden
& Kroeger, 2001, TL3–5, A, NF). Or similar to a collective biography,
Seymour Simon’s Animals Nobody Loves (2002, TL3–5, I, NF) provides
an overview of a variety of animals and then the student may choose one
unlovable creature to focus on, perhaps through Sandra Markle’s Outside
and Inside Rats and Mice (2008, TL3–5, I, NF).
Conclusion
The gap between English learners’ language ability in social and informal
settings and their skills in the academically oriented and content-focused
school setting poses a challenge. This chapter contrasts two types of lan-
guage proficiencies needed by English learners in school—social and

academic language. While both language types are important, English
learners need to move quickly beyond social language only to the aca-
demic language needed for school achievement. English learners don’t
have an extended time frame to acclimate to their new language. They
experience great cognitive demands when asked to quickly learn both
language and content to participate fully in the school curriculum. In
addition to encountering new content concepts in a new language, Eng-
lish learners often find the structure of textbooks confusing and the level
of new vocabulary—especially academic terminology—very demanding.
Placing meaningful materials in children’s hands helps them develop and
practice as readers and writers in a new language. As noted in this chap-
ter, literature holds great promise for supporting English learners with
their diverse language proficiencies and reading levels, assisting them in
actively participating in class, and offering the flexibility to build both
social and academic language.
The next chapter begins the second section of this book, one that
focuses on three different genre of literature: fiction, poetry, and nonfic-
tion. The first chapter in this section explores fiction and the ways that
different types of fiction can meet the language development needs of
English learners.
Creativity Begins at Home
Pat Mora
“Who’s ready for a story?” the teacher or librarian asks.

Don’t we all, at any age, enjoy a story, sitting back and
listening to someone read to us? I was born in El Paso,
Texas, right on the U.S.–Mexico border, the setting for all
my formal schooling and for my years as a teacher and
university administrator. I’ve written often of my happy
memory of hearing B Is for Betsy read to me in elemen-
tary school. Amazing what wonderful memories teachers
and librarians give us.
I grew up in a bilingual home to bilingual parents
and have always spoken two languages. Luckily, my
maternal grandmother, who often lived with us, spoke
only Spanish. Her first grandchild, I naturally spoke
Spanish with her. “Naturally.” Isn’t it fascinating what
the word “natural” means to each of us? Monolinguals tell
me they can’t imagine having two languages ever present
in their brains, and I can’t imagine the opposite, nor can
I imagine the reality of my Swedish neighbor who spoke
five languages. When she moved to New Mexico, she com-
plained that she should have learned Spanish, of course.
Home languages are deeply tied to our sense of
identity, a fact we quickly feel when we’re surrounded by
a language we don’t understand, or when we attempt to
express our selves in a foreign language, foreign to our
tongue. In elementary school, I unconsciously realized
that only one of my languages belonged at school. I was a
good student but left a lot of myself at home. I didn’t use
any words in Spanish when I wrote, nor did I probably
write about eating cheese enchiladas on Friday night, nor
why we called my maternal grandmother “Mamande” and
my maternal great-aunt “Lobo” which means “wolf.”
Children are wisely self-protective. As I tell children
when I visit schools, I didn’t want anyone to laugh at my
Copyright by Pat Mora.
81
relatives’ names, a sad fact that can still happen when
I talk about my life story at schools. I’ve always loved to
read and didn’t notice in my school years or when I began
teaching that the textbooks and library books didn’t
reflect families like mine.
In my thirties, I was still living in El Paso but was a
mom and teaching night courses at a community college.
After a few years of occasionally submitting manuscripts
for children’s books, poetry and essays for publication, I
decided to get serious about becoming a writer. I describe
my writing journey and what I discovered when I began
to make time for writing in my life in a book I recently
completed on seven practices for nurturing creativity in
ourselves and in our students. I discovered that being
bilingual, from a Mexican American family and from the
desert were key sources of inspiration. My first children’s
book, A Birthday Basket for Tía, is about the dear great-
aunt mentioned above. It seemed fun and natural (that
word again) to write about the desert that I suddenly
began to really notice when I started writing and, since I
consider both the languages I speak beautiful, it seemed
natural to write some bilingual books such as Listen to
the Desert/Oye al desierto and The Desert Is My Mother/
El desierto es mi madre. The latter ends with the words,
“The desert is my strong mother.”
Children do find strength from the positive relation-
ships and experiences including strength in having their
home languages and cultures honored in schools and
libraries. Sadly, many more children’s trade books that
reflect our national diversity are needed. I firmly believe
that teachers and librarians can be a powerful force for
this necessary change.
By selecting evocative and authentic books that
reflect the lives of our students, we not only help link
them to text, to bookjoy, we also help them discover what
I did: that at any age, our native languages and cultures
are rich sources for our creative work. Whether we’re
writing, drawing, painting, or acting, our “roots” can
boost us up to express ourselves imaginatively, to flourish.
82
Pa r t II
Selecting and Using Books

I Know the River Loves Me
M aya Christina G onzalez
When we see ourselves reflected in our environment,

something happens within us. We are calmed, soothed,
validated in a way that has no thoughts or words. An
osmotic communication that we are, we belong. So funda-
mental that it goes without saying, it is about being, being
here now.
When I have gone into the classroom, I have had the
privilege of working with what I call the “stressed out”
kids. Many of whom not only don’t see themselves in the
white faces in the books at school or in the library, but
sometimes not even in the few brown faces that exist.
Their experiences are complicated and layered. Beyond
their childhood awareness, their lives are rooted in the
basic power dynamics of our culture that relate to race
and economics and how those dynamics often affect com-
munities and families. They are children, so they are
brave and resilient and have taught me a great deal. And
they have reminded me of many of my own lessons as a
child and much of what my father taught me.
When I was asked to write and not just illustrate
children’s books I was immediately drawn to share what
sustained me as a child. In my first book My Colors, My
World/Mis Colores, Mi Mundo I began the conversa-
tion of finding one’s self, one’s reflection in nature. My
father didn’t have words for what he experienced in the
United States as a child. When he was 5 years old he was
placed in an all-English-speaking school when he spoke
only Spanish. There were no bilingual books or teachers
or parents. Only him. From his stories I sensed that
although he didn’t find himself reflected in the dominant
culture around him, it was through his relationships with
Copyright by Maya Christina Gonzalez.
85
the desert and with animals that he knew his true self
and kept himself solid. When I was a child he shared his
engagement with nature with me so that I saw it as part
of him and a part of me. He taught me on a deep level
that we belong to the natural world and it is our ally and
friend.
My relationship with nature has deepened into my
adulthood and I consider the Yuba River one of my close
friends. I don’t know why it surprised me when she began
telling me a story one summer while visiting. Because
when I returned home I was asked to write and illustrate
another book. I laughed out loud when I realized the river
had just told me a tale to tell and I thought of my father
and all the kids I could tell, “this is what the river told
me.”
In I Know the River Loves Me/Yo Se Que el Rio Me
Ama I share that not only can we find ourselves in nature
like in My Colors, My World/Mis Colores, Mi Mundo, but
that we can have a relationship with her. We can love
nature and she can love us back. I believe this is impor-
tant because there are times when we will not easily fit
into a new culture or the power dynamics that affect our
lives, but through our awareness of and relationship with
nature, we can know that we belong where we are and we
are loved at all times. When we sense that we belong in
the world we can learn and expand with greater ease and
grace. Belonging and love always support our ability to
learn, to be and to become empowered beings in a world
we can trust is ours.
Nature travels with us. It is the greater reality of the
world and is without language, a neutral place where we
all live. Nature is beyond stress and beyond the dynamics
of culture, community or family. Here in the river, el rio . . .
we are held and free to form new words, new understand-
ings and connections that support our lives. My father did
not teach me Spanish. He taught me nature. I dream that
if we become aware that we are standing in the power and
majesty of nature at all times, we can first see without
words, without thoughts. Then open to the power of who
86
we are and reach out for all that we can become. Like it
did for my father, nature can hold us and reflect our truest
sense of self when the world does not. From this strong
place, we can learn with confidence all the languages our
hearts and mouths can hold.
Even in urban settings nature is all around us. Like
in My Colors, My World/Mis Colores, Mi Mundo we must
open our eyes extra wide to see the colors around us. If we
have never met a river or like many kids do not have the
means to visit one, we can still draw our attention to the
animals and growing beings around us. Birds and bugs,
trees and what we call weeds. There are flowers that
grow small and weedy in the most urban of environments.
When we see ourselves in nature, love her and notice the
ways that she loves us back, it gives us a way to engage
with the world around us. The unspoken story about the
little girl in My Colors, My World/Mis Colores, Mi Mundo,
is that she does not see herself in school or library books,
but she still needs to see herself. Her keen eye opens to
the power and beauty of the brilliant sunset and there she
is. Through this she is expanded and able to take flight.
At the closing of I Know the River Love Me/Yo Se Que el
Rio Me Ama, the little girl walks with joy and confidence
knowing that her friend is always there waiting for her.
The stable and constant love of the river transforms her
so that she is part of it.
When we teach I believe we must always begin with
ourselves. So in this moment I invite you to become
aware of the sky. Are there clouds? Can you feel a breeze?
Remember how your hair feels in a soft breeze, a strong
wind? Is it raining? Foggy? Snowing? What color is the
sky? What’s your favorite time of sky? Do you know a
river? An ocean? A mountain? A forest? A valley? A lake?
Can you see anything growing? How many colors of
green can you see? What about brown or gold? Can you
sense the roots below the dirt? How they reach and strive?
What color is the earth? Is it moist and dark? Or dry and
cracked? Do you have a favorite tree? Or flower? What do
your feet feel like walking on the earth?
87
Do you hear birds? Can you see any? What must it
feel like to fly? Do you have an animal friend? Do you
love deer? Are you excited when you see a snake? Have
you watched a spider web in the breeze? Or ants hard at
work?
There is so much to be aware of, to hold us, to love
and be loved by. We are a part of all this. And it is a
reflection of us. Are you a tree? A sunset? A fish?
Know that you belong exactly where you are. See it
all around you. Notice all the ways that nature is loving
you right now. Even the air. Thank you for taking this
moment.
88
C h a p t e r F o ur
Selecting and Using Fiction

Nana even gave me a new

journal to write in for when I finish this one. She said,
“Never forget who you are and where you are from.
Keep your language and your culture alive in your diary
and in your heart.”
—Amada Irma Pérez, My Diary from Here to There/
Mi Diario de Aquí hasta Allá
(Children’s Book Press, 2002)
Fiction is a popular genre as children of all backgrounds enjoy escap-

ing or identifying with a good story. And, reading aloud fictional stories
is the usual way of introducing students to literature. Consequently, fic-
tion dominates the textbooks published in reading and language arts.
However, it is not necessarily the “easiest” genre for English learners to
tackle. They may not be familiar with the usual story patterns (begin-
ning, middle, end) or story language (“Once upon a time . . .”) that domi-
nate American children’s literature based on their cultural backgrounds
or previous encounters with oral or written stories. It may take longer to
engage English learners, if they need to focus on comprehending stories
at both the word level and story schema level at the same time. Although
it may seem counterintuitive, choosing fiction first for English learners
is not necessarily easier reading; hence, this book’s chapters on selecting
poetry and nonfiction for English learners. However, with proper prior
knowledge preparation, students can enjoy many wonderfully told and
beautifully illustrated stories that entertain and enrich.
89
90 SELECTING AND USING BOOKS
This chapter discusses the benefits of fiction for English learners and
the potential of fiction to develop language and literacy. In addition, the
chapter highlights issues in selecting fiction for English learners.
Literacy and Language Development

of English Learners
Learning to read in another language appears to be influenced by the

same set of skills used when learning to read in the first language (Lesaux,
Koda, Siegel, & Shanahan, 2006). However, English learners may differ
greatly from first-language readers in terms of the linguistic resources
they have to bring to the process. Native English speakers arrive at school
with quite a head start (Grabe, 2009). They already know 5,000 to 8,000
words orally, and they also have a large store of implicit knowledge about
the morphology of their language, how sounds go together within words,
most basic syntax structures, and the structure of stories and some other
genres. In contrast, it will take English learners several years to develop
these understandings, but at the same time, they must begin the process
of learning to read while also learning a new language. Yet, English learn-
ers who arrive at school as readers in their home language do not have to
start over and learn the process of reading again with English. They apply
their knowledge of the reading process to their developing knowledge of
English. Similarly, “children who arrive in the United States with strong
first-language vocabularies have little difficulty acquiring English words.
The mechanism widely suggested for this phenomenon is that knowledge
of the known concepts need not be reacquired; all that is needed is new
labels for those known concepts. In other words, conceptual knowledge
is available in the first language and facilitates vocabulary acquisition
in the second language” (Snow, 2008, p. 283). Snow further adds that
“Use of reading strategies in the first language correlates with their use
in the second language once second-language reading has developed suf-
ficiently so such strategies can be used” (pp. 281–282). So, first-language
knowledge and literacy development is an asset that some English learn-
ers can leverage in their journey to become English proficient.
The importance of creating an instructional environment and rou-
tines to foster literacy development is critical, though, since test results
indicate that English learners generally underperform their monolingual
peers (Lesaux & Geva, with Koda, Siegel, & Shanahan, 2008). Whereas
English learners are likely to score in the adequate range on measures of
word recognition and spelling, this is not the case on measures of read-
Selecting and Using Fiction 91
ing vocabulary, comprehension, and writing (Snow, 2008). Yet, there are
research-based results that can inform practice. For instance, reading
aloud to students in English helps them develop English vocabulary and
providing reading materials and time for students to read has also shown
positive results on English reading outcomes (August et al., 2008). Grabe
(2009) concurs noting that literacy development for English learners
requires the development of linguistic knowledge about their new lan-
guage as well as extensive exposure to texts and experiences and practice
with reading in English.
According to Helman (2009, p. 122), a comprehensive emergent lit-
eracy curriculum for English learners should include opportunities to
• Experience focused, explicit, and short lessons that develop pho-

nological awareness skills such as rhyming, hearing individual
sounds in words, and blending.
• Learn the letters of the alphabet and begin to explore the sounds
they represent.
• Develop oral language proficiency, including vocabulary knowl-
edge in English.
• Practice connecting oral language to print.
• Learn to read a core group of important high-frequency words to
use in their practice reading.
Since fiction selections are more numerous in core reading programs and
because there are so many predictable fiction picture books with repeti-
tive, rhyming language to develop oral language proficiency and phone-
mic awareness, fiction is a good genre to support the preceding literacy
activities for not only emergent readers. Such activities will also assist
beginning English learners at Levels 1 and 2 who are already readers in
their home language but who need to become familiar with the English
alphabet, sound system, and orthography.
Selecting Fiction for English Learners

in Grades K–6
Although it may not always be popular to say so, the first criteria in choos-
ing books to share with children should always be whether the book is
well written and interesting. From a practical standpoint, students are
generally uninterested in books that are didactic, sentimental, or bor-
ing. So the traditional literary tools of strong plot, interesting characters,
integral setting, worthwhile theme, and captivating style are still useful
measures of a book’s worth. However, choosing books with our English
learners in mind, with their possible cultural differences and with their
developing language skills, can prove to be complex. What may be help-
ful when choosing fiction for English learners is experimenting with the
different types that are currently available and appropriate for English
learners in the elementary grades as noted in Figure 4.1.
Picture books dominate the children’s book publishing industry,
with several thousand new books published each year. Good picture
books are highly visual with clear images and plot flow depicted in the
pictures. The language should also be clear, direct, and simple, without
being contrived, and the topics and experiences depicted either universal
or self-contained and self-explanatory within the text and illustrations.
Generally only 32 pages in length, picture books are usually intended
for young audiences. Some, however, are so sophisticated and ground-
breaking in their content or their art, they are really more appropriate
for older readers. This makes them very useful for sharing with English
learners who can rely on both visual and textual clues for gaining mean-
ing from the story. Moreover, there are several interesting trends with
picture books that benefit students learning English as well as reading
skills. Advanced technology has now made it possible to reproduce full
color art for book illustration leading to very colorful and visually excit-
Picture Books
•• Wordless Picture Books
•• Picture Storybooks
•• Global Literature
•• Folklore
•• Predictable Books
•• Chain or circular story
•• Cumulative story
•• Familiar sequence (alphabet, counting, days of week, etc.)
•• Pattern stories
•• Question and answer
•• Repetition of phrase
•• Rhyme
•• Songbook
Transitional Books and Chapter Books
FIGURE 4.1. Different types of fiction books.

ing book art. There is also greater openness and experimentation in the
content of the picture book, from the unusual to the controversial. This
means picture books span a broader age and interest level. Thus, stu-
dents whom we may have once believed too old for picture books, may
find these more sophisticated picture books very appealing. Finally, more
global literature is also being published—books depicting different cul-
tural groups and perspectives in the United States as well as books origi-
nally published in other countries and other languages and then repub-
lished in the United States. These books offer topics and themes that may
more closely reflect the lives and families of some English learners.
In terms of themes and topics, fiction picture books, just as chapter
books or novels, run the gamut. They can deal with contemporary realism
including humor, mysteries, sports and survival stories, adventure, ani-
mal stories, growing up, dealing with difficulties, and living in a diverse
world. On the other hand, picture books can tell fictional stories while
weaving in historical facts, people, and places. Historical fiction picture
books may be intimidating for English learners if they present unfamiliar
historical names, places, events, and terms. Then again, historical fiction
may explore a familiar topic; for example, immigration in Landed (Lee,
2006, TL4–5, I, F). While English learners may not be familiar with the
fact that many Chinese were held at Angel Island until they verified their
“stories” of family already in the United States, many can relate to the
affective side of immigration, if not through firsthand experience, then
through family members. Two promising publishing trends include the
increasing number of historical fiction picture books set in other parts of
the world that may be home to immigrant students and more historical
fiction that features the points of view and experiences of growing up
on the “outside.” Finally, there are fantasy picture books with imaginary
creatures and stories set in different worlds. Similar to historical fiction,
fantasy often presents challenges to English learners who may struggle
with the imagined worlds, foreign or futuristic settings, animals that act
like people, and characters that are imaginary beings or have special
powers.
As to format, there are some picture books that have no (or very few)
words, and the pictures are the book. Wordless books generally tell a
story—but through illustrations alone. For instance, Tuesday (Weisner,
1991, TL2–5, A, F) is a Caldecott Award-Winning book with an imagina-
tive story about flying frogs. The wordless format challenges students to
create or narrate their own text. In doing so, English learners develop
oral language as they tell the story in their own words and indirectly
learn about narrative characteristics such as the beginning, middle, and

end of a story. Most wordless books can be used across grade levels, and
some have subtle nuances and mature themes that are especially suited
for the intermediate grades and beyond as in Jeannie Baker’s books (Win-
dow, 2002, TL2–5, A, F; Home, 2004, TL2–5, A, F) about environmental
issues. Beyond developing storytelling and oral fluency, wordless books
can also provide an excellent opportunity for writing captions and assess-
ing visual literacy.
While illustrations can make stories comprehensible, repeated lan-
guage patterns and predictable story structure are also support features.
“Predictable and patterned stories with repeated refrains . . . allow pupils
to function quickly as readers of English text” (Savage, 1994, p. 372). In
an analysis of predictable books, Bridge (1986) found various types of
structures within text were used to accomplish the goal of predictability
of text including refrain, cumulative, compare–contrast, and episodic or
enumerative patterns. More importantly, as teachers examine books for
aspects of predictability, they need to keep in mind some measures of
predictability and the impact of these on the reader. Hiebert and Raphael
(1997, p. 114) classify predictable units by the size of the unit (small =
3–5 words; sizable = 6–10 words; large = 11–15 or more words) and the
proportion of the text devoted to the unit (low = less than one-fourth;
moderate = one-fourth to one-third; high = one-half to two-thirds; very
high = three-fourths or more). The larger the unit and the greater the pro-
portion of the text devoted to the unit, the more the use of predictability
will support readers and help them to comprehend the text. Accordingly,
beginning English learners need books with large predictable units that
account for a large portion of the whole text. As they develop language
proficiency, the size and proportion of the predictable unit can decrease.
Although predictable books are designed for younger emerging
readers, some lend themselves to use across the grades. Moreover, there
are various formats of predictable books including chain or circular sto-
ries, cumulative stories, books with a familiar sequence, pattern stories,
question-and-answer books, books with repetition of a phrase, rhyming
books, and songbooks (Jett-Simpson, 1986). Examples of each format fol-
low.
In the chain or circular story, the ending leads back to the beginning
as exemplified by Rabbit’s Gift (Shannon, 2007, TL2–4, A, F). As winter
snow approaches, Rabbit goes in search of food and finds two turnips and
decides to share one of his turnips. Donkey isn’t home, so Rabbit leaves
the turnip by the door. Thus begins a chain reaction as Donkey shares
with Goat who in turn shares with Deer. Deer completes the circle of
generosity by returning the turnip to Rabbit who divides the turnip and
shares it with all of his friends to make a “cozy” meal.
In cumulative stories, “each time a new event occurs, all previous
events in the story are repeated.” Simms Taback offers a retelling of one
of the most familiar cumulative tales in This Is the House That Jack Built
(2002, TL2–4, A, F).
Some books are organized by a familiar sequence, the alphabet,
counting, or days of the week. This sequence gives books a built-in struc-
ture as in Counting Ovejas (Weeks, 2006, TL1, P, F), a counting book
appropriate for Level 1 English learners. When the young boy in this
book is unable to sleep, he counts sheep. With each two-page spread,
sheep of varying colors appear and then on the opposite page are bid fare-
well. “Una oveja blanca./ One white sheep./ Adios, oveja blanca!/ Good-
bye, white sheep!” In simple rhyming text, One Is a Drummer: A Book
of Numbers (Thong, 2008, TL2–4, A, F) spotlights Asian culture with
text such as “One is a drummer/ One is a race/ One is a dragon boat/
that wins first place!” Multiple sentences on each page and less com-
mon vocabulary such as mahjong, chirp, and egg tarts make this a more
appropriate book for Level 2 English learners at the primary and inter-
mediate grades. However, the cultural focus accompanied by the author’s
notes about some of the items and events noted in the book extend the
applicability of this counting book to Level 4 English learners. Days of
the week are the familiar sequence featured in Can You Hear the Sea?
(Cumberbatch, 2006, TL2–4, A, F), a story depicting the daily activi-
ties in a contemporary West African village and in Mrs. Muffly’s Monster
(Dyer, 2008, TL2–4, A, F), a humorous tale of an eccentric woman who
goes shopping each day and buys large quantities of food leading the
neighbors to guess that she has a huge monster at home when in fact, she
is just baking an enormous cake for a contest.
Pattern stories have scenes or events that are repeated with some
variation. In The Fish Who Cried Wolf (Donaldson, 2008, TL2–5, A, F),
Tiddler is always late to school, but he always has an excuse that is a great
story, which is then repeated to other ocean creatures: (“I love Tiddler’s
story,” said Little Johnny Dory,/ and he told it to his granny, who told it to
a plaice . . ./ who told it to a starfish, who told it to a seal,/ who told it to a
lobster,/ who told it to an eel . . .). One day, Tiddler gets swept up in a fish-
ing net and then is thrown back in the ocean far from home. His stories
that have been shared with other ocean creatures eventually help him
find his way home. Another example, If I Were You: A Daddy–Daughter
Story (Hamilton, 2008, TL2–5, A, F), showcases the amusing back-and-

forth exchange between Dad and daughter about what each would do if
they were the other person. “Dad sat up and stroked his chin. ‘If you were
me—now let me see—while you washed up, I’d watch TV!/ Then I could
play with Millie mouse, while you made beds and tidied the house!’ ”
Question-and-answer books have the same or similar question
repeated throughout the book. In Where’s My Hug? (Mayhew, 2008,
TL2–5, A, F), Jake turns down a hug from his mother when she drops
him off at school. Later, when Jake decides he wants that hug, he discov-
ers that Mom has given it away to Dad, and so on, and he must track down
the hug using the same question on each two-page spread: “Where’s my
hug?” as Jake learns how the hug was passed along from character to
character.
Repetition of a phrase throughout a book can punctuate the text
in an engaging and sometimes poetic manner. Such is the case in Oye,
Celia!: A Song for Celia Cruz (Sciurba, 2007, TL2–5, I, F). As the young
girl in the book celebrates the music of Cuban singer, Celia Cruz, the
author emphasizes the connection of Cruz’s music to Cuban and Latino
culture using a repeated pattern: “When I hear you, I hear la tristeza—
Your sadness, my sadness, Our sadness. When I hear you, I hear la histo-
ria—Your history, my history, Our history.”
Stories in rhyme offer predictability and also teach English learners
about the sounds of their new language. Two rhyming books by Rose-
anne Thong, Red Is a Dragon: A Book of Colors (2008, TL2–4, A, F) and
Round Is a Mooncake: A Book of Shapes (2000, TL2–4, A, F), feature
Chinese culture and also teach about the concepts of color (“Red is a
dragon/ Red is a drum/ Red are the firecrackers—/ Here they come.”)
and shape (“Round is a mooncake/ Round is the moon/ Round are the
lanterns/ outside my room.”).
Picture songbooks for the primary grades generally have repeti-
tion and a predictable pattern. Moreover, some of them are participa-
tion songs with actions that involve students physically, a good language-
building technique for English learners. Some good basic songbooks to
have on hand in the classroom are Old MacDonald Had a Farm (Caberra,
2008, TL1–2, P, F), If You’re Happy and You Know It, Clap Your Hands!
(Carter, 1997, TL1–3, P, F), Do Your Ears Hang Low? (Church, 2003,
TL1–3, P, F), The Eensy-Weensy Spider (Hoberman, 2004, TL1–3, P,
F), Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star (Long, 2001, TL1–3, P, F), There Was an
Old Lady Who Swallowed a Fly (Toback, 1997, TL2–4, P, F), The Wheels
on the Bus (Zelinsky, 1990, TL1–3, P, F), and Knick Knack Paddywhack
(Zelinsky, 2002, TL1–3, P, F).
Folklore refers to the stories, traditions, customs, and sayings of a

group of people that have been passed down by word of mouth from gen-
eration to generation. All cultures participate in storytelling, children’s
chants, gestures, rhymes, riddles, and proverbs. So, all students have
some background knowledge of this type of language and activity.
Traditional literature refers to the stories that were initially oral and
later written down. As such, they are of such long duration that they can-
not be traced to one single person. These stories have no known authors.
Instead, they have story adapters or retellers. Many types of traditional
literature have been published in trade-book format as highlighted in
Figure 4.2. Students can read and listen to the entire range from riddles
and rhymes to fables, fairytales, and folk tales, myths, and legends. More-
over, most published traditional literature is in picture-book format, with
illustrations that may help cue the reader to important story elements, as
well as provide visual cultural details for the story. However, due to the
amount of text needed to tell the story, most traditional literature picture
books are a better fit for Levels 3–5 proficiency levels.
Childhood folklore is featured in Yum! Yum!: Delicious Nursery
Rhymes (Fitzgerald, 2008, TL2–4, A, F) with simple and classic rhymes
from “Little Jack Horner” to “Peter Piper.” These rhymes may work for
oral language development and are accessible to Level 2 English learn-
ers, but they may make little sense to students. For instance, students
may wonder why Jack Horner sticks his thumb in a pie to pull out a plum.
Rachel Isadora gives a classic Hans Christian Andersen fairytale an Afri-
can setting in The Princess and the Pea (2007, TL2–4, A, F). With a couple
of simple sentences per page, this traditional tale is accessible to English
learners at Level 2 and 3 language proficiency. The rest of the examples
that follow are best for Level 3–5 English learners. Another well-known
Cumulative tales Childhood Folklore

Pourquoi tales •• Riddles
Trickster tales •• Jokes
•• Puns
Fairytales
•• Jingles
Tall tales •• Chants
Fables •• Jump rope rhymes
Myths •• Tongue twisters
•• Finger plays
•• Hand-clapping games
FIGURE 4.2. Different types of traditional literature and folklore.

folk tale is retold in Glass Slipper, Gold Sandal: A Worldwide Cinder-

ella (Fleischman, 2007, TL3–5, A, F). Snippets of the many variants of
the Cinderella tale are woven together in this book with notations about
the origin of each piece of the story in the illustrations. The endpapers
have a map with locations marked for each country’s lore used in this
retelling. Like the global settings of the variations of the Cinderella tale,
traditional literature crosses many geographic boundaries from Ghana in
Pretty Salma: A Little Red Riding Hood Story from Africa (Daly, 2006,
TL3–5, A, F), to China in The Pea Blossom (Poole, 2005, TL3–5, A, F),
a tale of the fate of five peas in a pod, and the Spice Islands in Priceless
Gifts (Hamilton & Weiss, 2007, TL3–5, A, F), a story describing a trip
that teaches two merchants what is valuable. Finally, Twelve Dancing
Princesses (Isadora, 2007, TL3–5, A, F) is set in Africa and reveals the
mystery of how 12 princesses wear out their shoes each evening, suppos-
edly without leaving their bedroom.
Across the many different cultural origins and geographic settings
of these tales, English learners will encounter similar themes in tradi-
tional literature. In Martina, the Beautiful Cockroach: A Cuban Folktale
(Deedy, 2007, TL3–5, A, F), Martina is ready to find a husband, but prior
to beginning the search for a perfect match, Martina’s grandmother shares
some sage advice on testing the tempers of her suitors. Baba Diakite deliv-
ers another tale about suitors in Mee-An and the Magic Serpent (2007,
TL3–5, I, F). While Mee-An has many suitors, she is searching for a man
with no flaws. Eventually, she finds love by overlooking imperfections.
Likewise in the British tale, The Great Smelly, Slobbery, Small-Tooth
Dog: A Folktale from Great Britain (MacDonald, 2007, TL3–5, A, F), a
beautiful young woman must overlook the blemishes of the smelly, slob-
bery dog that rescues her father from thieves. When she does so and calls
him “sweet as honeycomb,” the dog rips off his fur to become a handsome
prince. Two of the basic functions of folklore are to entertain and to edu-
cate as demonstrated in the following tales. For entertainment, Conejito:
A Folktale from Panama (MacDonald, 2006, TL3–5, A, F) describes how
Tia Monica helps Conejito make his way home, outwitting the animals
that want to eat him. And for education, Go to Sleep, Gecko!: A Balinese
Folktale (MacDonald, 2006, TL3–5, A, F) explores how Gecko learns
about the connections among all things in nature, and with a serious mes-
sage, Feathers: A Jewish Tale from Eastern Europe (Forest, 2005, TL3–5,
I, F) points out the long-reaching effects of rumors and gossip and as such
is a valuable book to share with the intermediate grades.
For primary- and intermediate-grade English learners, Lucy Cous-
ins has a collection featuring some of the best-known fairytales in Yummy:
Eight Favorite Fairy Tales (2009, TL3–5, A, F). The basic language and
bright, clear illustrations make this accessible for Level 3 English learners,
but it could be used for read-aloud purposes with Level 1 and 2 students.
For intermediate-grade English learners at Level 4 and 5 proficiency,
there are several excellent collections of folk tales that teachers might
use including Tales Our Abuelitas Told: A Hispanic Folktale Collection
(Campoy & Ada, 2006, TL4–5, I, F), The Great Snake: Stories from the
Amazon (Taylor, 2008, TL4–5, I, F), The Land of the Dragon King and
Other Korean Stories (McClure, 2008, TL4–5, I, F), Three Minute Tales:
Stories from around the World to Read or Tell When Time Is Short (Mac-
Donald, 2004, TL4–5, I, F), and Five Minute Tales: More Stories to Read
and Tell When Time Is Short (MacDonald, 2007, TL4–5, I, F). The first
three collections are focused on stories from specific cultures, and they
have some illustrations interspersed throughout the text although they
are more general and aesthetic in nature rather than conveying direct
meaning. The last two collections, both by Margaret MacDonald, are
divided into sections such as participation tales, animal tales, riddle tales,
and so forth, and the country or region of origin is noted.
While many picture books and easy readers/beginning-to-read
books with their limited vocabulary and regulated sentence length are
designed for beginning readers and therefore, useful for beginning Eng-
lish learners at Levels 1 and 2, the expectation is always that English
learners will move on to more advanced reading. Novels can be effective
with English learners once their language proficiency reaches Levels 4
and 5. Even with students still working toward that goal, chapter books
and novels can be effective teacher read-alouds. To help move English
learners toward the goal of independent novel reading, transitional
books provide a bridge between picture books and chapter books or
novels and thus, are ideal for students whose language and skills enable
them to read beyond picture book easy readers, but are not yet ready for
full-fledged novels. The reading level of transitional books is “similar to
that in many picture books, but the stories are longer and text predomi-
nates” (Giorgis & Glazer, 2009, p. 19). Basically, they are beginning chap-
ter books characterized by “short chapters, lively topics, and occasional
illustrations” (Mitchell, 2003, pp. 85–86). Such books feature not only
brief chapters (2 to 20 pages), but also shorter sentences—typically no
longer than 20 words. Typically, the sentences are simple or compound
with noun–verb–object structure. Mitchell (2003) notes other common
features of these books. Illustrations are often interspersed throughout
the text. These illustrations do not share in the meaning construction of
the story as in picture books, but add to the interest of the story or help
•• If the Shoe Fits (Bell, 2008)

•• Alice’s Birthday Pig (Kennemore, 2008)
•• Daisy Dawson Is on Her Way! (Voake, 2008)
•• Daisy Dawson and the Secret Pond (Voake, 2009)
•• The Silver Horse Switch (Horse Crazy Series, Lester, 2009)
•• Horse Crazy (Horse Crazy Series, Lester, 2009)
•• Martin Bridge: In High Gear (Kerrin, 2008)
•• Martin Bridge Onwards and Upwards! (Kerrin, 2009)
•• Clementine’s Letter (Pennypacker, 2008)
•• Ruby Lu, Brave and True (Look, 2004)
•• Ruby Lu, Empress of Everything (Look, 2006)
•• A Song for Harlem (McKissack, 2007)
•• Dear Sylvia (Cumyn, 2008)
•• The Last Cowboys (Horse, 2008)
•• The Last Gold Diggers (Horse, 2008)
•• Gran, You’ve Got Mail! (Hoestlandt, 2008)
•• On the Road Again!: More Travels with My Family (Gay, 2008)
FIGURE 4.3. Suggested transitional books and chapter books.
readers visualize the setting or characters. Authors of transitional books

often employ themes that children find delightful or to which they can
relate. Use of dialogue and animal characters with human characteristics
often play prominent roles in these books. There are also many series
books available in transitional and chapter book format. Characters such
as Daisy Dawson, Martin Bridge, Clementine, and Ruby Lu can become
student favorites. The consistent characters and settings help English
learners become comfortable with the longer books and encourage them
to engage in independent reading. Figure 4.3 offers a list of a few recent
transitional and chapter books that are appropriate for Level 3–5 English
learners.
Criteria for Selecting Fiction

The rich diversity of fiction books offers many instructional choices to

teachers, but it is important to take into account some of the special needs
of students learning English, in order to choose fiction more selectively
and with greater success. Fiction titles that spring from the students’ cul-
tures may be helpful in providing familiarity for ease of comprehension
as well as for identifying with story characters. Thus, there is an impe-

tus for seeking quality global literature reflecting the many home cul-
tures of students. Students also enjoy other stories with direct, linear plot
lines communicated in language that is clear and concrete. Stories full of
flashbacks or colloquial expressions can be challenging for many English
learners to understand. Finally, many themes in contemporary picture
books and novels are appealing to English learners, especially those with
themes about fitting in, being different, moving and adjusting, separating
from family, seeking one’s place in the world, and so forth.
The four basic criteria for matching books to English learners pre-
sented in Chapter 2 (level of content familiarity or background knowl-
edge, level of language, level of textual support, and level of cultural fit)
have been focused on the selection of fiction in Table 4.1. An in-depth
discussion of these criteria and how they have been applied to examples
of recently published fiction follows. Using these criteria and guiding
questions, teachers can begin to carefully weigh the most appropriate
works of fiction to meet English learners’ varying language proficiency
needs and backgrounds and to encourage language development.
Level of Topic/Theme Familiarity

and Background Knowledge
This first criteria, level of topic/theme familiarity and background knowl-
edge, deals with the accessibility and conceptual load of the topic or
theme of the fiction text. The more unfamiliar and distant the text’s topic
or theme, the more difficult it will be for English learners. Again, learn-
ing new topics or understanding new themes along with learning them in
a new language is a double load. Fiction texts that center around familiar
topics, time and money, school, colors, days of the week, months of the
year, signs and symbols, food, weather, clothing, family, homes, occu-
pations, and animals furnish fundamental initial reading material that
may be more comprehensible to English learners. These types of books
provide engaging and “literary” texts for learning basic information and
for coping with day-to-day routines in a new language. In addition to a
familiar topic or theme, teachers should, of course, choose well-written
and well-illustrated literature that will be enjoyable to English learners
and lead to close examination and repeated readings so that students can
practice their new language. As teachers consider how close a fit the text
is to the learner’s knowledge or background experiences, they might ask
some of the following questions:
• What topics/themes are presented in the fiction text?

• Is this presentation an introduction to the topic/theme or is it con-
tinued conceptual development at a higher level?
• What is the English learner’s level of familiarity or background
knowledge related to the topic/theme? Is the topic or theme very
familiar, familiar, unfamiliar, or not common?
• What background knowledge does the English learner have on
the topic/theme of the fiction text?
• Has the topic/theme of the fiction text been previously covered in
the curriculum? When? At what level? What was the level of suc-
cess of English learners?
• Is the topic/theme of the fiction text likely to be part of the reader’s
background experience? How so? How can the teacher best link
English learners’ previous experiences/understandings to the fic-
tion text?
Everyone has to adjust to different life events, so adjustment and

change are familiar topics to most children including English learners.
Some excellent books about the changes brought about by new siblings
include Babies Can’t Eat Kimchee! (Patz & Roth, 2007, TL2–3, P, F),
suitable for Level 2 English learners, with its simple exploration of what
the narrator’s baby sister can and cannot do as well as Rosie and But-
tercup (Uegaki, 2008, TL3–5, A, F), which would be more appropriate
for Levels 3 to 5 due to longer text and the humorous plot twist of “giv-
ing away” her baby sister to the neighbor so life can return to “normal”
with just Rosie, Mother, and Father. In Martha in the Middle (Fearnley,
2008, TL3–5, A, F), Martha doesn’t have a new sibling, but she does have
trouble adjusting to being the middle child. When she runs away, she
meets some friends who point out that middle is best; for instance, ripples
emerge from the middle, sunflower seeds, peas, and a flower’s nectar are
all in the middle, and finally, the juiciest part of the watermelon is in the
middle.
Other adjustments concern personal adaptations such as overcom-
ing fears. Emily Gravett highlights some potential phobias including fear
of spiders and fear of water in Little Mouse’s Big Book of Fears (2008,
TL1–5, A, F) as well as teaching readers about the suffix phobia. The
illustrations and captions in Little Mouse’s Big Book of Fears are appro-
priate for Level 1 and 2 English learners but the focus on the suffix pho-
bia and vocabulary study is better for Levels 3 to 5. Melanie Watt’s series
with Scaredy Squirrel (2006, TL3–5, A, F), Scaredy Squirrel Makes a
TABLE 4.1. Criteria and Guiding Questions for Selecting Fiction

Criteria Guiding Questions
Level of •• What topic/theme is presented in the fiction text?

topic/theme •• Is this presentation an introduction to the topic/theme or is it
familiarity and continued conceptual development at a higher level?
background •• What is the English learner’s level of familiarity or background
knowledge knowledge related to the topic/theme? Is the topic or theme very
How close familiar, familiar, unfamiliar, or not common?
a fit is the •• What background knowledge does the English learner have on the
fiction text to topic/theme of the fiction text?
the English •• Has the topic/theme of the fiction text been previously covered in the
learner’s curriculum? When? At what level? What was the level of success of
knowledge or English learners?
background •• Is the topic/theme of the fiction text likely to be part of the reader’s
experiences? background experience? How so? How can the teacher best link
English learners’ previous experiences/understandings to the fiction
text?
Level of •• What is the vocabulary load of the fiction text (e.g., basic and
language familiar, sophisticated/advanced and unfamiliar, concrete or abstract,
How close general or technical/specialized, idiomatic, formal or informal,
a fit is the vocabulary with multiple meanings, figurative language)?
fiction text to •• How many new vocabulary words are presented?
the English •• Does the fiction text present new vocabulary in meaningful
learner’s contextual language?
vocabulary, •• How likely is the English learner to encounter the vocabulary in this
syntactic fiction text in other reading?
knowledge, •• What is the English learner’s previous experience with the
and overall vocabulary of the fiction text (completely new, some exposure, should
proficiency be part of active vocabulary)? Is the vocabulary currently or likely
level? to be part of the English learner’s speaking vocabulary? Listening
•• If the fiction text is predictable, what is the size of the predictable
unit and what percent of the fiction text does the predictable unit
account for?
•• What is the syntactic structure of the fiction text? Word level? Phrase
level? Single simple sentences per page? Multiple simple sentences?
Short paragraphs with simple sentences? Compound sentences?
Complex sentences? Compound/complex sentences? Embedded
clauses?
•• How familiar is the English learner with those syntax patterns? Does
the English learner use that syntax pattern in speaking? Writing?
(cont.)
TABLE 4.1. (cont.)

Criteria Guiding Questions
Level of textual •• Are there visuals (photographs or illustrations)?

support •• Are the visuals clear and direct? One-to-one correspondence
What types of of visuals to the fiction text? General connection? Primarily for
support does aesthetic purposes?
the fiction text •• What types of text features are used? Print style such as bold or
provide and italics? Headings and subheadings? Captions and labeling of visuals?
how familiar Table of contents, index, glossary, author’s note?
is the English •• How familiar is the English learner with these types of text features?
learner with
these types of
text support?
Level of •• Is the fiction text culturally neutral (with general diversity portrayed
cultural fit but no focus on a specific group)? Culturally generic (with a group
How close featured but less specific detail provided)? Culturally specific (with
a fit is the explicit details about a group portrayed)?
fiction text to •• Does the fiction text reflect the background and/or experiences of
the English recent immigrants? U.S.-born English learners?
learner’s •• Are the characters similar or different than English learners in the
cultural or classroom?
experiential •• Have English learners had an experience like one described in the
background fiction text?
(ethnic, •• Have English learners lived in or visited places like those in the
language, fiction text?
geographic, •• How far removed is the fiction text from current times?
religious, •• How close is the main character’s age to English learners’?
socioeconomic, •• Is the main character the same gender as the reader?
gender)? •• Do the characters talk like the English learners and their families?
Friend (2007, TL3–5, A, F), Scaredy Squirrel at the Beach (2008, TL3–5,
A, F), and Scaredy Squirrel at Night (2009, TL3–5, A, F) also explores
fears in a humorous way, but in the end, Scaredy Squirrel achieves some
success with overcoming his fears. Similarly, Cottonball Colin (Willis,
2008, TL2–4, A, F) has a protective mother who worries about the little
mouse because he is so small and as a consequence, refuses to allow him
to go outside. Under pressure from the little mouse, she wraps him in cot-
ton to protect him and allows him to venture out of the house. While he
still ends up having some hazardous experiences, he manages to survive
them and grows from the events. Finally, Alligator Boy (Rylant, 2008,
TL2–4, A, F) is not about fear but boredom. A young boy is bored of
being a boy and when he receives an alligator head and tail costume
from his aunt, he decides to change. The story follows his daily activities
in costume. Although the simple sentences are easy to follow for Level
2 English learners, the fantasy element (“He found his dear dad and told
him the story of being a lizard, no longer a boy.”) may be confusing.
English learners may identify most closely with the topic of change
and adjustment as they adapt to a new language and perhaps, a new coun-
try. Immigration may be familiar to English learners, but all means of
arriving to a new country may not be so well-known as in the case of Ziba
Came on a Boat (Lofthouse, 2007, TL2–5, A, F). The simple language
of the book explores the events leading up to leaving for a new home as
well as the fears along the journey. Not all moves to a new home are as
intense as the one portrayed in Ziba Came on a Boat, but they still result
in change. In Angelina’s Island (Winter, 2007, TL2–4, A, F), Angelina is
homesick for her island home of Jamaica, but when she joins with other
immigrants from the West Indies in the Carnival parade in Brooklyn, she
begins to feel more connected. Adjusting to new school environments is
the focus of Sunday Chutney (Blabey, 2009, TL2–4, A, F). Sunday has
moved all over the world, which means she has been the “new kid” in
school many times. While she is very adaptable, in the end, she wishes
“to always have the same home.” Yoko Writes Her Name (Wells, 2008,
TL2–3, P, F) deals not only with adjusting to school but doing so in
another language. Initially, her peers make fun of Yoko and her Japanese
writing: “Olive whispered to Sylvia./ ‘Books go left to right, not right to
left!’/ ‘Yoko is only pretending to read!’ said Sylvia./ ‘She’ll never make
it to first grade!’ said Olive.” The author also helps readers expand their
understanding of the differences between English and Japanese through
illustrations on the corners of opposing pages; underneath the left illus-
tration is the English label and the Japanese label is on the right.
In Children of Immigration, Carola and Marcelo Suárez-Orozco
(2001) suggest that recent immigrants develop identities, ethnic flight,
transcultural identity, and adversarial identity based on their styles of
adaptation to a new culture and language. Minor examples of ethnic
flight might be represented by Unhei (The Name Jar, Choi, 2001, TL4–5,
A, F), who at first considers adopting an Americanized name that would
be easier for her peers at school to pronounce and by Na-Li (Hannah Is
My Name, Yang, 2004, TL4–5, A, F), who has already changed her name
to Hannah. Adversarial identity, in small doses, may come as a result of
repeated teasing, name calling, and even fights at school as depicted in
La Mariposa (Jiménez, 1998, TL3–5, P, F) and in My Name is Jorge on
Both Sides of the River (Medina, 1999, TL3–5, A, P), where persistent
teasing results in Jorge labeling himself “stupid.” These examples dem-
onstrate to teachers and to monolingual English peers how difficult tran-

sition experiences may cause children to withdraw and feel alienated.
Finally, in I Love Saturdays and Domingos (Ada, 2002, TL2–4, P, F), a
young girl embraces a transcultural identity, successfully navigating two
language worlds—one with her paternal grandparents in English and
the other with her maternal grandparents in Spanish. Other examples
of transcultural identity, positively fusing two language and cultures, are
visible in Papá and Me (Dorros, 2008, TL2–4, P, F) and Tomás and the
Library Lady (Mora, 1997, TL4–5, A, F). Additional books that address
the topics of immigration and English learners are provided in Appendix
A at the end of this book.
Children often have some familiarity with animals and enjoy reading
about them, and there are numerous fiction picture books that focus on
animals. For instance, The Zoo (Lee, 2007, TL1–2, P, F), about a young
girl and her parents who visit the zoo, is a very basic book suitable for
Level 1 English learners while Penguins (Pinchon, 2008, TL2–4, P, F)
is a humorous inside look at the zoo as penguins find a lost camera and
experiment with taking pictures of each other. The latter book with sev-
eral sentences per page is more suitable for Level 2 and 3 English learn-
ers, but some of the humor may be lost as when “The little penguin puts
his flipper on the button and says, ‘Everyone look at me and say FISH!’
Another consideration for these books might be whether the English
learners have visited a zoo or have learned about zoos and the types of
animals portrayed. Two predictable books by Katie Davis explore animal
noise and movement using examples and nonexamples. In Who Hoots?
(Davis, 2000, TL1–3, P, F), the focus is on animal noises. The author
presents three options that are false followed by one that is correct: “Who
hoots?/ Dogs don’t hoot./ Pigs don’t hoot./ Horses don’t hoot./ Owls don’t
hoot./ Yes, they do!” The author uses a similar pattern in Who Hops?
(Davis, 1998, TL1–3, P, F) only with three correct options and one incor-
rect: “Who hops?/ Frogs hop./ Rabbits hop./ Kangaroos hop./ Cows hop./
No, they don’t.” Both of these books would be appropriate for Level 1 and
2 English learners although there are some humorous side notes on pages
that again may not register with students in the beginning language pro-
ficiency stages. In Where’s My Mom? (Donaldson, 2008, TL3–5, A, F), a
butterfly tries to help a little monkey find his mother. “Let’s have a think.
How big is she?”/ “She’s big!” said the monkey. “Bigger than me.”/ “Bigger
than you? Then I’ve seen your mom./ Come, little monkey, come, come,
come.” Each time the monkey describes his mother, the butterfly jumps
to a wrong conclusion until eventually monkey and mother are reunited.
Through the patterned format, however, readers learn about the appear-
ance and behaviors of many animals. I Feel a Foot! (Rinck, 2008, TL2–4,
A, F) also features descriptions of animals, or at least part of the animal.
Five animals hear a noise in the dark and go to explore. Each feels a part
of the animal’s body and makes guesses, albeit incorrect ones, about what
the animal is. These last two books are a good match for Level 2 and 3
English learners.
Animal friendships are the focus of Elephants Never Forget (Ravi
shankar, 2008, TL2–4, A, F) when a young elephant is separated from
his herd and joins a group of water buffaloes. In the end, the elephant
must choose to stay with his friends, the water buffaloes, or go back
to live among the elephants. While water buffaloes may not be a com-
mon animal to English learners, they can certainly relate to the ideas
of being separated from those who are familiar and then bonding with
new friends. Friendships between humans and animals are addressed
in many books such as My Cat Copies Me (Kwon, 2007, TL1–3, P, F)
that depicts the relationship of a young girl and her pet cat or Dogfish
(Shields, 2008, TL2–4, A, F) about a boy who would like a dog but makes
the most of his goldfish as he “trains” the goldfish to “catch sticks, or
go for walks, or sit by your feet.” Both the title and the humor may be
difficult for beginning English learners, but the language is accessible
to Level 2 English learners. In a similar humorous vein, What Pet to
Get? (Dodd, 2008, TL2–4, A, F) shares a young boy’s outlandish sugges-
tions for housepets (“I think we should get an elephant,” he announced.
“I could ride it to school.”). Through his ideas, readers learn what is and is
not a good house pet: “An elephant would be nice, dear,” said Mom, “but
not very practical.” English learners may wonder why someone would
even suggest some of the animals as pets, however, if they are still in the
very literal stage of language acquisition. Finally, in I Completely Know
about Guinea Pigs (Child, 2008, TL3–5, A, F), Lola shares quite a few
facts about guinea pigs when she brings home the class guinea pig for the
weekend. Even though these books are fiction, they offer readers a hook
to a familiar topic, animals, and then present additional information to
build existing knowledge. Linking the many fiction books about animals
with the scores of nonfiction books available, through perfect pairs or text
sets as described in Chapter 3, is a good technique to provide even more
background information developing both content and language.
Many picture books address the familiar topic of manners and social
behaviors. A good book for a basic overview is Laurie Keller’s Do unto
Otters: A Book about Manners (2007, TL2–5, A, F), suitable for Level
2 and 3 English learners. Rather than multiple behaviors, authors may
choose to focus on only one positive example as in Rabbit’s Gift (Shan-
non, 2007, TL2–4, A, F), a wonderful folktale about sharing or The Story
Blanket (Wolff, 2008, TL2–4, A, F) as Babba Zarrah shares all the wool
from her prized blanket to knit socks, a scarf, and mittens for others in
need. On the other hand, authors may compare positive and negative
examples of behaviors as in Please Don’t Tease Tootsie (Chamberlain,
2008, TL1–4, A, F), Bad Kitty (Bruel, 2005, TL2–5, A, F), and Ping Pong
Pig (Church, 2008, TL2–4, A, F) when the pig fixes all the problems he
created to make up for his thoughtless behavior while he played and his
friends worked.
Winter weather is the focus of another pair of books. The Snow Day
(Sakai, 2009, TL1–3, P, F) depicts the quiet day at home that bunny and
Mother enjoy because school is closed and Father’s flight is cancelled
due to the inclement weather. The simple language and text make this
accessible to Level 1 and 2 English learners. Because it has not snowed
for several years, Anna’s Wish (Hächler, 2008, TL3–5, A, F) is for snow.
When snow finally falls, Anna is ready with a sled she has found in the
basement. Indirectly related to a snow day is the book, Holly’s Red Boots
(Chessa, 2008, TL1–2, P, F), a basic book also appropriate for Level 1 and
2 English learners. Holly is ready to go out and play when it snows, but
her mother tells her she must put on her red boots. The rest of the day is
spent searching for the boots and discovering many other “red” things
instead.
Clothing and food are universal topics, but their presentation in
books may not always be that simple for English learners, or the terms
used may not build basic vocabulary needed in the initial stages of lan-
guage acquisition. New Clothes for New Year’s Day (Bae, 2007, TL2–4,
A, F) highlights traditional Korean clothing that a young girl puts on to
celebrate New Year’s Day. Terms such as sash or embroidery are not the
most common and useful clothing vocabulary. Thus, this book may be
better for cultural exposure than vocabulary development. And, in No!
That’s Wrong! (Ji & Xu, 2008, TL1–3, P, F), the rabbit has a new use for
a pair of underpants that float off the clothesline. He thinks they are a
hat. It makes sense to the rabbit, but may confuse English learners at
the beginning level, which is the language level of this book. Finally,
imaginary food items such as yak yogurt, warthog, and mashed monkey
with fried rice are presented in Bad Kitty (Bruel, 2005, TL2–5, A, F)
and Fussy Freya (Quarmby, 2008, TL3–5, A, F). The purpose and humor
of these invented foods are best for Level 3–5 English learners who can
understand that the author’s intent is not to teach labels for food but to
make a point about something else, fussy eating habits.
There are many fiction books that appear similar to nonfiction in that
they present concepts and information but do so with fictional characters
or events. Such books offer excellent opportunities to support academic
concept and language development. My Map Book (Fanelli, 2007, TL1–3,
P, F) is a simple collection of maps of a child’s world; “my bedroom,” “my
family,” “map of my day” (timeline), “map of my neighborhood,” and thus,
is an excellent introduction to maps for English learners. I Am Latino:
The Beauty in Me (Pinkney & Pinkney, 2007, TL2–4, A, F) is a visual
and simple presentation to the five senses, but each one is connected to
what young Latino children might see, hear, smell, feel, and taste. For
instance, the author tells readers: “feel my music explode” and offers as
an example “hip-swinging salsa.” To build on this musical form, teachers
might share Oye, Celia!: A Song for Celia Cruz (Sciurba, 2007, TL2–5, I,
F), a celebration of the Cuban singer’s salsa music. Both books intersperse
Spanish terms within the English text. In Shadows (Sayre, 2002, TL2–4,
A, F), the author offers a simple story in rhyme about shadows: “We out-
line shadows with a piece of chalk./ But later they’ve moved on the hot
sidewalk.” Somewhat more challenging is Sayre’s Dig, Wait, Listen: A
Desert Toad’s Tale (2001, TL2–4, A, F). With onomatopoeia, personifica-
tion, and lyrical language, the author describes the life cycle of the desert
toad. History is the focus of Wind Flyers (Johnson, 2007, TL3–5, I, F),
which is about a fictional character whose love of flying takes him to new
heights in World War II as a Tuskegee Airman. The historical setting
and the text make this book more suitable for Level 3–5 English learn-
ers. Finally, environmental issues are the focus of Winston of Churchill:
One Bear’s Battle against Global Warming (Okimoto, 2007, TL2–5, A,
F), which blends facts about global warming with a protest led by the
polar bears.
In Chapter 6, several types of nonfiction literature are described
including journals and diaries. While there are nonfiction journals and
diaries published for young readers, there are also many that merge fact
and fiction as with Sir Reginald’s Logbook (Hammill, 2008, TL4–5, A,
F) about an imaginary jungle expedition, Sienna’s Scrapbook: Our Afri-
can American Heritage Trip (Parker, 2005, TL4–5, I, F), Rachel’s Jour-
nal: The Story of a Pioneer Girl (Moss, 2001, TL4–5, I, F), and Archie’s
War: My Scrapbook of the First World War, 1914–1918 (Williams, 2007,
TL4–5, I, F). The amount of text in each of the examples and the histori-
cal information in the last three books cited make all of these fictional-
ized journals more appropriate for Level 4 and 5 English learners in the
intermediate grades.
Level of Language
The second criteria, level of language, deals with the language load or
accessibility of text to English learners of varying proficiency levels. The
more unfamiliar and advanced the vocabulary and syntactic structures in
the text, the more difficult it will be for English learners. Teachers need
to find a good fit of text to the English learner’s current proficiency level,
but to also find books that will build language abilities. For instance, pre-
dictable books with repetition, rhyme, and pattern formats are excellent
for beginning English learners. Therefore, teachers must consider the
following areas of language:
• What is the vocabulary load of the fiction text (e.g., basic and
familiar, sophisticated/advanced and unfamiliar, concrete or
abstract, general or technical/specialized, idiomatic, formal or
informal, vocabulary with multiple meanings, figurative lan-
guage)?
• Does the fiction text present new vocabulary in meaningful con-
textual language?
this fiction text in other reading?
• What is the English learner’s previous experience with the vocab-
ulary of the fiction text (completely new, some exposure, should be
part of active vocabulary)? Is the vocabulary currently or likely to
be part of the English learner’s speaking vocabulary? Listening
• If the fiction text is predictable, what is the size of the predictable
unit and what percent of the fiction text does the predictable unit
account for?
• What is the syntactic structure of the fiction text? Word level?
Phrase level? Single simple sentences per page? Multiple simple
Embedded clauses?
Writing?
• What is the genre of the fiction text?
Authors assist English learners in their comprehension of text in the

initial stages of language acquisition by using familiar vocabulary and
simple text at the word, phrase, or basic sentence level as in Suzy Lee’s
The Zoo (2007, TL1–2, P, F). All the while, teachers need to be search-
ing for books that also encourage English learners to move from more
basic to more sophisticated word use. Again, authors use supportive
techniques to accomplish this goal. Some authors focus on one topic as
with Emily Gravett’s Little Mouse’s Big Book of Fears (2008, TL1–5, A,
F). This examination of different fears introduces the suffix phobia, and
some sophisticated vocabulary including hydrophobia and arachnopho-
bia. These words appear at the top of the page (arachnophobia) with a
simple definition (“fear of spiders”) followed by Little Mouse’s personal-
ized examples and illustrations underneath: “I’m scared of creepy crawl-
ies (especially spiders!).” Likewise, in Laurie Keller’s Do unto Otters: A
Book about Manners (2007, TL2–5, A, F) different behaviors from coop-
eration to friendly are defined with examples and illustrations as in “I’d
like otters to be FRIENDLY./ A cheerful hello,/ a nice smile,/ and good
eye contact/ are all part of being friendly.” And, descriptions of various
facets of friendship are explored with simple text but mature insights in
A Friend (Bley, 2009, FL2–5, A, F); for example, “Someone who is there
. . ./ whenever I need help. But who doesn’t try to help . . ./ when I want to
do things on my own.” The ideas about friendship are continued on the
endpapers of the book. Authors may also use synonyms and antonyms
to make their point as with Please Don’t Tease Tootsie (Chamberlain,
2008, TL1–4, A, F). The author opens with some new, more sophisticated
vocabulary cautioning the reader not to tease, provoke, madden, disturb,
bully, and wind up pets. Then, antonyms or opposite behaviors are intro-
duced such as pamper and dote on. The simple sentence structure of this
text makes it appear a good match for Level 1 English learners, but the
more sophisticated vocabulary may actually be a better fit for students at
Level 2 or 3 proficiency. Finally, My First Ramadan (Katz, 2007, TL2–4,
A, F) has many unfamiliar terms related to the celebration of this holi-
day but the author uses contextual support as in this clear definition of
fasting: “For one month Muslims will fast from sunup to sundown. That
means they will not eat or drink anything all day long.”
Sometimes authors use unfamiliar terms, but they may not interfere
with overall comprehension of the text. For instance, in Angelina’s Island
(Winter, 2007, TL2–4, A, F) Angelina is homesick for her island home
of Jamaica causing her to “dream about mangos, guavas, papayas, green
bananas, star apples, breadfruit, callaloo, chocho, johnnycake, sugarcane,
ackee, and salt fish.” Some of these foods may be unknown to English
learners, but they do not need to have a full understanding of the items in
order to understand the general point the author is making. The majority
of these terms are not ones that English learners will be adding to their
active vocabulary. However, Buttercup’s Lovely Day (Beck, 2008, TL3–
5, A, F) features the poetic musings of a cow. The language is sophisti-
cated, and thus, challenging to English learners, particularly so because
the illustrations are general. For instance, on one page, Buttercup shares
“I love the fields/ we ramble and graze,/ lazy, languorous,/ lingery long
days./ I follow the dips/ and jogs/ of the fence,/ the roll of the hills,/ and a
thousand scents.” This vocabulary is the type that is needed for English
learners to move from the basic language of Levels 1 and 2 to proficiency
Level 3 and beyond.
Some books use distinctive language such as dialect. When done
well, it can really make a story “sing,” and flavors the text with the voice
of its people. Phyllis Root uses a down-home twang in Big Momma Makes
the World (2002, TL2–5, A, F) with text such as the following: “Next day
Big Momma looked around some more and she said, ‘Got me some light,
got me some dark, but I still can’t tell what time of day it is. How am I
gonna know when it’s morning? Evening?’ ” Too, Black Vernacular Eng-
lish (BVE), or black dialect, is used in some African American literature
as in Ann Grifalconi’s Ain’t Nobody a Stranger to Me (2007, TL4–5, I,
F) when Gran’pa describes his flight to freedom. “We was coming close
to the Ohio River, close to freedom! But bein’ too tired an’ hungry to go
another step, we picked us out a barn nearby to hide inside.” Dialect can
be difficult for those outside the culture to follow, especially for English
learners. Teachers may have to read a book aloud to help students follow
the story. For English learners at Levels 3–5, teachers can discuss pro-
nunciation variations and how an author uses language to create distinc-
tive and authentic characters.
In terms of syntax, longer, more complex sentences can be challeng-
ing for beginning English learners, so authors sometimes divide text into
manageable chunks such as phrases. This is especially helpful in a series
of items to give each one emphasis. In What Should I Make? (Nayar, 2009,
TL1–3, P, F), ideal for primary-grade Level 1 English learners, readers
can follow the three simple steps: “Neeraj rolled the dough into a ball./ He
patted it down, poked in two tiny eyes, and pulled out a nose./ At the other
end came a long tail.” The clothing may be unfamiliar to students in New
Clothes for New Year’s Day (Bae, 2007, TL2–4, A, F), but the instruction
like text, divided into step-by-step phrases, explaining how to put on the
clothing items, will help readers understand the process of dressing in
these traditional Korean items: “Hold one side in each hand, then/ arms
spread wide, wrap the crimson skirt around,/ take the sash and tie a knot.”
Finally, not all sentences in a book may be divided into smaller chunks, but
occasional use of this technique can break up the text for the reader mak-
ing it more comprehensible as in Cottonball Colin (Willis, 2008, TL2–4,
A, F) when he explains to his mother: “I got wet. I got cold./ I got pecked./
I got chased./ But I swam,/ and I ran, and I jumped and . . ./ Mama, I’m
ALIVE!” This listing of activities also serves as a summary of the previous
few pages, and thus, is a nice review for comprehension purposes.
As noted earlier, predictable books with repetitive language are a
strong support for English learners. The different formats for predictable
books such as chain or circular stories, cumulative stories, books with
a familiar sequence, pattern stories, question and answer books, books
with repetition of a phrase, rhyming books, and songbooks help English
learners in different ways. For instance, stories with rhyme can focus
English learners on the sounds of their new language, stories with strong
repetition help students master new vocabulary and sentence patterns,
and stories with circular or pattern stories teach the reader about prob-
lems or events that move the plot forward within the story structure.
Also, predictable books often serve as good mentor texts for writing mod-
els. If I Were You: A Daddy–Daughter Story (Hamilton, 2008, TL2–5, A,
F) has a predictable back-and-forth dialogue between Dad and daughter
as each share what they would do if they were the other person. After
reading such books and discussing the patterns, the teacher can lead the
class in a whole-class brainstorming for a class book or break the class
into small groups for a guided writing exercise to write like the book.

Next, teachers must consider the level of text support or accessibility.
According to research by cognitive psychologists, the way texts are struc-
tured influences meaning-making (Beck et al., 1984; Stein & Glenn,
1979). For beginning English learners at Levels 1 and 2, in particular,
books should have strong text support. Fiction has fewer text support
features than nonfiction, but there are still some such features in fiction,
and teachers can use these guiding questions for assistance:

visuals to the fiction text? General connection? Primarily for aes-
thetic purposes?
als? Table of contents, index, glossary, author’s note?
tures?
The illustrations and photographs in children’s books serve as one

source of text support, especially when there is one-to-one correspon-
dence of visuals to the text as in My Map Book (Fanelli, 2007, TL1–3, P,
F), a picture book of different maps with illustrations and labels only, or
when they aid in conveying the storyline and relaying information as in
the step-by-step dressing sequences of New Clothes for New Year’s Day
(Bae, 2007, TL2–4, A, F). Illustrations that are mainly decorative are not
supportive and do not make a text more accessible. In fact, they may lead
English learners astray in their attempts at “reading the illustrations”
along with the text. And, even clear illustrations can be misconstrued.
For example, in Who Made This Cake? (Chihiro, 2008, TL1–2, P, F), the
simple text and illustrations, appropriate for Level 1 English learners,
depict tiny people who make cakes with construction equipment. While
the language and text are clear, the idea that dump trucks are adding
flour and cranes with whisks are mixing dough may not register with
English learners.
In addition to illustrations or photographs, the style of print, bold, ital-
ics, or all capital letters also provide support by drawing attention to impor-
tant words. Beatrice Boutignon’s Not All Animals Are Blue: A Big Book of
Little Differences (2009, TL1–4, A, F) is a wonderful example of visual lit-
eracy and visual text support. The two-page spreads explore five illustra-
tions of the same type of animal, but each is dressed or behaving differently.
To the left of the illustrations, questions and statements ask readers to use
key words to match the animals with the phrase. Key words are empha-
sized by larger font and color. For example, a page titled “Five Penguins on
Parade” has these questions to the left: “Who is always eating?” referring
to the penguin with a fish in its mouth and “Is there a King?” referring to
the penguin wearing a crown. Likewise in Do unto Otters: A Book about
Manners (Keller, 2007, TL2–5, A, F), the pages are somewhat busy but the
important words are in all capital letters or large font. And, Shadows (Sayre,
2002, TL2–4, A, F), a simple story in rhyme about shadows, has some subtle
meaning cues, for instance, the word hot, in red font.
In other stories, reading the illustrations is key to comprehending
since the visuals carry as much information as the text. In Millie in the
Snow (Steffensmeier, 2008, TL2–4, A, F), Millie is a mail cow; she helps
the mail carrier deliver packages. On Christmas Eve, the pair finish their
route and the mail carrier sends Millie home with gifts for her and her
friends on the farm. The reader initially sees the gifts as the mail car-
rier made them and intended them, but on the way home, Millie has an
accident in the snow and all the presents are jumbled leading to some
surprising variations in the gifts such as a coffeepot cover that becomes
an udder warmer.
Wordless books offer the ultimate illustrated experience for stu-
dents since the story is told entirely through the sequence of illustra-
tions. Barbara Lehman has created several wordless books including
The Red Book (2004, TL2–5, A, F) about a magical book with pages
that characters enter and set out on an adventure, Museum Trip (2006,
TL2–5, A, F), which depicts a young boy on a field trip who becomes
separated from his class and subsequently enters the mazes in the pages
of a drawing in the museum, and Rainstorm (2007, TL2–5, A, F) about
a rainy day adventure with a mysterious key that leads to a magical jour-
ney to an island lighthouse. David Wiesner is another illustrator who has
created numerous wordless books including Tuesday (1991, TL2–5, A,
F), Free Fall (2008, TL2–5, A, F), and Flotsam (2006, TL2–5, A, F).
In addition to these wordless books that tell a story through illustra-
tions only, there are some fiction books that have wordless sections inter-
spersed with sections of text as in Suzy Lee’s The Zoo (2007, TL1–2, P, F),
which has wordless two-page color spreads that depict the “dream” zoo
experience of the little girl who gets separated from her parents, How to
Heal a Broken Wing (Graham, 2008, TL1–3, P, F) with its multiple boxed
pictures and wordless pages that furnish most of the story about rescuing
an injured pigeon, and In the Town All Year ’Round (Berner, 2008, TL1–
5, P, F), which has one page of questions and events preceding a series of
wordless pages for each season where those events unfold. The Red Rock:
A Graphic Fable (Nitto, 2006, TL2–5, A, F) has a wordless, graphic sec-
tion depicting Old Beaver convincing land developers to think about the
environment and the consequences of a proposed construction project.
This book could be linked to two wordless books by Jeannie Baker with
environmental messages: Window (2002, TL2–5, A, F), which shows the
20-year change of a rural setting into urban sprawl and decay and Home
(2004, TL2–5, A, F), which portrays the gradual reclamation of an urban
neighborhood. Teachers can connect Maya Gonzalez’s I Know the River
Loves Me/ Yo se que el rio me ama (2009, TL1–3, P, F) for an additional
message about nature.
When authors divide text into manageable chunks as discussed

in the previous section on language, there are often illustrations that
accompany each phrase and provide text support. Readers encounter
this level of structured text support in New Clothes for New Year’s Day
(Bae, 2007, TL2–4, A, F) as the young girl adds each layer of clothing,
page by page, and in What Should I Make? (Nayar, 2009, TL1–3, P, F)
as Neeraj takes the dough and rolls it and pinches it to make the various
shapes, and finally, in Ping Pong Pig (Church, 2008, TL2–4, A, F) as the
pig repays his friends by fixing all of the disarray he created during the
day: “He picked the apples . . ./ caught the bees . . ./ repainted the barn
. . ./ and carefully stacked all the hay.” In contrast to breaking up the text
to simplify, Michael Foreman in Mia’s Story: A Sketchbook of Hopes and
Dreams (2006, TL2–5, A, F) adds additional information similar to the
multiple layers of nonfiction text discussed in Chapter 6. The storyline is
in regular font and then cursive writing is used for captions or labels for
the illustrations. For instance, on a two-page spread, Foreman writes that
“Mia’s village is called Campamento San Francisco and is somewhere
between the big city and the snowy mountains.” Then, he adds four illus-
trations, similar to sketches as noted in the title, with captions or labels
that provide “snapshots” of the village.
Graphic aids such as charts, graphs, and maps are associated more
with nonfiction than fiction but some fiction books also use these fea-
tures. The Scaredy Squirrel books have some interesting formatting that
make these humorous books more accessible to readers such as num-
bered lists, “Scaredy Squirrel’s Guide to Building a Safe Beach” with six
items (paper and crayons, 1 inflatable pool, 1 plastic flamingo, etc.) and
six activities (“1. Draw beach scenery.” “2. Use stick to hold upright.”)
to create an imaginary beach in Scaredy Squirrel at the Beach (Watt,
2008, TL3–5, A, F) or a set of boxed examples, illustrations, and labels for
the “Benefits of a Good Night’s Sleep May Include: energy gain, sharper
memory, . . .” in Scaredy Squirrel at Night (Watt, 2009, TL3–5, A, F). In
many ways, this series of books is a compilation of graphics more than
narrative text and thus, helps to develop English learners’ comfort and
skill level with graphic aids.
Other examples of graphics in fiction books occur in Dig, Wait, Lis-
ten: A Desert Toad’s Tale (2001, TL2–4, A, F) as April Sayre offers sup-
port for the unfamiliar information on this animal’s life cycle with boxed
illustrations ascending the page showing the development from tadpole
to frog. And, at the end of New Clothes for New Year’s Day (Bae, 2007,
TL2–4, A, F), there is a diagram of the traditional clothing with num-
bered items labeled and described with short phrases. Finally, text sup-
port can extend beyond the end of the book and onto the endpapers. In
Noko’s Surprise Party (Moodie, 2008, TL3–5, A, F), there is a map of the
route that Takadu takes in the story. This can be used as a reference when
reading the story independently or reading it aloud to the class.
Book format can also provide textual support for comprehension as
in Bad Kitty (Bruel, 2005, TL2–5, A, F). Similar to four complete alpha-
bet books, there are four sets of boxed illustrations depicting first the
A–Z unacceptable food items, such as “asparagus” and “beets,” when
Kitty’s owner runs out of cat food and next, the A–Z bad behaviors of
Kitty (“Clawed the curtains/ Damaged the dishes” ) while the owner goes
to the market. These are followed by an A–Z of foods that Kitty’s owner
brings home that result in a happy cat and then another set of ABCs of
good feline behaviors. The format provides a strong structure for compre-
hension even though many of the food items are uncommon or imaginary
ones that may not be familiar to students.

The final criteria is the level of cultural fit or cultural accessibility. Teach-
ers need to select books that are both culturally relevant, connected to
the lives of English learners, and books that will be understandable to
those outside the culture. The following guiding questions can help begin
the process of examining the level of cultural fit:
• Is the fiction text culturally neutral (with general diversity por-

trayed but no focus on a specific group)? Culturally generic (with
a group featured but less specific detail provided)? Culturally spe-
cific (with explicit details about a group portrayed)?
• Does the fiction text reflect the background and/or experiences of
recent immigrants? U.S.-born English learners?
the classroom?
the fiction text?
fiction text?
• How far removed is the fiction text from current times?
• How close is the main character’s age to English learners’?
• Is the main character the same gender as the reader?
lies?
Even with the preceding guiding questions, considering cultural fit

can be challenging for many reasons. First, teachers need a basic cross-
cultural awareness in order to spot potential problems as in Do unto Otters:
A Book about Manners (Keller, 2007, TL2–5, A, F), which presents char-
acteristics of being friendly as “A cheerful hello,/ a nice smile,/ and good
eye contact.” Yet, good eye contact is more an American expectation than
in some other cultures. Also, there is the issue of the “cultural conglom-
erate” (Yokota, 1993). There are significant differences between Chinese
and Japanese cultures, for example, within the category of Asian Ameri-
can or between Cubans and Mexicans within the category of Latino. Too,
there are students from bicultural backgrounds as with Alvina in My Two
Grannies (Benjamin, 2008, TL3–5, A, F) who has a grandmother from
the Caribbean and a grandmother from England. So, even those students
within a culture/cultures may not find some books authentic representa-
tions of their lives. Finally, according to Bishop (1997), a literature collec-
tion that truly reflects our global village should include books that high-
light the diversity that is part of all groups. Therefore, culturally relevant
literature should not reflect only cultural and ethnic diversity but should
also include the following (Beaty, 1997; Bishop, 1997):
• People of varying socioeconomic circumstances, occupations, life-

styles
• Differing perspectives on issues and events
• Nonfiction that provides factual information about a people and
their way of life
• A balance of urban versus rural settings and of historical versus
contemporary portrayal
• Detailed illustrations that avoid stereotypes
• Language or dialect that shows a respect for culture
• Characters from different cultures who interact with one another
• Recent immigrants as well as U.S.-born English learners
In the end, the point is to choose culturally relevant books, and to

choose well. To do this, teachers must first become aware of the authors
and titles available. To help with this task, teachers can explore the book
awards that spotlight outstanding works by authors of color (Coretta Scott
King Award, John Steptoe Award, and Pura Belpré Award) or works that
accurately portray the experiences of particular groups (Americas Award,
Carter G. Woodson Award, National Jewish Book Award, Sydney Tay-
lor Book Award, and Tomás Rivera Award) as well as more comprehen-
sive booklists such as the Notable Books for a Global Society (NBGS).
The NBGS recognizes a wide range of perspectives from both within
and outside the United States with books that enhance understanding
of people and cultures throughout the world. The Outstanding Interna-
tional Booklist (a project of the U.S. Board on Books for Young People, a
division of the International Board on Books for Young People) spotlights
the best children’s literature from other countries that have been subse-
quently published in the United States.
Books with specific cultural detail about religious and cultural cel-
ebrations (My First Ramadan, Katz, 2007, TL2–4, A, F; Sawdust Car-
pets, Carling, 2005, TL4–5, I, F; and The Best Eid Ever, Mobin-Uddin,
2007, TL4–5, I, F), historical issues (Japanese internment camps in A
Place Where Sunflowers Grow, Lee-Tai, 2006, TL3–5, I, F; and the bon-
fire signal system in The Firekeeper’s Son, Park, 2004, TL2–5, A, F), art
forms (wood carving in Julio’s Magic, Dorros, 2005, TL4–5, I, F; floor art
in Romina’s Rangoli, Iyengar, 2007, TL4–5, I, F; and Japanese picture
storytelling in Kamichibai Man, Say, 2005, TL3–5, I, F), and such may
be more challenging to English learners, especially in the early stages of
language acquisition, while books with universal themes and topics are
more likely to provide a general cultural fit and be more accessible. For
instance, themes of identity, family, acceptance, and cultural heritage are
familiar across cultures and may have a natural relevance for English
learners as well as for their native English-speaking peers. While specific
elements of culture in some of these books, such as mask dancing and
salsa music, may be unfamiliar to some students, the overall themes of
family life, pride in one’s background and heritage, or accepting others
should be understandable to English learners. For instance, in Behind
the Mask (Choi, 2006, TL3–5, A, F), a young Korean boy connects to
his grandfather’s past as a Korean mask dancer by wearing his grand-
father’s mask for Halloween, and in Oye, Celia!: A Song for Celia Cruz
(Sciurba, 2007, TL2–5, I, F), a young girl celebrates the salsa music of
Cuban singer Celia Cruz.
Many English learners maintain close connections with family
members in their country of origin or that of their parents, and several
books depict visits with relatives and communicating across language
barriers. In Sitti’s Secrets (Nye, 1997, TL3–5, A, F), a young girl visits
her grandmother, Sitti, in Palestine and in The Trip Back Home (Wong,
2000, TL2–5, A, F), a young girl goes with her mother to visit family in
Korea. In both of these books, the young girls speak only English, yet,
they find ways to connect and communicate with their relatives. Visiting
relatives in another country also means learning new customs as in I Lost
My Tooth in Africa (Diakite, 2006, TL4–5, A, F). Amina visits her family
in Mali, West Africa. While there, she loses her tooth and puts it under
a gourd for the African tooth fairy who is supposed to exchange it for a
chicken.
Cultural heritage is sometimes marked by special dress. New
Clothes for New Year’s Day (Bae, 2007, TL2–4, A, F) presents traditional
Korean attire that a mother makes for her daughter, and endnotes pro-
vide information about the custom of dressing up for the lunar new year.
In My Dadima Wears a Sari (Sheth, 2007, TL4–5, A, F) a granddaughter
wonders if her grandmother would ever want to wear something differ-
ent besides the traditional sari. But, the grandmother shows her grand-
daughter all the positive things she can do with a sari; for instance, using
it as a fan, collecting seashells, or using it as an umbrella.
Language is a critical part of identity, and the importance of lan-
guage is demonstrated by the growing number of bilingual books with
complete text in two languages being published. Some criticisms, how-
ever, have been leveled against bilingual books (Multilingual Resources
for Children Project, 1995; Walker, Edwards, & Blacksell, 1996). For
instance, the presentation on the page may give one language precedence
or higher status through the order of appearance as well as differences
in font size, boldness, or spacing between lines, difference in type qual-
ity between the scripts such as a non-Roman versus Roman alphabet,
and differences in directionality (e.g., English is read from left to right,
Urdu is read from right to left). Finally, translations may be plagued by
literal renditions that lack the flow of the native language as well as by
incorrect lexical constructions, unclear phrases, awkward expressions,
and grammatical, spelling, and/or typographical errors (Schon, 2004). An
even greater number of books with the interlingual use of two languages,
the main text in English with words from another language interspersed,
are available. Just a few examples include the following: I Am Latino:
The Beauty in Me (Pinkney & Pinkney, 2007, TL2–4, A, F) is a simple
presentation of five senses, “listen/ to the melody of my language/ Buenos
dias (Good morning).” My Father’s Shop (Ichikawa, 2006, TL2–4, A, F)
shows a rooster following a young boy into the marketplace in Morocco,
which results in tourists from other countries sharing how a rooster crows
in their languages. In What Should I Make? (Nayar, 2009 TL1–3, P, F),

readers learn about Indian flatbread as they are introduced to a few
words in another language. And, finally, readers learn several Japanese
terms and some interesting characteristics of writing in Japanese in Yoko
Writes Her Name (Wells, 2008, TL2–3, P, F).
Food is also a cultural marker, and one that varies tremendously
across cultures. Instructions and recipes are included for Indian flat-
bread in What Should I Make? (Nayar, 2009, TL1–3, P, F) and for a popu-
lar Korean rice dish in Bee-Bim Bop! (Park, 2005, TL2–4, P, F). In The
Have a Good Day Café (Park & Park, 2005, TL4–5, I, F), readers meet
a Korean family that changes the strategy for their food cart business by
selling Korean food items rather than typical American items. A glossary
of the food items is at the end of the book. Hiromi’s Hands (Barasch,
2007, TL3–5, I, F) features a young Japanese American girl who becomes
a sushi chef in her family’s New York restaurant. A two-page spread on
different sushi is included. On the other hand, The Wakame Gatherers
(Thompson, 2007, TL4–5, I, F) is an interesting story of a mixed ethnic
girl, American and Japanese, but there is much specific detail about gath-
ering wakame, a type of seaweed, which makes this book more challeng-
ing for students who have not lived near coastal areas and who are not
familiar with the culinary uses of seaweed. This book could be paired
with Hiromi’s Hands, however, for English learners at Levels 4 and 5 who
are interested in finding out more about the use of seaweed in cooking.
Education and schooling is a topic directly related to every student’s
life. However, access to education and schooling in the United States dif-
fers from other settings. The difficulties of getting to school are presented
in Running Shoes (Lipp, 2008, TL3–5, A, F). Sophy wants to learn to
read and write, but the school she would attend is 8 kilometers from her
small Cambodian village. Eventually, she realizes her dream when she is
given running shoes that enable her to run to school. The conflict of jug-
gling family responsibilities and school attendance is portrayed in Josias,
Hold the Book (Elvegren, 2006, TL3–5, A, F). Josias lives in rural Haiti
and has difficulty attending school as he must tend his family’s garden.
Because the family garden is not faring well, however, Josias realizes that
books might hold the key to the problems in the garden, and he con-
vinces his family to allow him to attend school. Some schools are in very
different settings as in Armando and the Blue Tarp School (Fine, 2007,
TL4–5, I, F). The children in the colonia near the city dump in Tijuana,
Mexico, attend a summer school held outside on a blue tarp. Historically,
education was not been provided to all children as depicted in Ruby’s
Wish (Yim, 2002, TL4–5, I, F), a story based on the author’s grandmother
who wants to attend school and go to the university, an atypical path
for girls in China at that time. Going to school also means adjustments.
In Something for School (Lee, 2008, TL2–3, P, F) for primary-grade
English learners, Yoon goes to school and the children mistake her for a
boy. Initially, she wears her sister’s headband (a scarf with curls) to fit in,
but eventually, she discovers she does not need the headband as she has
become part of the class. Finally, cultural differences lead to difficulties
at school in My Name Is Bilal (Mobin-Uddin, 2005, TL4–5, I, F). Bilal
and his sister, Ayesha, must adjust to a new school where they are the only
Muslim students in attendance. Ayesha is teased by boys who grab her
headscarf, but Bilal ignores this and later tells the class that his name is
Bill, not Bilal, to avoid more teasing. A teacher helps Bilal to ultimately
stand up for his sister and his own beliefs.
Adjustments do not just happen at school. They can occur as a result
of many different situations. The families of English learners are often
separated due to family members working in another location. Papi’s Gift
(Stanton, 2007, TL3–5, A, F) depicts such a situation as Graciela’s father
has traveled to California to find work because of the drought in their
village across the border. Some English learners have immigrated as a
result of war or political turmoil in their countries. Some have even lived
in refugee camps as the two girls in Four Feet, Two Sandals (Williams
& Mohammad, 2007, TL3–5, A, F) who must share a pair of sandals, the
last shoes available, brought by relief workers. And, finally, some English
learners feel alone because they have lost family members, so they can
identify with the young girl in Home Now (Beake, 2007, TL3–5, A, F)
who has lost both parents to AIDS in Africa. Then she goes to live with
her aunt, and there she meets an orphaned elephant at the elephant park,
and this encounter helps her begin to adjust.
Holidays and family celebrations, even though they may be cele-
brated in very different ways, are universal and there are many stories
about the festivities. Some are more culturally specific as in This Next
New Year (Wong, 2000, TL2–5, A, F), which highlights the lunar new
year. Simple language and text explain many of the folk customs asso-
ciated with this celebration. Uncle Peter’s Amazing Chinese Wedding
(Look, 2006, TL3–5, A, F) also provides quite a bit of cultural detail
about a traditional Chinese wedding amidst an amusing family story.
Finally, Happy Birthday, Jamela! (Daly, 2007, TL3–5, A, F) is a general
view of a young girl’s birthday. There is no indication that the story takes
place in South Africa except a reference to the grandmother as Gogo.
Conclusion
Fiction selections far outnumber other genre in core reading programs,

and fiction children’s books outnumber nonfiction books and poetry.
Because fiction is such a dominant presence in any reading program or
classroom, this chapter has explored the many types of fiction and how to
best match those works to English learners. Selecting quality literature
is only part of the process of helping English learners. In particular, the
physical environment of the classroom contributes to literacy develop-
ment. It is important that the environment allow for comfortable work-
ing areas for whole-class, small-group, paired, and individual working.
Too, the classroom environment should clearly exhibit the importance
and value of reading and language and celebrate the literacy accomplish-
ments of the students. This emphasis on print includes prominent displays
of students’ written work for children to read and discuss, (multilingual)
labels for classroom items and supplies, a word wall with sight words
along with vocabulary drawn from current reading and student nomina-
tion, and bulletin boards with postings of the teacher’s favorite fiction
reads alongside student recommendations and reviews. Reading displays
spotlighting a particular fiction author of the month and actual books as
well as “real-world” print materials linked to current units of study serve
to spark student interest and curiosity. Easily accessible and highly vis-
ible classroom libraries that showcase a variety of fiction texts, authors,
reading levels, and topics/themes invite student browsing and encourage
the reading habit with the ever-popular genre of fiction.
The next chapter in this section focuses on poetry, which is an excel-
lent, but sometimes overlooked, genre for building oral language and
reading fluency. Just as with the fiction highlighted in this chapter, there
are many different types of poetry and even some overlap between fiction
and poetry since so many predictable fiction books include rhyme and
can therefore be discussed for their poetic features.
Fear and Joy
in Leaving Your Country
Jorge A rgueta
When a young boy or a girl leaves his/her country, a great

number of fears come to the mind, heart, and spirit of
the young travelers. I can only think and speak of my
own experience as well as those of some members of my
family and close friends. I left El Salvador at a very young
age; the foundation of my life was not only fresh but also
shaky with different unresolved issues. Among them: The
uncertainty of my age, this was the least of my worries, I
wasn’t sure if my family would have the money for me to
keep on going to school. Everything was uncertain. The
most frightening of all my worries was the cruel civil war.
I was confused. No young boy or a girl should have such
worries.
All of a sudden a decision was made, It was supposed
to be the “best” decision for my future. I was to leave
the country. Of course I had no opinion on this decision.
The excitement of leaving sounded like a fun idea, going
through Guatemala, Mexico, and finally the United
States. All of this sounded great, but when I sat with my
thoughts, I thought of my mother, my father, my brothers,
my grandmother. I felt fear, confusion, anger, sadness,
and complete loneliness. No fun games, no familiar voices,
no familiar trees, no friends, just plain loneliness. I was
terrified. . . . One early morning in 1981, I came to meet
my fear and loneliness. I found myself sitting in a bus
terminal going to Guatemala. I was fleeing the country
like a bandit. Hidden, I left my house in the wee hours
of the morning. I can still vividly see my mother crying
standing next to a bus window just before it took off. My
Copyright by Jorge Argueta.
125
journey was long. It took a few months on the road and a
great number of adventures, before I finally made it to the
United States. I was just one of thousands of Salvadorans
that were leaving the country because of the war. . . .
Now after so many years I am capable of saying I’ve
been able to heal some of those fears and scars. I had
found healing in my spirituality and in the gentle power
of words. In 2001, I published my first children’s book, A
Movie in My Pillow/ Una Pelicula en Mi Almohada. . . .
When We Left El Salvador
When we left El Salvador

To come to the United States
Papa and I left in a hurry
One early morning in December
We left without saying good bye

to relatives, friends, or neighbors
I didn’t say good bye to Neto
My best friend
I didn’t say good bye to Koki

My happy talking parakeet
I didn’t say good bye to
Miss Sha-Sha-She-Sha
my very dear doggie
When we left El Salvador

in a bus I couldn’t stop crying
because I left my mama
my little brothers
and my grandma behind
Although not every poem in the book deals with the

sadness of war or leaving the country I’ve been fortunate
126
enough to learn from many children, countrymen and
women how reading my book has helped them overcome
their sadness, “just to know someone else has gone
through the same struggle help me no to feel so lonely” a
woman told me after one of my presentations. I am happy
to know my poems have helped children from El Salvador,
other countries in Central America, and elsewhere to heal
their fear, wounds and to find joy and the beauty of words.
127
Chapter Fiv e
Selecting and Using Poetry

“I got an A on my poem!” I yell to everyone

in the front yard where Mama gives Papi a haircut.
I show Gabino my paper
as I fly through the kitchen to the backyard.
“Listen,” I sing to the baby chicks,
with my hands up as if I am a famous conductor.
I sprinkle corn kernels and sing out my poem.
—Juan Felipe Herrera, The Upside Down Boy/
El niño de cabeza
(Children’s Book Press, 2000)
Listening to the spoken word is an important first step in learning any

language. In fact, research shows that oral language development affords
a foundation in phonological awareness and allows for subsequent learn-
ing about the structure of English that is important to later reading and
writing efforts (Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998). Unfortunately, oral lan-
guage activities with English learners often focus on basic communica-
tion skills or phonemic awareness drills, not exposure to authentic lan-
guage. In contrast, poetry is a natural introduction to a new language. Its
rhythm, repetition, and rhyme mirror the simple nonsense rhymes, songs,
and finger plays that are a part of many folk cultures and are often shared
with young children as part of early language experiences prior to school.
Cunningham (2007) notes that “many children who come to school with
well-developed phonemic awareness abilities have . . . come from homes
in which rhyming chants, jingles, and songs are part of their daily experi-
ence” (p. 163). Thus, she advocates that chants, jingles, and songs should
129
be a part of daily instruction. Denise Fleming’s The Everything Book

(2000, TL1–2, P, F) is an excellent resource with an introduction to the
alphabet and numbers, shapes, colors, rhymes, and finger games.
While poetry does so much for children developing language skills,
it also has instructional applications across the curriculum, reinforc-
ing concepts that students need to remember and providing sensory
experiences—giving students the sense of touching, feeling, smelling,
and seeing. Poems help to make a topic memorable through the use of
vivid images.
This chapter discusses the particular language and literacy develop-
ment needs of English learners and the appropriateness of poetry as a
vehicle for providing practice and pleasure in the development of oral
language and reading fluency as well as writing. In addition, the chapter
highlights issues in selecting and using poetry for English learners.
The Benefits of Poetry for Language Learning
Many teachers assume that students learning English as a new language

are not ready for poetry, which may be considered more abstract and
indirect than narrative or expository text. Yet, poetry offers many ben-
efits for English learners (Hadaway, Vardell, & Young, 2001). Rhyming
poetry, for example, provides the sound qualities helpful for predicting
words and phrases as with Bruce McMillan’s two-word rhymes such as
“sand hand” and “scoop group” in One Sun: A Book of Terse Verse (1992,
TL1–3, A, P). Beginning readers more easily decipher the meaning of
poetry because of the rhythm, repetition, and rhyme, and the fact that
the accent falls on meaningful words (Christison & Bassano, 1995; Rich-
ard-Amato, 2003). Concrete or shape poems use the visual layout of the
poem along with the words to describe an object or experience. Even
free-verse poetry helps readers focus on the arrangement of words on
the page and on the description and emotion that those words offer. Too,
poetry can be a powerful vehicle for developing students’ oral language
capacity, which is key to functioning in a new language (Vardell, Had-
away & Young, 2002). Through hearing, reading, and rereading poetry,
English learners can increase their exposure to language.
In addition to providing language support, poetry provides many
instructional advantages. Brevity of form is one of the most obvious ben-
efits, making poetry appear both manageable and not so intimidating.
For teaching English learners, poetry has the advantage of coming “pack-
aged” in very few words, relatively speaking (Cullinan, Scala, & Schroder,
Selecting and Using Poetry 131
1995). Poems can be read and reread in very little time. Each rereading
can be approached in a slightly different way, too, through choral reading
or poetry performance. The length is less daunting to English learners
overwhelmed by longer prose and a barrage of new vocabulary. Although
poetry may present new words and concepts, the shorter appearance
is more approachable. Too, poetry can span grade levels and language
proficiency levels because of its unique form and use of language help-
ing English learners master concepts, stay motivated and interested, and
even participate as equals.
Further, because of its brevity, poetry serves as a brief but pow-
erful anticipatory set for longer texts and for the introduction of topics
across the curriculum (Chatton, 2009; Cullinan et al., 1995). Teachers
can quickly set the stage for a new topic or unit with a quick look at
a poem, or they can weave poetry throughout a thematic or interdisci-
plinary study. In a thematic unit on weather, for instance, teachers can
choose from numerous poetry collections or poem picture books includ-
ing Let’s Count the Raindrops (Kosaka, 2001, TL2–4, A, P), Rainplay
(Cotton, 2008, TL2–4, A, P), Voices on the Wind: Poems for All Seasons
(Booth, 1990, TL3–5, A, P), and Snow, Snow: Winter Poems for Children
(Yolen, 2005, TL3–5, A, P). What is more, some poems can be a source of
brief character sketches, scenes, and stories that serve as writing models
(Vogel & Tilley, 1993). For example, Gracie Graves and the Kids from
Room 402 (Paraskevas, 1995, TL2–5, A, P) offers readers a series of brief
character sketches of a variety of children in an elementary school, and
My Name Is Jorge on Both Sides of the River (Medina, 2004, TL3–5, A,
P) is a collection of poems describing Jorge’s adjustment to school and life
in the United States after moving from Mexico.
Another benefit of poems is that they tend to be about one topic.
This crystallized focus can aid English learners as they use their word
knowledge to make sense of a new topic. An example is the Thanksgiv-
ing poem “Leftovers” in It’s Thanksgiving! (Prelutsky, 2008, TL2–4, A,
P), which is very clearly about one subject. Moreover, leftover is also a
word-study opportunity since it is a compound word (left + over) and can
spark discussion about other compound words that English learners may
encounter in their reading. Although words such as bisque and fritters
from the poem may be unfamiliar, the poem’s context provides clarifica-
tion. Moreover, poems can help English learners learn new vocabulary.
For instance, in A Light in the Attic (Silverstein, 2001, TL1–5, A, P), the
poem “Ations” offers a list of words (e.g., communication, negotiation,
reconciliation) that end in the sometimes troublesome -tion. In couplets,
the poet playfully defines the words, providing a format that students can
use to consider additional words with the same ending. Discussion of the
ending -tion also invites a discussion of English–Spanish cognates since
often, -tion endings in English can be replaced with -cion to translate
words into Spanish. A mention of cognates is worth attention since cog-
nates comprise approximately 30 to 50% of an educated person’s active
vocabulary (Nash, 1997). Further, English learners who are aware of cog-
nates have higher levels of English reading comprehension than those
not aware of these connections (Kamil & Hiebert, 2005). Silverstein has
other poems that engage readers in word study such as “The Twistable
Turnable Man” (A Light in the Attic, 2001, TL1–5, A, P) that focuses on
morphology encouraging students to examine the use of the suffix able.
Teachers should keep in mind that this kind of wordplay can be chal-
lenging for English learners who may interpret words and phrases liter-
ally. And, while poetry provides playful examples of the creative ways
language can be used, teachers should not dissect poems too much for
word-study lessons. However, when words and word features are central
to poems, as in these examples, mini-lessons can be both natural and
beneficial.
Finally, poetry formats such as list poems, biopoems, diamantes, and
found poems help English learners talk about the concepts and ideas they
are learning and lead them to beginning writing opportunities (Tomp-
kins, 2007; Fagin, 1991). Too, collections of poems with similar form can
help teachers provide multiple models of one kind of poem. Splish Splash
(Graham, 2001, TL2–5, A, P), for example, a poetry book of only concrete
(or shape) poems, allows English learners to look at several examples of
the same form all in one place. Highlighting poems with a common for-
mat logically leads English learners to try writing poetry.
In summary, these benefits make matching poetry with English
learners a natural. The next sections extend the discussion of two specific
benefits of poetry, oral language development and reading fluency, and
examine how poetry can be effectively used to address these areas of
instruction.
Poetry and Oral Language
Although English learners initially spend some time in a silent period of

language acquisition, they must move beyond this stage to learn English.
Yet, recent research cites inadequate time for English language develop-
ment as a major problem with current practice. A low level of student
oral language use in class, only 21% of the time, was cited in a study
by Arreaga-Mayer and Perdomo-Rivera (1996). Likewise, Ramírez (1992)

noted “consistently, across grade levels within and between . . . . programs,
students are limited in their opportunities to produce language” (p. 9).
Using poetry in collaborative learning paired and small-group activi-
ties provides authentic listening and speaking opportunities (Scarcella
& Oxford, 1992). For the greatest impact on language learning, English
learners should be flexibly grouped according to their growing language
proficiencies and provided with numerous occasions each day for interac-
tion in large- and small-group activities (Mora, 2004).
Teachers help to develop English learners’ oral language first
through listening and nonverbal participation, ideal for the silent period
of language development. Teachers can read aloud a poem, have students
read along in unison, or engage students in pantomime actions for some
poems or picture songbooks, similar to TPR discussed in Chapter 3. The
class might, for instance, point to the parts of the body mentioned in Shel
Silverstein’s “Sick” or “Boa Constrictor,” both from Where the Sidewalk
Ends (2000, TL1–5, A, P). Read-alouds help English learners acquire
correct word pronunciations and listening vocabulary and aid students’
overall comprehension.
Using poetry for choral reading promotes oral fluency and lays a
strong foundation for reading in a new language. As students participate
in choral reading, they practice their word recognition and pronunciation
and experience their new language in a supportive and engaging manner.
When English learners read a poem, hear the poem, read it aloud, and
participate in choral reading of the poem, they are given multiple modes
of reinforcement for meaningful language learning. Following a teacher
read-aloud of a poem, English learners can reread the poem with a part-
ner and discuss it. To increase the amount of meaningful interaction once
English learners have experienced different formats for choral reading,
they can choose their own poem and work with a group to make decisions
about how best to present the poem through a poetry performance; for
instance, acting out a poem.
Linan-Thompson and Vaughn recommend the following process to
scaffold English learners’ choral reading experiences. “First, the teacher
and the students preview the passage and make predictions about what
the passage will be about. Second, the teacher reads the passage aloud.
Third, the students and teacher read aloud together. Fourth, the teacher
fades his or her voice and allows the students to take the lead in reading
the passage aloud” (2007, p. 63). The first step helps keep the focus on
meaning and the succeeding steps provide the support needed for the
students to read with confidence.
There are various formats for choral reading or poetry performance

including the following arranged from easy to implement to more chal-
lenging:
• Everyone reads the poem in unison.

• Students join in on a repeated line or refrain.
• Call and response with two student groups.
• Multiple groups, multiple stanzas.
• Individual solo lines or line-a-child format.
• Cumulative or crescendo/decrescendo.
• Two voices.
Some recent poems or poetry collections easily fit into these formats.
For instance, Betsy Franco’s “New Kid at School” and “Animal Reports”
from her book Messing Around on the Monkey Bars: And Other School
Poems for Two Voices (2009, TL1–5, A, P) are naturals for the “call and
response” arrangement. A fragment of the poem “New Kid at School”
follows:
Group 1: Where did you come from?

Group 2: Far away.
Group 1: Miss your friends?
Group 2: Every day.
Another example for this format is Aileen Fisher’s “Caterpillars” found in

Bobbi Katz’s More Pocket Poems (2009, TL2–5, A, P). In part, the poem
reads, “What do caterpillars do?/ Nothing much but chew and chew.”
And, Eloise Greenfield’s poems in The Friendly Four (2006, TL1–4,
A, P), a collection of poems about four children exploring the bonds of
friendship, are already arranged into individual solo lines or line-a-child
format. The following portion is from “Playground”:
All: We’re running,

Dorene: we’re sliding,
Louis: swinging,
Rae: sweating.
Cumulative arrangement, adding voices and then having them fall out,
takes more planning but the effect can be amazing. Here is an example
of a cumulative arrangement for a portion of “Subways Are People” from
City I Love by Lee Bennett Hopkins (2009, TL1–5, A, P):
Group 1: Subways are people—

Groups 1 and 2: People standing
Groups 1–3: People sitting
Groups 1–4: People swaying to and from
Finally, Avis Harley’s “Legends,” one of the many wonderful poems found
in Lee Bennett Hopkins’ Sky Magic (2009, TL2–5, A, P), works well for
the poems for two voices arrangement. The first stanza of the poem is
included here:
In the Language of the stars

Lie stories of old
Brilliant legends
Told;
Retold
As can be seen, poetry can be easily integrated into the classroom as

a means of developing oral language. In the next section, the possibilities
that poetry offers for building reading fluency are discussed.
Poetry and Reading Fluency
“When parents, caretakers, and . . . teachers read aloud, they provide

models of what fluent oral reading sounds like. The more models a child
has, the better” (Allington, 2009a, p. 16). Some English learners may
have parents who are literate in the home language and who read aloud
to them in that language, which offers a model of fluent reading, just not
in English. On the other hand, some English learners arrive at school
with few read-aloud experiences in the home language or in English,
and therefore, few models of fluent reading. The teacher then becomes
critical in providing daily read-alouds to model fluent reading. Modeling
fluent reading can be integrated as a brief mini-lesson or through a more
focused lesson with one or more of the following methods (Allington,
2009a, p. 25):
• Reading aloud from children’s literature.

• Reading aloud and tracking print with big books or an enlarged
version of a poem displayed to the class.
• Rereading language experience charts that were developed with
the children.
• Reading aloud in the Shared Book Experience, Oral Recitation

Lesson, or Fluency Oriented Reading Instruction lesson models.
• Reading aloud the weekly story from the core reading program as
children follow along.
Once teachers have modeled fluent reading through daily read-

alouds, the next step is to reinforce this input by having students reread
the text. Repeated reading has long been recommended as a strategy for
improving students’ oral-reading fluency, and recent research (Center for
the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement, 2003) indicates that
“repeated oral reading substantially improves word recognition, speed,
and accuracy as well as fluency. To a lesser but still considerable extent,
repeated oral reading also improves reading comprehension” (p. 24).
Rasinski suggests that “Practicing short passages three to five times can
help students develop greater automaticity and expression in their read-
ing, especially if that practice is given with formative feedback” (2003,
p. 17). Again, there are a variety of methods for having students reread
text as follows (Allington, 2009a, p. 25):
• Rereading after the teacher has read a poem or story aloud.

• Rereading as a choral reading activity with some or all classmates
and the teacher.
• Rereading as a partner reading activity.
• Rereading as independent seatwork activity.
• Rereading and practicing some segment of a poem or story for
presentation to the class.
“One key to nurturing fluent reading is finding the appropriate text

for the reader to read. Texts that are too difficult, overly dense with unfa-
miliar vocabulary and concepts, can make any otherwise fluent reader
disfluent . . . . Thus, it is important that we find texts that are well within
the reader’s independent-instructional range in order to promote fluency”
(Rasinski, 2000, p. 148). Raskinski further contends that the aim of the
practice “should be meaningful and expressive oral interpretation or per-
formance of text, not faster reading. To that end, certain texts lend them-
selves to oral interpretive reading” (2006, p. 706).
Poetry is meant to be read aloud. A poem’s meaning is communicated
more clearly when both read and heard. “Poetry . . . contains elements of
predictability such as rhyme, rhythm and repetition which make reading
easier” (Gill, 1996, p. 28) and help English learners get a sense of the
sound of English words and phrases. Too, poetry lends itself to expressive
oral-interpretive reading with its brevity, lyrical word choice, repetition,

abundance of white space, and rhythmic language. These characteristics
help combat the monotony and boredom that can occur with repeated
rereading of other types of text (Allington, 2009a) and make poetry an
ideal entry point to expressive reading (Hadaway, Vardell, & Young,
2006). Moreover, poetry’s potential impact on English learners is posi-
tive. “Reading and performing poetry provides numerous opportunities
for children to practice—with pleasure—the essential skills of phonemic
awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension” (Stanley,
2004, p. 56).
Because the importance of multiple exposures to words is under-
scored in the research on comprehension improvement (Stahl & Nagy,
2006), teachers must plan on providing multiple opportunities and expe-
riences using the words if they hope to make a difference in students’ rec-
ognition and understanding of word meaning. Going further, Allington
(2009a, p. 28) notes that “Perhaps the most critical skill in fluent reading
is the ability to recognize a great many words ‘at a glance.’ ” This is what
has been called automaticity. Automatic word recognition is when you
recognize the word with little conscious effort (thus, ‘at-a-glance’ rec-
ognition). Developing an at-a-glance store of words requires readers to
encounter the word repeatedly and with each encounter read it accu-
rately. Allington reports that such automaticity requires 10 to 25 success-
ful pronunciations of a word. Once a word is in a reader’s “at-a-glance”
repertoire, then there is no lingering confusion over the word when it is
encountered in reading. This helps readers move through text and attend
to meaning at the text rather than the word level. This is important since
many English learners use a halting word-by-word approach to reading
text in their new language, and their slow progress down the page results
in frustration and exhaustion, and eventually, they just quit.
Most research and instructional efforts aimed at English learners
have focused on developing word-level skills and word reading so that
these students can reach similar levels of attainment on word-level skills
as their English-speaking peers (Solari, 2007). Unfortunately, as Solari
reports, the 2006 National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Chil-
dren and Youth found that English learners did not reach the same text-
level proficiency as their peers. Yet, this is the proficiency needed for
long-term success in school. Fluency helps move readers past a focus on
words and enables them to focus on text skills such as reading, compre-
hension, vocabulary, and writing. Poetry is certainly a strong tool to help
English learners develop fluency. As Sharon Gill found in her classroom
use of poetry, “Poetry is written to be read again and again. . . . Repeated
readings allow children to gain fluency and build sight vocabulary while
having successful reading experiences” (1996, p. 28).
Selecting Poetry
Just as with fiction and nonfiction, poetry books are published in many
different formats including some that do not look like poetry and are not
classified as such, and each format has both positives and challenges in
terms of its use with English learners. See Figure 5.1 for different poetry
and poetic book formats. A recent positive change in publishing poetry
books for young readers, especially English learners, is the development
of more selective anthologies or collections. Lee Bennett Hopkins makes
a distinction between collections and anthologies (Hopkins, 1993). Using
his nomenclature, there are two types of collections: “single author”
where all of the poems are by the same poet such as Monica Gunning’s
America: My New Home (2004, TL3–5, A, P), and “single-topic” collec-
tions where all of the poems address the same topic: for example, in Nikki
Giovanni’s Hip Hop Speaks to Children: A Celebration of Poetry with a
Beat (2008, TL2–5, A, P) where all of the poems have strong rhythm—
“poetry with a beat!” The contributors range from Maya Angelou, Queen
Latifah, Nikki Grimes, Eloise Greenfield, Martin Luther King, Jr., and
Langston Hughes. Another collection that is both single topic and sin-
gle author is Pat Mora’s Yum! Mmmm! Que Rico! America’s Sproutlings
(2007, TL3–5, A, P), a collection of haiku spotlighting foods native to
the Americas. The fact that all of the poems are by Mora provides added
consistency that may further support English learners.
In contrast, according to Hopkins, general collections or anthologies
are “books put together by an anthologist to highlight a variety of topics
with multiple poets” (1993, p. 202). The anthology was the traditional
format for poetry in the past, and it has been around since publishing
began. Anthologies were a practical way to collect a multitude of poems
on a variety of subjects by many different poets. These collections, often
oversized, may not be very inviting to today’s English learners. Antholo-
gies violate the basic idea of narrow reading—reading in only one genre,
one subject matter, or the work of one author—recommended in Chapter
3 as an effective means of supporting English learners’ language develop-
ment. Narrow reading addresses both the issues of level of familiarity and
background knowledge and the level of language, both criteria for selec-
tion of text for English learners. There are more selective anthologies,
General collections or anthologies

Single-author collections
Single-topic collections
Single-format collections
Culturally relevant poetry
Poem picture books
Song picture books (also discussed in Chapter 4)
And some types of rhyming books that may not look like “poetry”
•• Rhyming picture books (Sheep in a Jeep by Nancy Shaw)
•• Rhythmic picture books (A Cool Drink of Water and A Little Peace by
Barbara Kerley)
•• Predictable books (discussed in more detail in Chapter 4)
•• Alphabet books (N Is for Navidad by Susan Elya and Merry Banks)
•• Counting books (We All Went on Safari: A Counting Journey through
Tanzania by Laurie Krebs)
•• Folk songs in book form (Arroz con Leche collected by Lulu Delacre)
•• Bible songs and spirituals (Let It Shine: Three Favorite Spirituals collected
by Ashley Bryan)
Plus, childhood folklore

•• Jump rope and ball-bouncing rhymes (Anna Banana by Joanna Cole)
•• Clapping games, chants, and cheers (Street Rhymes around the World by
Jane Yolen)
•• Street songs and raps (Night on Neighborhood Street by Eloise
Greenfield)
•• Riddles, tongue twisters, counting games, and nonsense verse (And the
Green Grass Grew All Around collected by Alvin Schwartz)
FIGURE 5.1. Types of poetry books.
however. For example, Hopkins’s edited volume, Small Talk: A Book of

Short Poems (1995, TL2–5, A, P), while it is an anthology or general col-
lection of poems, seems suited for English learners because their brevity
permits teachers to begin each day with a poem and thus, to practice oral
language in just a few minutes.
Single-topic collections are easily connected to the content areas as
is the case with works such as Marvelous Math: A Book of Poems (1997,
TL3–5, A, P) and Spectacular Science: A Book of Poems (1999, TL3–5,
A, P) both compiled by Lee Bennett Hopkins. English learners can find
reinforcement of math and science concepts in both the illustrations and
the descriptions. Although some vocabulary may need elaboration, the
poems offer images, analogies, metaphors, and similes that help English
learners visualize and remember the construct being described through

poetry. Hopkins has compiled numerous single-topic collections that are
visually appealing and inclusive without being overwhelming. The more
narrow focus on a topic makes it simple for a teacher to conceive of how
to link poetry with the current curriculum, and the focus on one topic
can limit the vocabulary and conceptual load for English learners. These
teacher- and reader-friendly thematic collections are effective for Eng-
lish learners and supported by research (Freeman & Freeman, 2006).
Practically speaking, it makes it even easier to open a lesson with poetry
when a book of poems on that topic is available. For English learners, this
topic connection provides support for vocabulary development and com-
prehension when poems of related subject matter are shared (Krashen &
Terrell, 1983). In addition to Hopkins’s single-topic collections of poetry
by a variety of authors, he has authored several single-topic collections
of his own work and these are ideal for English learners with beginning-
language proficiency. His books of poems such as Blast Off! Poems about
Space (1996, TL2–5, A, P), Dino-Roars (1999, TL2–5, A, P), Sports!
Sports! Sports!: A Poetry Collection (2000, TL2–5, A, P), and Weather:
Poems for All Seasons (1995, TL2–5, A, P) all provide simple poems with
strong rhyme and imagery perfect for language development.
Poetry also comes in single-author collections with the work of just
one poet. Again, the consistent style of one author can be a benefit through
a narrow reading instructional focus as discussed in Chapter 3. Where
the Sidewalk Ends (Silverstein, 2000, TL1–5, A, P) is probably the most
well-known example of a single-author collection. Such “standards” by
Shel Silverstein and Jack Prelutsky are readily available, and these are the
poets often voted by children as their favorites (Kutiper & Wilson, 1993).
However, writers such as Kalli Dakos and Douglas Florian are gaining
in popularity, so incorporating new voices into the classroom library is
an ongoing endeavor. Florian’s frequent use of the “list-poem” format in
Bing, Bang, Boing (2007, TL1–5, A, P) and Dakos’s focus on school topics
have particular appeal to English learners. Moreover, Florian is an excel-
lent example of a poet who has contributed many single-author/single-
topic poetry collections including several collections of animal poems (On
the Wing, 2000; In the Swim, 2001; Insectlopedia, 2002; Mammalibilia,
2004; Lizards, Frogs, and Polliwogs, 2005; Zoo’s Who, 2005; and Comets,
Stars, the Moon, and Mars: Space Poems and Paintings, 2007, TL2–5, A,
P for all), and these can fit easily into the science curriculum of the inter-
mediate grades for use with English learners at Level 2 and above.
In terms of choosing poets to spotlight in the classroom, one starting
point might be Sylvia Vardell’s Poetry People: A Practical Guide to Chil-
dren’s Poets (2007), an excellent introduction to more than 60 contempo-

rary young people’s poets that showcases one entry for each poet along
with biographical information, a list of his or her poetry books, and so on.
In addition, the Internet offers an excellent resource for finding out more
about individual poets; some even have their own webpage.
Another type of poetry collection beyond single author or single
topic is a single-format collection with only poems of one type such as
riddles, haikus, or list poems. The collection of haikus by Pat Mora, Yum!
Mmmm! Que Rico!: America’s Sproutlings (2007, TL3–5,A,P), cited ear-
lier is one excellent example. Georgia Heard has also collected various
list poems by well-known children’s poets in Falling down the Page: A
Book of List Poems (2009, TL2–5, A, P). The list-poem format offers
straightforward language in a simple format that can help English learn-
ers to comprehend the text. Finally, there are numerous collections of
concrete poetry (also referred to as shape or graphic poetry). With con-
crete poetry, the visual impact is important since the shape of the poem
reflects its meaning, as with Joan Graham’s collections Splish Splash
(2001, TL2–5, A, P) and Flicker Flash (2003, TL2–5, A, P). These poems
are designed to be seen more so than read aloud providing a visual lit-
eracy focus.
Poetry by authors of color and poetry addressing themes of diversity
continues to grow in popularity. Whether organized into a single-author
collection by such favorites as Janet Wong or Eloise Greenfield or into a
themed (single-topic) poetry volume such as Come to the Great World:
Poems from around the Globe (Cooling, 2004, TL2–5, A, P), culturally
relevant poems and their authors address both universal themes and expe-
riences as well as offer glimpses of life outside the mainstream. Related
to this global emphasis, one of the most exciting trends in the recent pub-
lishing of poetry for young people is the emergence of bilingual poetry,
poems offered in two languages within the same book such as the work of
Francisco Alarcón (Poems to Dream Together/ Poemas para sonar juntos,
2005, TL3–5, A, P) and also, poetry that has been published first outside
the United States and then subsequently published in this country as in
Jorge Lujan’s Colors! Colores! (2008, TL3–5, A, P).
One other innovative format for poetry book publishing that is par-
ticularly effective with English learners is the poem picture book or song
picture book (also discussed in Chapter 4 on predictable books). These
are picture books that include only the words to one single poem or
song. For example, the poem picture books America Is . . . (Borden, 2005,
TL2–5, A, P) and My America (Gilchrist, 2007, TL1–5, A, P) along with
the anthem, O Beautiful for Spacious Skies (“America the Beautiful”)
by Katharine Bates (1994, TL3–5, A, P) help English learners begin to

understand elements of American culture in both words and pictures.
Finally, there are poetic or rhythmic picture books; books that may
not be classified as poetry but that are presented more in the format of
poetry with lyrical language and descriptive phrases displayed across the
page in a less linear manner than traditional text in sentences or para-
graphs. Various nonfiction books could be described as having this pre-
sentation style including Barbara Kerley’s A Cool Drink of Water (2006,
TL1–4, A, NF), which spotlights water use around the world, and Ker-
ley’s A Little Peace (2007, TL1–4, A, NF) with a similar format, as well
as Alice Schertle’s We (2007, TL3–5, A, NF) with its focus on human
evolution. Poetic picture books lend themselves to dramatic read-alouds
in the classroom.
Just as there are different collections of poetry, there are also dif-
ferent kinds of poems, including narrative, free verse, haiku, limericks,
ballads, concrete, and so on. Studies of children’s preferences (Kutiper
& Wilson, 1993) indicate that most children enjoy narrative storytelling
poems that have a regular, distinctive rhythm, strong sound patterns,
humor, and not too much abstract and figurative language. At least, that
is what appeals to them at first. Experimenting with a varied menu of
poetry adds richness to the classroom, and in this way, English learners
have exposure to a variety of formats when they want to experiment with
writing poetry. While studies have been conducted on children’s poetry
preferences, there is little research on the preferences of English learn-
ers. Yet, beginning-language learners (Level 1 or 2) enjoy the sound of
poetry—the rhyme, the rhythm, and the music of the English language.
This means two things. First, as teachers begin selecting poetry to share
with English learners, they should start with poems that rhyme and have
a strong rhythm. This enables students to use their developing language
skills to guess how words and phrases should sound. Also, poetry should
be read aloud and teachers can invite, not assign, children to read out
loud with them. Poetry needs to be heard and spoken, especially when
English is not the native language.
Criteria for Selecting Poetry

The rich diversity of poems, poem picture books, poetry collections, and
rhythmic/poetic text offers many instructional choices to teachers. The
four basic criteria for matching books to English learners presented in
Chapter 2 (level of content familiarity or background knowledge, level

of language, level of textual support, and level of cultural fit) have been
focused on the selection of poetry in Table 5.1. An in-depth discussion of
these criteria and how they have been applied to examples of recently pub-
lished poetry follow. Using these criteria and guiding questions, teachers
can begin to carefully weigh the most appropriate poetry to meet Eng-
lish learners’ varying language proficiency needs and backgrounds and to
help increase word knowledge, familiarity with English syntax patterns,
and conceptual background knowledge.
Level of Topic/Theme Familiarity

or Background Knowledge
Familiarity and background knowledge can be related to both the topic
and theme of the poetry to be used in the classroom and also the genre
of poetry in general. Following are some guiding questions for examining
poetry for use with English learners:
• What topics/themes are presented in the poem/poetry collection?

• Is this presentation an introduction to the topic/theme or is it con-
tinued conceptual development at a higher level?
• What is the English learner’s level of familiarity or background
knowledge related to the topic/theme? Is the topic or theme very
familiar, familiar, unfamiliar, or not common?
• What background knowledge does the English learner have on
the topic/theme of the poem/poetry collection?
• Has the topic/theme of the poem/poetry collection been previ-
ously covered in the curriculum? When? At what level? What was
the level of success of English learners?
• Is the topic/theme of the poem/poetry collection likely to be part
of the readers’ background experience? How so? How can the
teacher best link English learners’ previous experiences/under-
standings to the poem/poetry collection?
As noted, when teachers consider which poetry to use with English

learners in their classrooms, they need to take into account whether the
poetry deals with everyday or universal topics or it is a more academic
topic. In the first case, does the English learner have personal background
knowledge and experience on the topic and for the latter, has the topic
been previously covered in the curriculum? Poetry, like all text mate-
rial, can highlight topics and themes that are familiar to learners from
TABLE 5.1. Criteria and Guiding Questions for Selecting Poetry

Level of topic/theme •• What topics/themes are presented in the poem/poetry

familiarity or background collection?
knowledge •• Is this presentation an introduction to the topic/theme
How close a fit is the fiction or is it continued conceptual development at a higher
text to the English learner’s level?
knowledge or background •• What is the English learner’s level of familiarity or
experiences? How close background knowledge related to the topic/theme? Is
a fit is the poem/poetry the topic or theme very familiar, familiar, unfamiliar, or
collection to the English not common?
learner’s knowledge or •• What background knowledge does the English learner
background experiences? have on the topic/theme of the poem/poetry collection?
•• Has the topic/theme of the poem/poetry collection been
previously covered in the curriculum? When? At what
level? What was the level of success of English learners?
•• Is the topic/theme of the poem/poetry collection likely
to be part of the readers’ background experience? How
so? How can the teacher best link English learners’
previous experiences/understandings to the poem/
poetry collection?
Level of language •• What is the vocabulary load of the poem/poetry

How close a fit is the fiction collection (e.g., basic and familiar, sophisticated/
text to the English learner’s advanced and unfamiliar, concrete or abstract,
knowledge or background general or technical/specialized, idiomatic, formal or
experiences? How close informal, vocabulary with multiple meanings, figurative
a fit is the poem/poetry language)?
collection to the English •• How many new vocabulary words are presented in the
learner’s vocabulary, poem?
syntactic knowledge, and •• Does the poem/poetry collection present new
overall proficiency level? vocabulary in meaningful contextual ways?
•• How likely is the English learner to encounter the
vocabulary in this poem/poetry collection in other
reading?
•• What is the English learner’s previous experience
with the vocabulary of the poem/poetry collection
(completely new, some exposure, should be part of active
vocabulary)? Is the vocabulary currently or likely to
be part of the English learner’s speaking vocabulary?
Listening vocabulary? Reading vocabulary? Writing
vocabulary?
•• If there is predictable language, what is the size of the
predictable unit and what percent of the total text of a
poem does the predictable unit account for?
(cont.)
TABLE 5.1. (cont.)

Level of language (cont.) •• What is the syntactic structure of the poem/poetry

collection? Word level? Phrase level? Simple sentences?
Compound sentences? Complex sentences? Compound/
complex sentences? Embedded clauses?
•• How familiar is the English learner with those syntax
patterns? Does the English learner use that syntax
pattern in speaking? Writing?
Level of textual support •• Are there visuals (photographs or illustrations)?

How close a fit is the fiction •• Are the visuals clear and direct? One-to-one
text to the English learner’s correspondence of visuals to the poem/poetry
knowledge or background collection? General connection? Primarily for aesthetic
experiences? What types purposes?
of support does the poem/ •• Is the print style such as bold, italics, or punctuation
poetry collection provide used to provide clues to meaning?
and how familiar is the •• Is the language/wording arranged on the page in such a
English learner with these way to give clues to meaning?
types of textual support?
Level of cultural fit •• Is the poem/poetry collection culturally neutral (with

How close a fit is the fiction general diversity portrayed but no focus on a specific
text to the English learner’s group)? Culturally generic (with a group featured but
knowledge or background less specific detail provided)? Culturally specific (with
experiences? How close explicit details about a group portrayed)?
a fit is the poem/poetry •• Does the poem/poetry collection reflect the background
collection to the English and/or experiences of recent immigrants? U.S.-born
learner’s cultural or English learners?
experiential background •• Are the characters similar or different than English
(ethnic, language, learners in the classroom?
geographic, religious, •• Have English learners had experiences like those
socioeconomic, gender)? described in this poem/poetry collection?
•• Have English learners lived in or visited places like
those in the poem/poetry collection?
•• How far removed is the poem/poetry collection from
current times?
•• Are any characters the same gender as the reader?
•• Do the characters talk like the English learners and
their families?
issues of self as in Me I Am! by Jack Prelutsky (2007, TL2–4, A, P) and

real-world topics related to some readers’ backgrounds such as themes of
urban life depicted in Mural on Second Avenue and Other City Poems
(Moore, 2005, TL2–5, A, P) to topics totally unrelated to their knowledge
base. Lee Bennett Hopkins has even created an illustrated poetry book
featuring the letters of the alphabet in Alphathoughts: Alphabet Poems
(2003, TL1–5, A, P). The simple poems can help English learners with
language and vocabulary development as shown by this brief sampling:
Books
Pages and pages of bound forevers
C
Custodian
Keeper of clean
However, as a selection criteria, topic/theme familiarity and background

knowledge may not factor into the decision making for poetry to the
extent they do with nonfiction text where the content or conceptual load
can quickly overwhelm the English learner. Yet, they are still important
to consider.
As noted earlier, there are many single-topic poetry collections on
content subjects such as math, science, and social studies. On the one
hand, thematic collections can provide for a focus on one topic and the
repetition of vocabulary that would assist English learners. On the other
hand, the vocabulary in some of the poems could prove to be challeng-
ing to English learners, especially those at the beginning levels of profi-
ciency. For Level 1 and 2 English learners, teachers need to select poems
that address more universal topics and themes. Poetry that addresses
basic or survival topics suggested in Chapter 3 to build social language
and basic vocabulary is a good starting point. For example, Big Is Big
(and Little, Little): A Book of Contrasts (Lewis, 2007, TL1–4, A, P) and A
Pig Is Big (Florian, 2000, TL1–4, A, P) both explore the concept of size
in humorous rhyming text, and most of the illustrations provide concrete
clues to size differences. Either of these texts would be appropriate for
Level 1 and 2 English learners and could be used with both primary
and intermediate grades. So too, family, school, seasons, weather, and
animals—all have some degree of familiarity—which can make a poem
easier to understand. As a caution, some basic vocabulary and concepts
such as numbers or days and months of the year are presented in rhyming
poems, but just because the topic or the vocabulary is considered basic
language needed for Level 1 English learners does not mean that the
overall poem is easily understandable. For instance, My Granny Went to

Market: A Round-the-World Counting Rhyme (Blackstone, 2005, TL2–4,
A, P) is a counting book in rhyme but the text goes a bit beyond basic
counting and numbers as objects are bought around the world, some of
them not so familiar as in the lanterns bought in China and cowbells in
Switzerland. Beginning English learners can, of course, enjoy the book
and learn the numbers due to the illustrations and the summary table
at the end of the book, but familiarity with the different countries and
objects supposedly characteristic of that country may be limited. Another
example is related to animals, always a favorite with children in the class-
room, but the barnyard animals of the picture songbook Old MacDonald
Had a Farm (Cabrera, 2008, TL1–2, P, F) may be more familiar than the
animals and the geographic context of the South American rainforest in
the bilingual poetry collection, Animal Poems of the Iguazu/ Animalario
del Iguazu (Alarcón, 2009, TL3–5, I, P).
Teachers can maximize the connection of poetry to the curriculum
by sharing poems related to classroom activities already going on—a les-
son, a special event, or a shared experience. This provides for the needed
repetition and reinforcement of vocabulary and concepts being taught.
Again, teachers need to consider the learners, their proficiency levels, and
their background knowledge. For instance, the poem picture book, This
Is the Dream (Shore & Alexander, 2006, TL2–5, I, P), depicts the Civil
Rights Movement and while the topic is presented in simple rhythmic
text, the historical context may not be familiar to some English learners
although the overarching theme of discrimination may be all too famil-
iar. Thus, this book is best used with Levels 2–5 and with intermediate
grades.
Topic and genre familiarity come into play with several recent poem
biographies including César: Sí se Puede/ Cesar, Yes We Can! (Bernier-
Grand, 2006, TL3–5, I, P) and The Pot That Juan Built (Andrews-Goebel,
2002, TL3–5, I, P), as well as the musical poem biography (sung to the
tune of “The Old Grey Mare”), Our Abe Lincoln (Aylesworth, 2009,
TL2–5, A, P). Some familiarity with the historical context and back-
ground knowledge about each of the featured historical figures, Cesar
Chavez, Juan Quezada, and Abraham Lincoln, would be helpful. In addi-
tion, poem biographies are a blending of two genre, nonfiction/biography
and poetry, and English learners may not expect to find biography via
poetry. The repetition and basic vocabulary of Our Abe Lincoln make it
an appropriate teacher read-aloud for Level 1 and 2 English learners, but
the other two poem biographies are more appropriate for Levels 3–5 as
well as for intermediate grades since some historical and fine arts context
is needed.
Teachers can also invite students to search for and share poems that
reflect their background knowledge and topics that are familiar to them.
Sometimes, teachers gain valuable insights when learners bring their own
ideas to the classroom. To encourage English learners in their search for
poems to suggest, teachers should have an accessible classroom collection
of poetry books or folders of poems. Because poems are brief, browsing
can be accomplished throughout the day at the end of lessons or during
center activity times.
Level of Language
As noted in the previous section, the topics or themes may not be as
critical a factor in poetry selection for English learners, but the level of
language is significant. Some guiding questions to help teachers consider
the level of language in poetry include the following:
• What is the vocabulary load of the poem/poetry collection (e.g.,

basic and familiar, sophisticated/advanced and unfamiliar, con-
crete or abstract, general or technical/specialized, idiomatic, for-
mal or informal, vocabulary with multiple meanings, figurative
language)?
• How many new vocabulary words are presented in the poem?
• Does the poem/poetry collection present new vocabulary in
meaningful contextual ways?
this poem/poetry collection in other reading?
• What is the English learner’s previous experience with the
vocabulary of the poem/poetry collection (completely new, some
exposure, should be part of active vocabulary)? Is the vocabulary
currently or likely to be part of the English learner’s speaking
vocabulary? Listening vocabulary? Reading vocabulary? Writing
vocabulary?
• If there is predictable language, what is the size of the predictable
unit and what percent of the total text of a poem does the predict-
able unit account for?
• What is the syntactic structure of the poem/poetry collection?
Word level? Phrase level? Simple sentences? Compound sen-
tences? Complex sentences? Compound/complex sentences?
Embedded clauses?

Writing?
Rasinki (2000) emphasizes the importance of finding texts well

within readers’ independent-instructional range for fluent reading.
Teachers should avoid texts with high levels of unfamiliar vocabulary and
syntax, particularly for English learners. The language load of a poem or
a poetry collection is related to a variety of factors including the num-
ber of new or sophisticated vocabulary terms, whether the language of
the poem is abstract or has layers of meaning, the amount of figurative
language, and so forth. In addition to vocabulary, the syntactic struc-
ture of poetry may be less familiar to English learners than traditional
sentences and paragraphs. Often, poems lack conventional punctuation
and complete sentences, and the language of the poem can be displayed
on the page in different and unfamiliar formats. So, on the one hand,
poetry appears simplistic because poems are often briefer than stories
with shorter lines and fewer words. However, the compressed nature of
poems is often related to their use of highly descriptive language, inten-
sity of feeling, and frequent use of figurative language. If poets use fewer
words, those words are frequently filled with symbolic or multiple mean-
ings, which is one of the main reasons that teachers sometimes assume
that poetry is not appropriate for English learners. Poetry that is deeply
symbolic is too abstract for English learners at the beginning levels of
proficiency, but “short, highly predictable selections that are meant to
be read aloud and with expression, such as rhyming poetry, are ideal
for reading fluency instruction” and thus, for Level 1–3 English learners
(Rasinski, 2000, p. 148).
The format of poetry books complicates the selection process due
to language-level variation. Poem picture books have a tighter level of
language since they are essentially one poem by a single author in illus-
trated format. Multiple readings of the poem, especially with class or
group discussion may yield deeper meanings or multiple interpretations,
but in general, a poem picture book can target a specific proficiency
level. Poetry collections and anthologies are different in that they offer
teachers numerous poems to connect to the curriculum and to match a
variety of English learners’ interests and proficiency levels. Such collec-
tions and, in particular, anthologies include poems of varying lengths,
some shorter and some longer, and they also include poems of varying
language levels, some more concrete and some more abstract with more
figurative language. However, single-author collections may not have as

much language-level variation as single-topic collections with poems by a
variety of poets, all with writing style differences. Therefore, collections
can usually be matched to a range of TESOL proficiency levels but not all
levels as noted in the following discussion.
In Jorge Lujan’s Colors! Colores! (2008, TL3–5, A, P), the color
poems look deceptively simple but the lyrical language is not direct, and
the images of the colors are more abstract (“Burning spark/ lands on the
elm./ Who’s singing?/ Red.”) Thus, this book may prove too challenging
for Levels 1 and 2. A poet’s emphasis on highly descriptive language also
leads to sophisticated and less frequently used vocabulary, which can
be a stumbling block to comprehension. While teachers need to encour-
age English learners to develop their word knowledge, Level 1 students
will certainly find the description of the flying carpet (“it was trimmed
with yellow tassels,/and made of knotted wool”) in Stella Blackstone’s My
Granny Went to Market: A Round-the-World Counting Rhyme (2005,
TL2–4, A, P) somewhat puzzling.
Slang and idiomatic expressions as well as figurative language make
even simple text challenging for English learners. For instance, the
counting book, Cool Cats Counting (Shahan, 2005, TL1–5, A, P), begins
with a number and an animal in English and ends with the same num-
ber and animal in Spanish. In between are poetic riffs, slang phrases
associated with rhythm and dance, as in “Nine chickens/ struttin’ stuff/
shakin’ it up./ Lickety-split!/ Nueve gallinas.” Similarly, the color concept
book, Spicy Hot Colors/ Colores Picantes (Shahan, 2007, TL2–5, A, P),
blends metaphors about dance into the mix with examples such as “Green
as Mexican iguanas/ Slither/ Slide/ Samba!” or “Yellow as gourds/spitter-
sputter seeds/ Yellow as cobs of corn/ hip-hoppin’ treat.”
In the area of syntax, the cumulative rhyme pattern of The Pot That
Juan Built (Andrews-Goebel, 2002, TL3–5, I, P) with multiple embed-
ded clauses (“These are the cows all white and brown/ That left manure
all over the ground/ That fueled the flames so sizzling hot/ That flickered
and flared and fired the pot/ The beautiful pot that Juan built”) makes
for a wonderful read-aloud, but it could prove exhausting and unclear
to a beginning English learner who needs simple and direct sentence
patterns. On the other hand, the cumulative text in Tweedle-Dee-Dee
(Voake, 2008, TL2–5, A, P) is more direct and the vocabulary clear-
cut. In this picture poem/songbook based on a traditional folk song, the
reader encounters simple sentences, joined by commas (“The eggs were
in the nest, the nest was on the branch, the branch was on the tree, the
tree was in the wood, and the green leaves grew around, around, . . . .”),
but the meaning is straightforward and very visual even for the begin-
ning English learner.

In the world of nonfiction literature and expository textbooks, there are
numerous forms of textual support as in photographs and captioned illus-
trations, bold and italicized print, graphic aids (e.g., charts, graphs, maps)
and text features such as the index, glossary, and table of contents. These
features support the conceptual load of nonfiction text helping the reader
construct meaning and perhaps, making the text more interesting. There
is far less textual support in poetry where the emphasis is more on the
language itself as discussed in the previous section. However, there are a
few guiding questions to help teachers pinpoint any text support features
in poetry including the following:

visuals to the poem/poetry collection? General connection? Pri-
marily for aesthetic purposes?
• Is the print style such as bold, italics, or punctuation used to pro-
vide clues to meaning?
• Is the language/wording arranged on the page in such a way to
give clues to meaning?
Poets use vivid description to create visual images or rhythm and

rhyme to create a musical quality to the text. In children’s poetry, tex-
tual support may be provided in illustrations that accompany one poem
(although these may be more aesthetic and less an example of the specific
meaning of the poem) to the illustrations throughout a poem picture book,
which generally provide more direct support about the overall meaning
of the poem. Occasionally, there may be clues to meaning through print
style or punctuation or in the case of concrete poetry, the shape of the
words on the page is the shape of the object highlighted in the poem. In
addition, textual support can be provided by compilations of poems with
a similar form/format. Single-format collections can serve as textual sup-
port by helping the teacher provide repetition, particularly if the empha-
sis is on understanding the format and replicating it as in composing list
poems, haikus, or limericks.
In Rebecca Kai Dotlich’s When Riddles Come Rumbling: Poems to
Ponder (2001, TL2–5, A, P), there are visual and print clues along with
the language clues in the poem pointing readers to the answer to the
riddle. For instance, a partial view of a kite is hidden behind the riddle
describing one. Around each riddle are also letters that spell the answer
to the riddle. Thus, for this book, there is a close connection of visual sup-
port to the poem’s meaning. Once around the Sun (Katz, 2006, TL2–5,
A, P) offers poems that describe the changing of the seasons. The illustra-
tions complement the poem by providing a connection to the poem. For
“April,” daffodils are referred to in the poem and the reader sees those
flowers in the family’s yard, and for “September,” there is a back-to-school
illustration that accompanies the poem. These general illustrations can be
used for discussion to help focus English learners on the visual and word
descriptions. Just as with Once around the Sun, in the single-authored
collection, America: My New Home (Gunning, 2004, TL3–5, A, P), some
illustrations have a link to the poem’s meaning as in the poem, “Cathe-
dral,” with an illustration of the interior view of the church. However,
the illustrations that accompany “The Queen’s English” or “Why Such a
Hurry?” are more generic and provide limited clues to specific meaning.
In fact, the term queen’s English will need some explanation to English
learners not familiar with the British-influenced history of the author’s
home, Jamaica.
As noted previously, poem picture books are illustrated versions of a
single poem as the text and as such, are an innovation with instructional
potential for English learners. The single-poem focus with accompanying
illustrations support English learners’ comprehension. For example, Jan
Gilchrist’s My America (2007, TL1–5, A, P) offers stunning illustrations
with simple questions directed to the reader: “Have you seen my coun-
try?/ Seen my magic skies?/ Seen my mighty waters?/ Have you seen my
land?” While some of the words such as beasts, fowl, and water creatures
would be less familiar to beginning English learners, the simple syntax
pattern and related illustrations would support Level 1 students. The full
text of the poem is at the end of the book. Another poem picture book
that is appropriate for beginners is Pamela Porter’s Yellow Moon, Apple
Moon (2008, TL1–5, A, P), a bedtime rhyme depicting a child saying
goodnight to the moon: “Yellow Moon, Apple Moon,/ Time to sleep. See
you soon.” Also, for Level 2 English learners, Jack Prelutsky’s Me I Am!
(2007, TL2–4, A, P) offers ideas about our individuality and uniqueness:
“There is no other ME I AM/ who thinks the thoughts I do.”
As with poem picture books, song picture books usually combine
illustrations and text to support English learners in meaning-making,
but not always. Several recent books feature spirituals including Ashley
Bryan’s, Let It Shine: Three Favorite Spirituals (2007, TL1–5, A, P), a col-
lection of three songs: “This Little Light of Mine,” “Oh, When the Saints
Go Marching In,” and “He’s Got the Whole World in His Hands.” Two
other works feature individual versions of songs including E. B. Lewis’s
This Little Light of Mine (2005, TL1–5, A, P) and Kadir Nelson’s He’s Got
the Whole World in His Hands (2005, TL1–5, A, P). Bryan includes a
brief background on spiritual tunes that may provide some historical and
cultural context for English learners. Also, the informal language usage
of gonna and little bitty may require clarification, particularly for Level 1
students. The more basic and straightforward lyrics of “This Little Light
of Mine,” and “He’s Got the Whole World in His Hands” may be easiest
for Level 1 or 2 English learners to understand, but the figurative image
of God holding people, and so on in His hands may need some discus-
sion. “Oh, When the Saints Go Marching In” is probably best saved for
Level 3 students as the meaning is less direct given issues of vocabulary,
imagery, and some dialect (“the sun refuse to shine”). In Dem Bones, Bob
Barner (1996, TL1–3, A, NF) offers a straightforward presentation of the
spiritual tune coupled with clear illustrations that can easily be used for
a TPR lesson on the skeleton. See Chapter 3 for more discussion of chil-
dren’s books for TPR or physical activity lessons.
Painting a portrait of the diverse landscape of the United States,
Diane Siebert has authored numerous poem picture books that spotlight
different geographic areas. Vivid language and repeating phrases that
serve as a type of refrain are accompanied by illustrations of the areas
described as in Cave (2000, TL3–5, I, P); “I am the cave,/ So cool and
dark,/ Where time, unending, leaves its mark/ As natural forces build
and hone/ A crystal world from weeping stone.” Similar works by Siebert
include Sierra (1996, TL3–5, I, P), Mojave (1992, TL3–5, I, P), and Mis-
sissippi (2001, TL3–5, I, P). These are excellent resources to connect to
the curriculum, but even with the visual support of illustrations, the topic
focus means that these poem picture books are more suited for Level 3–5
English learners at the intermediate-grade level.
Perhaps the most evident text support in poetry comes with concrete,
or shape poems, which provide visual accessibility as the poem reflects
the shape of what is being described. In addition, there are numerous
collections of concrete poems from J. Patrick Lewis’s Doodle Dandies:
Poems That Take Shape (2002, TL2–5, A, P) to Paul Janeczko’s A Poke in
the I: A Collection of Concrete Poems (2001, TL2–5, A, P) and others, so
that in reading the poems, English learners become aware that the shape
of the words equals the meaning. Among the many collections of shape
poems, some depend on accompanying illustrations to help the words
reflect the shape and the meaning as with Joan Graham’s Flicker Flash
(1999, TL2–5, A, P) and Splish Splash (1994, TL2–5, A, P) and thus, the
poems may not be as clear to Level 1 students. Other collections such as
Come to My Party (Roemer, 2004, TL1–5, A, P) simply reinforce very
“concrete” word structures with illustrations to provide clear meaning
for beginning English learners in simple poems such as “It’s Raining” in
the outline of an umbrella or “Jump Rope Jingle” in the shape of the rope.
In general, concrete poetry collections work well for English learners at
Levels 2–5 with some of the poems appropriate for Level 1.

The diversity of our schools, in particular, the many English learners in
classrooms, means that teachers need to take into account the level of cul-
tural fit of the poetry used for instruction. It is important to select poetry
that connects with English learners, poems that have more relevance in
their lives and experiences. So, teachers need to consider how close a fit
the poetry may be to the learner’s cultural or experiential background,
be it ethnic, geographic, linguistic, religious, socioeconomic, or gender
background. As teachers browse through poetry collections or individual
poems, they should ask a few questions including the following:
• Is the poem/poetry collection culturally neutral (with general

diversity portrayed but no focus on a specific group)? Cultur-
ally generic (with a group featured but less specific detail pro-
vided)? Culturally specific (with explicit details about a group
portrayed)?
• Does the poem/poetry collection reflect the background and/or
experiences of recent immigrants? U.S.-born English learners?
the classroom?
• Have English learners had experiences like those described in
this poem/poetry collection?
poem/poetry collection?
• How far removed is the poem/poetry collection from current
times?
• Are any characters the same gender as the reader?
lies?
Poetry books or collections that exemplify the distinctions among

culturally specific, generic, and neutral include the following: N Is for
Navidad (Elya & Banks, 2007, TL2–5, A, F) provides a rhyming alphabet
book that targets the many sights, smells, and activities of a traditional
Latino Christmas celebration. The many vocabulary words and longer
sentences make this book appropriate for Level 2 and above, although
Level 1 students can enjoy the illustrations and terms in Spanish and
would benefit from a read-aloud of the book. Even more culturally spe-
cific is Talking with Mother Earth/ Hablando con Madre Tierra from Sal-
vadoran poet, Jorge Argueta (2006, TL3–5, I, P) with poetry about a Pipil
Nahua Indian, his encounters with racism, and the power of nature to
heal. Some of the shorter, simpler poems in this collection will work for
Level 2 English learners, but in general, this book is more appropriate
for Level 3 and above. Sopa de Frijoles/ Bean Soup (Argueta, 2009, TL2–
5, A, P) can be labeled culturally generic. It has few culturally specific
markers, only the Spanish–English text and what appears to be a Latino
family enjoying bean soup (black beans are mentioned) with tortillas. The
book is a delightful recipe in poem that can reinforce the sequence of
events in cooking, and so on. Finally, When the Horses Ride by: Childen
in the Times of War (Greenfield, 2006, TL2–5, A, P) would be classified
as a culturally neutral book. There is great diversity within the illustra-
tions and the various poems that feature war in different historical and
geographic contexts, but the poems are not targeted toward any culture.
Thus, the poet offers a powerful message about how war transcends all
ethnic, geographic, and socioeconomic boundaries. This poetry collec-
tion can be used with Level 2 and above as the poems vary in length and
complexity. Couple this book with Alice Walker’s Why War Is Never a
Good Idea (2007, TL3–5, I, P), another culturally diverse yet neutral por-
trait of the devastation of war that is more appropriate for intermediate-
grade English learners at Levels 3–5.
In recent years, there has been an increasing focus on literature that
reflects the diversity of the schools, hence the publication of culturally
relevant poetry often first published in themed collections. Culturally
diverse authors are making their voices heard, and their works may speak
to English learners, in particular, with their themes of biculturalism, cul-
tural identity, and cultural heritage. Poets such as Janet Wong, Francisco
Alarcón, and Monica Gunning give voice to these and many other expe-
riences. However, teachers should not assume, for instance, that such
poetry will automatically resonate with an English learner from a simi-
lar background. The variation within a cultural group is just as diverse
as the range of experiences for individuals outside a cultural group. For

instance, some children’s literature focuses on the Latino migrant farm
work experience as in Carmen Bernier-Grand’s poem biography, Cesar:
Yes, We Can!/ César, Sí se Puede (2006, TL3–5, I, P), but the majority of
Latinos are actually urban dwellers. This makes the issue of cultural fit
very complex.
Teachers must also be careful of pigeonholing authors as address-
ing diversity issues only because each writer has many facets and con-
tinues to grow as an artist and as an individual. In fact, this can be a
helpful demonstration for English learners as is the case in Janet Wong’s
early work in Good Luck Gold (2007, TL3–5, I, P) or A Suitcase of Sea-
weed and Other Poems (2008, TL3–5, I, P). There her focus is clearly on
her family roots and relationships as an American of both Chinese and
Korean descent. Her next works, Night Garden: Poems from the World
of Dreams (2007, TL3–5, I, P) and The Rainbow Hand (2008, TL3–5, I,
P), on the other hand, are beautiful collections that explore other experi-
ences, not exclusively cultural in nature. Either way, her writing is fresh
and clear, and intermediate-grade English learners at Levels 3–5 will
respond to her simple and direct style.
Part of the push for more culturally relevant literature includes bilin-
gual collections of poetry that are more readily available as well. Bilingual
poetry books can have several different formats (Ernst-Slavit & Mulhern,
2003): those with the complete poem in two languages as in any of Fran-
cisco Alarcón’s (2005, TL3–5, A, P; 2008, TL3–5, A, P) collections as well
as Laughing Out Loud, I Fly/A Carcajadas Yo Vuelo by Juan Herrera
(1998, TL4–5, I, P) and My Mexico/ México Mío by Tony Johnston (1999,
TL3–5, I, P); those published in different versions, one collection all in
English and one completely in another language; and interlingual poetry
in English interspersed with words and phrases from another language
such as Confetti: Poems for Children by Pat Mora (1999). English–Spanish
poetry dominates this category of poetry collections with fewer examples
of bilingual poetry in other languages. Because of the greater number of
English–Spanish bilingual poetry collections, there is a greater range of
poems from more simple and easy to read to more complex poems aimed
at English learners more proficient in both English and Spanish. Other
bilingual collections include Michio Mado’s Japanese–English antholo-
gies, The Animals (1992, TL3–5, I, P) and The Magic Pocket: Selected
Poems (1998, TL1–5, A, P).
Finally, the cultural fit arises not only from ethnic characters, geo-
graphic settings, and mention of religious, socioeconomic, or gender
diversity. Culture is an integral part of the language itself, in the words
and the meanings behind the words, especially when it comes to humor.
Unlike previous research findings on children’s poetry preferences, Eng-
lish learners may not enjoy the same humorous poems that native speak-
ers do. Why? Humor is culturally specific, and English learners may not
have experienced humor in that way before. Puns, parodies, irony, and
sarcasm are communicated differently in different languages. Teachers
should not be surprised when sharing a funny poem, if some English
learners don’t laugh. Beginning English learners will likely not under-
stand the humor even with an explanation. It might be best to share
poetry for the words, sounds, rhythm, and meaning first.
Conclusion
Teachers often neglect poetry in their classrooms and across the curricu-
lum. In part, they may feel intimidated by this genre and feel that poetry
is too difficult for students learning a new language. Yet, poetry has many
benefits for all students and English learners, in particular. Poetry is an
ideal entry point to language and literacy development. Its repetition,
rhythm, and rhyme make it an ideal choice for oral language activities
and for repeated reading to build fluency as discussed in this chapter.
Plus, poetry comes in a variety of styles and addresses topics and themes
that speak to English learners, and so, it is a wonderful tool for use across
the curriculum. And, poetry offers students many possibilities for writ-
ing. English learners can try one of the many poetry formats as a model
for writing including acrostic poem, biopoem, color poem, concrete/pic-
ture poetry, how-to poem, letter/note/diary poem, list poem, question
poem, rap, recipe poem, or riddle poem. Finally, teachers create an invit-
ing, poetry-friendly environment through selecting an inviting classroom
poetry collection and creating a listening center where students not only
listen to poetry but can also record their own classroom anthologies.
The final chapter in this section focuses on nonfiction literature.
While all genre offer possibilities in terms of language and literacy devel-
opment, the emphasis on developing academic language with English
learners makes nonfiction literature a genre that needs more attention.
Books as Mirrors
Lulu Delacre
I first became aware of the tremendous need for books

that reflected a Latino child’s heritage, traditions, and
customs in 1986. My awareness arrived in the most
mundane of ways. At the time, I was living in El Paso,
Texas, and relished sharing gentle games and lulla-
bies from the Latino oral tradition with my 1-year-old
daughter. One day, it occurred to me to search for a
picture book that collected these rhymes and songs. I
not only wanted to recall complete lyrics, but also for my
daughter to see herself in the pictures of a book, and for
us to sit together and sing through the pages in joyful
unison. So I went to the public library convinced that
if there were dozens of illustrated versions of Mother
Goose rhymes, there had to be one or two titles like the
one I had in mind. My quest proved fruitless. I couldn’t
borrow the book I was seeking. I couldn’t even buy it,
since it didn’t exist. This search prompted me to imagine
that if I needed this book, so did other Spanish-speaking
parents—parents eager to preserve their heritage as they
raised their children in an English-speaking country. At
that moment, Arroz con Leche: Popular Songs and Rhymes
from Latin America was born.
Since then, I have dedicated myself to creating books
that feature Latino children and their heritage, both in
pictures and words. I believe that pride in one’s roots
fosters inner strength. I have witnessed countless times
how the Latino students in a school assembly brighten
when I address them in Spanish at the beginning of a
program. The pride they show as I acknowledge their
language and heritage when I ask what Spanish-speaking
country their family hails from is unmistakable. The peer
acceptance some feel as I read aloud a chapter from Salsa
Copyright by Lulu Delacre.
159
Stories that mirrors their life situation or that of their
parents is palpable.
In Salsa Stories the adults in an extended family
recount their experiences growing up in different coun-
tries of Latin America. I have conducted creative writing
workshops with fourth and fifth graders and showcased
the book as an example of using one’s heritage as inspira-
tion for fiction. First, I introduce the idea that gave birth
to the book: foods inspire warm memories of childhood or
a special occasion when that food is always served. Then,
I talk about the main elements of a good story and let the
children brainstorm ideas. In my latest workshop I wit-
nessed how freeing it was for Latino children to be able to
tell about experiences that related to foods like pupusas,
tamales, or sancocho. One young girl was so taken by the
idea of telling about a picnic at the beach in El Salvador
that she wrote the whole story in Spanish. Who is to say
that if you can tell the story in one language you cannot
transfer it to English once the proper skills are learned?
Giving Latino children and their parents books that
mirror their customs fosters confidence in them. As they
feel accepted and included they will be more confident in
embracing the multifaceted culture of the United States
of America.
In 2004, Arrorró mi Niño: Latino Lullabies and
Gentle Games was published. Four years later, an
Argentinean librarian—an early literacy coordinator and
mother from Washington state—e-mailed me to express
her gratitude for the countless hours of happiness the
book had provided her and her son. She explained how she
cuddled with her 3-year-old, sang through the pages of
the book, and expanded on the pictures by creating stories
about the characters. In 2008, this young mother was able
to do with her little one exactly what I had yearned to do
with mine 22 years before.
160
Chapter Six
Selecting and Using

Nonfiction Literature
in Grades K–6
Just in front of the caterpillar . . . , was a picture book of

caterpillars and butterflies. Francisco liked to look through it
page by page, studying all the pictures. . . . He knew caterpillars
turned into butterflies because Roberto had told him. But just
how did they do it? How long did it take? The words written
underneath each picture in big black letters could tell him, he
knew. So he tried to figure them out by looking at the pictures.
He did this so many times he could close his eyes and see the
words. But he still could not understand what they meant.
—Francisco Jimenez, La Mariposa (Houghton Mifflin, 1998)
Literature-rich classrooms offer students a wealth of language and visual

appeal along with current, relevant, and interesting information (Duke,
2000; Duke & Bennett-Armistead, 2003; Guthrie, 2002; Kletzien &
Dreher, 2004; McGill-Franzen, Allington, Yokoi, & Brooks, 1999; Mor-
row, 2003; Young, 2006; Young & Moss, 2006). And, teachers have more
good books on more diverse topics than ever before making it possible
for them to integrate literature across the curriculum (Cullinan, 1993).
Among the many literature choices, nonfiction is preferred by many chil-
dren. Nonfiction literature, with its emphasis on academic language, can
help English learners, in particular, unlock the content areas as high-
lighted in the quote from La Mariposa at the beginning of this chapter.
The intent behind nonfiction literature is to provide readers with
information about the world around them. Thus, nonfiction is an excel-
161
lent literacy tool for English language development, presenting new

vocabulary and concepts needed for school achievement. Nonfiction
literature offers an opportunity for English learners to see literature as
a vehicle for understanding their surroundings and for finding answers
to their questions. Too, nonfiction literature can help to bridge the gap
between the two types of language proficiency highlighted in Chapter 3,
English learners’ social language or their ability to interact in everyday
settings and their academic language and literacy skills in the content
areas. Through nonfiction literature English learners gain access to mod-
els of many organizational structures, language styles, and techniques
used by writers to describe, instruct, persuade, generalize, demonstrate
solutions, and trace events (Moss, 1992). In particular, nonfiction books
can supplement and substitute for content addressed in textbooks that
are not always user-friendly. By connecting nonfiction literature to con-
tent study, an impressive variety of topics is available, and a collection of
nonfiction books offers a better range of reading levels to meet the varia-
tion in English learners’ proficiency levels than a single textbook could.
English learners respond to the highly visual look and factual content of
nonfiction literature. With nonfiction, the focus is less on interpretation,
as with fiction, and more on information gathering. Plus, nonfiction read-
ing does not have to progress in a linear, page-by-page fashion as with
much fiction.
This chapter explores the powerful genre of nonfiction literature,
discovering how it is a natural complement to the expository material
from textbooks and reference materials of the content-area classroom. In
addition, the chapter highlights the critical issues in selecting nonfiction
for English learners. The recommended titles throughout the chapter
provide teachers with a wealth of resources for teaching the curriculum
to English learners.
Nonfiction Literature and Content Learning
Chapter 3 highlighted the focus of the TESOL Pre-K–12 English Lan-

guage Proficiency Standards (2006) with four of the five standards
devoted to academic language in the content areas. A similar focus can
be seen in the research-based recommendations for the effective instruc-
tion of English learners from the National Council of Teachers of Eng-
lish in their English Language Learners: A Policy Research Brief (2008,
pp. 5–6).
Selecting and Using Nonfiction Literature 163
• Present English learners with challenging curricular content,

organized around “big questions,” and involving authentic read-
ing and writing experiences and meaningful content.
• Teach English learners the basics of academic literacy, focusing on
content-specific and academic vocabulary.
• Help English learners make connections between academic con-
tent and their own knowledge about home and community litera-
cies.
• Teach English learners to simultaneously develop their skill
with academic English and learn content in a variety of disci-
plines.
To address these research-based recommendations, a variety of cur-

riculum and instruction approaches have been designed with a focus
on content and academic language including content-based language
instruction, sheltered subject matter teaching, theme-based instruction,
sheltered instruction, and the Cognitive Academic Language Learning
Approach (CALLA; Center for Applied Linguistics, 1987).
Despite this apparent emphasis on academic language and content,
Duke (2000) reports little classroom time devoted to informational text
in the primary grades. Her study of first-grade classrooms found only 3.6
minutes per day spent with informational texts and in low socioeconomic
districts, the amount of time was even less, only 1.4 minutes. Particularly
in primary grades, the use of informational text or nonfiction literature
is limited. Duke (2003) cites two reasons typically given for this situa-
tion. First, the feeling that primary-age children are not able to handle
informational text, and second, they do not have an interest in this type
of text. Similar reasons are cited for the limited use of informational lit-
erature with English learners. In contrast, Duke (2003, pp. 3–5) offers
six research-based reasons that teachers should include informational or
nonfiction literature in the curriculum:
• Informational text is key to success in later schooling.

• Informational text is ubiquitous in the larger society.
• Informational text is preferred reading for some children.
• Informational text often addresses children’s interests and ques-
tions.
• Informational text builds knowledge of the natural and social
world.
• Informational text has many important text features.
Nonetheless, fiction selections far outnumber nonfiction choices in core

reading programs used in the schools. Yet, as Duke and many others
have noted, one has only to look at standardized test passages used to
measure student academic achievement to see that nonfiction passages
far outnumber fiction passages. This focus on fiction may actually work
to the students’ disadvantage, particularly English learners, who need
the academic and technical language that nonfiction literature selections
could provide.
Nonfiction books provide the most current information, on a wide
variety of subject matter, in many innovative formats, using appealing
illustrations and language. Moreover, they provide excellent support for
content textbooks and instruction. Nonfiction literature offers meaning-
ful texts that approach English learners’ zone of proximal development or
their varied levels of optimal input. A growing body of nonfiction picture
books provides the supportive structure, in-depth coverage of new con-
cepts, and visual cues to assist with comprehension for the student learn-
ing English (Buhrow & Garcia, 2006; Hadaway, Vardell, & Young, 2002a,
2002b, 2002c; Ranker, 2009). A wide range of nonfiction has emerged
in recent years, and the publishing world continues to deliver a variety
of nonfiction for children as reflected in the growing list of outstanding
recipients of the Orbis Pictus Award for Outstanding Nonfiction for Chil-
dren and the Sibert Award (see www.ncte.org/elem/pictus for the Orbis
Pictus Award and www.ala.org/ala/mgrps/divs/alsc/awardsgrants/book-
media/sibertmedal/index.cfm for the Sibert Award).
Utilizing nonfiction literature to lay a foundation for the textbook
and to later extend the content presented in textbooks seems ideally
suited to students learning English and provides extra opportunities for
language exposure. Besides, Crafton (1983) found that reading two selec-
tions on the same topic had a positive impact on students’ comprehension
of the second reading. As vocabulary along with grammatical and dis-
course structures are repeated, English learners have additional chances
to comprehend the meanings of the text they read. This repetition is
essential considering “the amount of input required to learn English has
probably been grossly underestimated” (Scarcella, 1990, p. 78).
The fascination of facts found in the best nonfiction literature appeals
to readers of all ages and language proficiency levels. In fact, nonfiction is
a genre ideally suited to sharing across the grade levels since the content
of the books offers new information not necessarily linked to particular
grade levels. Too, nonfiction books, with their emphasis on information
and not characters, often have a more generic appearance increasing
their applicability to a wider range of age groups.
Selecting Nonfiction Literature

Teachers can choose from several different kinds of factual books within
the general category of nonfiction as they begin to link the literacy focus
of their classroom with the content curriculum. As students and teachers
explore the many fine nonfiction works available today, they will read-
ily recognize the numerous ways these works support the content areas
providing a repetition and extension of key concepts and ideas. To fur-
ther strengthen the connection between language and content concepts,
teachers can scan content textbooks to familiarize themselves with the
important topics and themes and to help plan interdisciplinary units. Fig-
ure 6.1 lists some of the types of nonfiction books available today. Teach-
ers should keep in mind, however, that some books cross over formats
including characteristics of more than one type of nonfiction book. For
instance, Anne Rockwell’s Becoming Butterflies (2002, TL3–5, A, NF) is
both an informational storybook and a life cycle book. The list of nonfic-
tion book types is sequenced from simple to more challenging for English
learners. To choose which types of nonfiction books to use, teachers can
consider how the books fit the lesson as well as how they facilitate Eng-
lish learners’ content and academic language development. A discussion
of each of the formats follows with specific points about the use of each
with English learners at different proficiency levels.
Alphabet books are one of the oldest types of children’s books. Once
used as a way to acquaint young children with the letters of the alphabet,
today, the letters of the alphabet generally form a structure to introduce
a variety of objects, images, or terms. For teachers of English learners,
alphabet books offer a broad range of instructional possibilities because
of the variation of language, from simple to complex, and the variety of
topics addressed. This means that alphabet books can extend over grade
Most accessible More challenging Most challenging

•• Alphabet books •• Picture book •• Complete, partial, and
•• Counting books biographies collective biographies
•• Concept books •• How-to and activity •• Journals and diaries
•• Life cycle books books •• Photo essays
•• Survey books •• Informational
storybooks
FIGURE 6.1. Types of nonfiction books.

levels, K–6, and across English learners’ diverse proficiency levels.

Alphabet books vary in complexity from single words with photographs
or illustrations as in A Gardener’s Alphabet (Azarian, 2000, TL1–5, A,
NF) to phrases and sentences in Zoo Flakes (Howell, 2002, TL1–3, A,
NF) and America: A Patriotic Primer (Cheney, 2002, TL2–5, A, NF) to
paragraphs and full-page text in Children from Australia to Zimbabwe: A
Photographic Journey around the World (Ajmera & Versola, 1997, TL3–
5, A, NF). There are alphabet books that address almost every topic in
the curriculum—food, art, and music, celebrations, science and nature,
sports, history, and mathematics—to name just a few (Evers, Lang, &
Smith, 2009). For instance, Jerry Pallotta has numerous alphabet books
about animals. Cultural diversity has also been the focus of many recent
alphabet books, and some of these may interest English learners, in par-
ticular. Specific countries have been highlighted as in K Is for Korea
(Cheung & Das, 2008, TL3–5, A, NF) or M Is for Mexico (Cordero, 2008,
TL3–5, A, NF) as well as different regions of the world with A Is for Asia
(Chin-Lee, 1997, TL3–5, A, NF) or A Is for the Americas (Chin-Lee &
de la Peña, 1999, TL3–5, A, NF) and various cultural events such as the
lunar new year in D Is for Dragon Dance (Compestine, 2006, TL2–5, A,
NF). Yet, despite the incredible scope of alphabet books, “they generally
follow a consistent and predictable organization pattern rendering them
user-friendly and effective” for language development of English learners
of different ages and proficiency levels (Evers et al., 2009, p. 462).
Counting books, like alphabet books, also have a built-in structure.
Often this is simply counting from 1 to 10 as in Ten Seeds (Brown, 2001,
TL1–3, P, NF), but sometimes counting books incorporate 0, sets, and
multiples. For example, One Watermelon Seed (Lottridge, 2008, TL2–4,
A, NF) includes 1 to 10 and then counting by 10s with mention of hun-
dreds and thousands. One Is a Snail, Ten Is a Crab: A Counting by Feet
Book (Sayre & Sayre, 2003, TL1–4, A, NF) also includes multiples (“30
is three crabs . . ./ or ten people and a crab.”). A little more complexity is
added in The Coin Counting Book (Williams, 2001, TL1–3, A, NF) as
simple math with coins is presented. This is a helpful book for recent
immigrants who are beginning to learn English as it helps to acquaint
them with the different U.S. coins and their values.
Counting books, like alphabet books, often focus on different cul-
tures as in One Child, One Seed: A South African Counting Book (Cave,
2003, TL2–5, A, NF), and there are many bilingual counting books, some
with complete text in two languages and others with interlingual words
and phrases as in Cool Cats Counting with some Spanish words used
(Shahan, 2005, TL1–5, A, NF) and We All Went on Safari: A Counting
Journey through Tanzania (Krebs, 2003, TL2–5, A, NF) with the num-
bers 1–10 in English and Swahili. Just as with alphabet books, counting
books may have limited text per page or there may be more informa-
tion. Barbara McGrath’s Soccer Counts! (2003, TL2–5, A, NF) offers two
rhyming sentences with a number and term related to soccer followed
by a paragraph with more in-depth information. While counting books
sometimes have more elaborated text, they usually don’t have the reach of
grade levels or language proficiency levels that alphabet books display. In
general, counting books are most appropriate for Levels 1–3, with some
occasional use with Level 4 and 5 students when there is extended text
information. As to grade-level application, counting books will be most
useful in the primary grades, but they can be used at the intermediate
grades with newly arrived English learners who have limited language
proficiency and who need to learn basic concepts.
Concept books present basic information about a single topic simply,
in an interesting manner. The purpose of a concept book is to teach, to
present information, not to tell a story. The best ones are very simple and
highly visual and thus, they are ideal for Level 1 and 2 English learn-
ers. They usually deal with challenging concepts such as color, direction,
time, proportion, and so on. While these books are often thought of as
books for young children, teachers working with Level 1 English learn-
ers will find them a source of wonderful language support. For primary-
grade English learners, concept books may be needed to target both a
new concept to learn as well as the new language for that concept. For
intermediate-grade English learners, concept books may be a convenient
way to address the new language or labels for a concept that they already
know in their home language. However, it is possible that limited for-
mal schooling English learners who are just entering the classroom on
a consistent basis may need both the conceptual as well as the language
support of concept books.
Tana Hoban is an acknowledged expert in creating distinctive and
useful concept books through the effective use of photographs. For
instance, she uses photographs illustrating groupings of objects in larger
and smaller numbers to help readers understand quantity concepts in
More, Fewer, Less (1998, TL1–3, A, NF). Some of Hoban’s books are
wordless, and thus, offer room for rich discussion and an excellent means
of tapping into the background knowledge of English learners. In addi-
tion, there are numerous concept books for colors including Stephen
Swinburne’s What Color Is Nature? (2002, TL1–2, P, NF), which has
a brief introduction about colors and then photographs with a simple
question and answer format: “What color is this apple?/Red.” For a more
lively and poetic color concept book, teachers can use Sherry Shahan’s
bilingual Spicy Hot Colors/ Colores Picantes (2004, TL1–5, A, P): “Green
as cilantro and cactus/ Wiggle/ waggle/ Rumba! Green Verde.” More
elaborated information is presented in the two concept books by Maya
Ajmera and John Ivanko, To Be an Artist (2004b, TL2–5, A, NF) and Be
My Neighbor (2004a, TL2–5, A, NF), which define art and neighbor-
hoods, respectively, with a global emphasis.
Cycle/life cycle books, such as Lois Ehlert’s Waiting for Wings (Har-
court, 2001, TL1–3, A, NF) about butterflies, extend information from the
science textbook to present the life of an animal in more detail and with
more appeal than is possible in the textbook format. Another snapshot of
the life cycle of butterflies is presented in Anne Rockwell’s informational
storybook, Becoming Butterflies (2002, TL3–5, A, NF), as an elementary
class observes three caterpillars undergoing the process of metamorpho-
sis over the course of a month. Little Green Frogs (Barry, 2008, TL1–2,
P, NF) uses repetitive, rhyming language to examine the life cycle of the
frog while Nicola Davies in One Tiny Turtle (2001, TL3–5, A, NF) also
uses poetic language to describe the life cycle of the Loggerhead turtle:
“Just beneath the surface/ is a tangle of weed and driftwood/ where tiny
creatures cling./ This is the nursery of a sea turtle.” In Ten Seeds (Brown,
2001, TL1–3, P, NF), 10 sunflower seeds are planted, but only one sur-
vives (“Ten seeds,/ one ant./ Nine seeds,/ one pigeon.”) to bloom and drop
10 seeds so that the cycle can begin anew. Not all cycle books focus on a
life cycle. For instance, the water cycle unfolds over the course of a year
in Neil Waldman’s The Snowflake: A Water Cycle Story (2003, TL3–5, A,
NF) with each month highlighting a part of the process (e.g., a snowflake
in January, a frozen water droplet in February, a melted water droplet in
March). In the informational storybook, A Taste of Honey (Wallace, 2005,
TL2–4, P, NF), Lili Bear asks where honey comes from. In an attempt to
answer her questions, the steps in the production of honey are described,
but in reverse order from the supermarket shelf to the bee. Finally, Susan
Steggall offers readers simple steps in The Life of a Car (2008, TL1–2,
P, NF) from beginning, “Build the car,” through an accident, to “Recycle
the car,” and start the process over again.
Photo essays, much like a documentary film or an issue of National
Geographic, document and validate the text with photographs on nearly
every page. Whatever their language proficiency level, students can sim-
ply browse through the many splendid photos, or they can read captions
or pay closer attention to the text. Photo essays are ideal to gain an over-
view of a topic without focusing on every single idea presented. However,
due to the elaborated description of the photographs with paragraph- or
page-length text, photo essay books are most appropriate for the interme-
diate grades and for Levels 3–5 with limited instructional use with Level
2 English learners for short read-alouds or browsing opportunities.
English learners will enjoy encountering relevant and at times con-
troversial issues through this format. Moreover, many recent photo essays
have a culturally relevant focus, ideal for today’s diverse classrooms. Two
authors, in particular, Diane Hoyt-Goldsmith and George Ancona, have
numerous photo essays that are excellent for connecting to the curricu-
lum and for building language with English learners in the intermediate
grades. Hoyt-Goldsmith has focused many of her books on religious holi-
days and cultural events including Celebrating a Quinceanera: A Lati-
na’s 15th Birthday Celebration (2002, TL3–5, I, NF), Las Posadas: An
Hispanic Christmas Celebration (1999, TL3–5, I, NF), Cinco de Mayo:
Celebrating the Traditions of Mexico (2008, TL3–5, I, NF), Celebrating
Chinese New Year (1998, TL3–5, I, NF), Three Kings Day: A Celebra-
tion at Christmastime (2004, TL3–5, I, NF), Celebrating Passover (2000,
TL3–5, I, NF), and Celebrating Ramadan (2001, TL3–5, I, NF) as well
as having a photo essay of the game of lacrosse, its origins, and both his-
torical and contemporary connections to the Iroquois in Lacrosse: The
National Game of the Iroquois (1998, TL3–5, I, NF). George Ancona’s
work spans many topics but most of his books reflect his Latino heri-
tage including Mayeros: A Yucatec Maya Family (1997, TL3–5, I, NF),
Murals: Walls That Sing (2003, TL3–5, I, NF), The Piñata Maker/ El
Piñatero (1994, TL3–5, I, NF), Barrio: El Barrio de José (1998, TL3–5, I,
NF), Harvest (2001, TL3–5, I, NF), about migrant farm work, and Fiesta
Fireworks (1998, TL3–5, I, NF), which documents how the people of
Tultepec, Mexico, honor their patron saint, San Juan de Dios, with a
fiesta complete with extraordinary fireworks.
How-to and activity books invite readers to engage in actions beyond
reading. The hands-on approach of books, such as Seymour Simon and
Nicole Fauteux’s Let’s Try It Out in the Water: Hands-On Early-L earning
Science Activities (2003, TL3–5, A, NF), Let’s Try It Out in the Air:
Hands-On Early-L earning Science Activities (2003, TL3–5, A, NF), and
Let’s Try It Out with Towers and Bridges: Hands-On Early-L earning Sci-
ence Activities (2003, TL3–5, A, NF), or Vicki Cobb’s I Get Wet (2002,
TL3–5, A, NF) directly involve English learners, a technique supported
by methods such as TPR. Another example of an activity book for the area
of social studies is Scot Ritchie’s Follow That Map! A First Look at Map-
ping Skills (2009, TL3–5, A, NF), which has readers join several friends
as they search for their missing dog and cat by reading information on
maps. While the hands-on potential of these books is motivating, the
authors of these books must use more vocabulary and sentences per page
because authors need to provide enough elaboration to enable readers to
follow the instructions. Therefore, these books are more appropriate for
Levels 3–5. For Level 2 English learners, teachers can use the books as
sources of activities for class demonstrations and for reading aloud the
instructions and leading students through the steps.
Journals and diaries provide the basis for either the content or orga-
nizational structure of many recent information books, and these books
supply an excellent framework or model for writing activities. The format
may already be familiar to learners, which helps in their comprehension
of the specific examples shared in the classroom. However, journals and
diaries are all about writing and therefore, have more complex text with
at least a paragraph per page and few, if any, visuals for textual support.
Journals sometimes have illustrations as in two works about the Antarc-
tic, Antarctic Journal: Four Months at the Bottom of the World (Dewey,
2001, TL4–5, I, NF) and My Season with Penguins: An Antarctic Journal
(Webb, 2000, TL4–5, I, NF), as they reflect a log of scientific observa-
tions. Yet, both of these journals have longer, more complex text and so,
require more developed language proficiency. Therefore, journals and
diaries are more appropriate for Levels 3–5, and in general, more appli-
cable for the intermediate grades and beyond. One of the more simple
journals recently published is My Tour of Europe by Teddy Roosevelt,
Age 10 (Jackson, 2003, TL3–5, A, NF). With illustrations on each page,
this book could be used with Level 2 English learners with support. In
addition, How We Crossed the West: The Adventures of Lewis and Clark
(Schanzer, 1998, TL3–5, I, NF) combines illustrations and text with
entries, some shorter, some longer, making parts accessible to Level 3
intermediate grade students.
Survey books acquaint readers with a topic. Either as a prereading
tool to introduce a topic or a postreading follow-up for extension, these
books furnish a scaffold to English learners as they encounter text or ref-
erence material on the same topics. Survey books come in a wide range
of topics and language from very simple books ideal for Level 1 English
learners as in the series by Cathryn Sill including About Birds (1991,
TL2–4, A, NF), About Mammals (1997, TL2–4, A, NF), About Rep-
tiles (1999, TL2–4, A, NF), About Insects (2000, TL2–4, A, NF), About
Amphibians: A Guide for Children (2001, TL2–4, A, NF), About Rodents
(2008, TL2–4, A, NF), and About Penguins (2009, TL2–4, A, NF) to
more complex books by Gail Gibbons or Seymour Simon and others. As a
result, teachers can easily address English learners’ language proficiency
levels in grades K–6.
Using survey books can also be excellent preparation for tackling

content textbooks because they use many of the same access features
as the longer, more challenging textbooks. For example, biologist Nicola
Davies acquaints young readers with the world’s largest mammal in the
Big Blue Whale (2000, TL3–5, A, NF). Bold illustrations attract chil-
dren to Martin Jenkins’s Chameleons Are Cool! (2001, TL3–5, A, NF)
where they will learn amazing facts about these reptiles, their features,
their behaviors, and their ability to change colors. The prolific nonfiction
author Gail Gibbons offers basic survey books with colorful cartoon-style
illustrations, helpful captions, and exposition on over 200 different sub-
jects that are suitable for English learners at Levels 3–5. Polar Bears
(2001, TL3–5, A, NF), Owls (2005, TL3–5, A, NF), The Vegetables We
Eat (2007, TL3–5, A, NF), and Hurricanes (2009, TL3–5, A, NF) are just
four examples by Gibbons.
Informational storybooks contain facts embedded in a story form.
This hybrid subgenre utilizes a storyline to carry the information in a
lively fashion as in George Washington’s Teeth (Chandra & Comora,
2003, TL2–4, A, NF). In simple narrative with only two to four simple
sentences on most pages, readers discover information about this leader’s
problems with his teeth. There is a timeline and list of sources at the end.
Ice Cream Cones for Sale (Greenstein, 2003, TL3–5, A, NF) is another
example that explores the story of who really invented the ice cream
cone. Author’s notes and tips for eating an ice cream cone are at the end
of the book. While the previous examples appear more like traditional
narrative picture books with the information directly integrated into the
storyline, Vote! (Christelow, 2008, TL3–5, A, NF) has more of a blended
format with expository information about the voting process at the top
of the page and below, cartoon illustrations with the “story” about a city
mayoral election. This format is similar to the Magic School Bus series.
In these books, Joanna Cole deftly weaves three strands, the narration,
the dialogue bubbles, and the children’s reports, to make these books
appealing to children. The innovative writing style allows these books to
function as both fantasy and information and can be used to help English
learners differentiate between the two. The Magic School Bus Explores
the Senses (1999, TL3–5, A, NF) and The Magic School Bus and the
Electric Field Trip (1997, TL3–5, A, NF) are two examples of the excit-
ing field trips Ms. Frizzle and her students undertake on their school bus.
Because blended-format books are so “busy” with text, they generally
take multiple readings to make sense of all the layers.
Biographies today are varied, and a recent trend is the availability of
biographies on all kinds of people—women, people of color, and ordinary
citizens. Authors can write biographies in a variety of approaches, for-

mats, and types including picture book biographies, complete or partial
biographies, collective biographies, and autobiographies and memoirs.
Picture book biographies make it possible for young children to
experience biography. However, this is not to say that picture book biog-
raphies are only for young children. They are shorter books, which may
make them less intimidating to English learners. They are also more
focused in their presentation of information, with illustrations that often
convey as much detail as the text and that help the English learner begin
to visualize the subjects and their times. These books provide English
learners with extra support so they can read biographies as they acquire
English. David Adler is one nonfiction author who has numerous picture
book biographies to his credit including ones spotlighting Jesse Owens
(1992, TL3–5, A, NF), Anne Frank (1994, TL3–5, A, NF), Rosa Parks
(1995, TL3–5, A, NF), and Sacagawea (2000, TL3–5, A, NF), to name
just a few. Some individuals have been the subject of multiple biographies
by different authors who use a variety of presentation and writing styles.
While Adler generally uses a traditional style of writing in his picture
book biograhies, Carole Boston-Weatherford adopts the second person
in Jesse Owens, Fastest Man Alive (2007, TL3–5, A, NF) to poetically
narrate the athlete’s triumphant performance at the 1936 Olympics in
Berlin, Germany, against the backdrop of Hilter’s prejudice: “Taste the
bratwurst; enjoy the bands and fireworks./ But know that Nazi flags/ on
storefronts do not fly for you./ Hitler does not want your kind here,/ does
not believe you belong./ Prove him wrong.” The repetition of information
in different authorial voices offers an excellent opportunity for English
learners to engage in multiple readings across different biographies to
develop their language proficiency and to build their understanding of
an individual.
Complete biographies span the subject’s entire life and are perhaps
the most ambitious to read or write. To assist students in getting started
with these more lengthy and complicated works, a visual such as a time-
line might be used as a prereading organizer. To focus on the information
provided in complete biographies, students may continue to use the same
timeline as a summary or note-taking organizer. Partial biographies, on
the other hand, deal with only a portion of an individual’s life, often a
pivotal event as in The Bus Ride That Changed History: The Story of
Rosa Parks (Edwards, 2009, TL3–5, A, NF) or Stealing Home: Jackie
Robinson against the Odds (Burleigh, 2007, TL2–5, A, NF). In the last
example, Robert Burleigh’s main text describes Robinson’s attempt to
steal home in a 1955 World Series game although he also includes boxed
insets with additional information about this baseball great. Collective

biographies contain paragraph-, page-, or even chapter-length sketches
of a number of figures. These biographies lend themselves to interdis-
ciplinary or thematic units in that the subjects have a common connec-
tion. Collective biographies may appeal to English learners since they
can read about a number of people’s lives in a relatively small amount of
text. Moreover, collective biographies may inspire students to read other
longer biographies about subjects of particular interest. Two recent col-
lective biographies, both by Cynthia Chin-Lee, are also alphabet books:
Akira to Zoltan: Twenty-Six Men Who Changed the World (2006, TL3–5,
I, NF) and Amelia to Zora: Twenty-Six Women Who Changed the World
(2005, TL3–5, I, NF). Autobiographies and memoirs are biographies
written by the subjects themselves. Thus, these books can be biased or
more subjective than those written by impartial authors but can also pro-
vide interesting personal insights into character and personality.
Of all the biography types, picture book biographies may be the
most flexible for English learners. They can be used with Levels 2–5
at both primary- and intermediate-grade levels. Complete biographies,
autobiographies, and memoirs, due to their length and the complexity of
text, are more appropriate for Level 4 and 5 English learners who have
more developed language proficiency. Collective biographies with sev-
eral sentences or a simple paragraph for each individual might be used
with Level 2 English learners as in Lynne Cheney’s A Is for Abigail: An
Almanac of Amazing American Women (2003, TL2–5, A, NF).
In summary, each of the types of nonfiction books discussed in this
section has both positives and challenges for use with English learners.
In terms of ranking the difficulty levels, alphabet and counting books,
concept books, life cycle, and survey books have the broadest language
and instructional range as they can reach across all proficiency levels
from Level 1 through Level 5 and all grade levels K–6. This does not
mean that all books in these categories of nonfiction can be used at each
proficiency level. There will be some very basic books that could be used
effectively with Level 1 English learners and with primary grades and
others that are better suited for students with more developed language
proficiency levels and at the intermediate-grade levels, depending on the
content addressed and its connection to the curriculum. In general, these
books have photographs and illustrations on every page, and most of the
time there is a one-to-one correspondence of visual to text or at least a
close connection. In addition, alphabet and counting books and concept
books have text ranging from the single-word or phrase level, appropriate
for Level 1, to sentences and paragraphs for English learners with more
developed proficiency. The text in life cycle and survey books varies from
simple to complex sentences, but they may have labeled illustrations,
short captions, and graphics for clarification and support of comprehen-
sion and language development.
In the middle range of difficulty for English learners among nonfic-
tion book types are how-to or activity books, informational storybooks,
and picture book biographies. These nonfiction books can be used with
Levels 2 or 3 through Level 5 and grades K–6 depending on content and
textual complexity. Use of these types of nonfiction books with Level 2
English learners, however, may require support from the teacher through
read-alouds or hands-on activities. Most how-to or activity books, infor-
mational storybooks, and picture book biographies have photographs or
illustrations on every page. The visuals may not correspond directly to
the text although with how-to books, there should be a close connection
of visual to text in order for readers to follow the step-by-step sequence.
The text of these books ranges from simple sentences and paragraphs to
more complex ones.
Finally, the most challenging among the nonfiction book types men-
tioned in this section are photo essays, journals and diaries, complete and
collective biographies, and autobiographies and memoirs. While photo
essays have photographs and illustrations on each page, there is generally
a paragraph or more of text on each page, and the complexity of the sen-
tence structure varies from simple to more complex. Journals and diaries
as well as complete and collective biographies, and autobiographies and
memoirs tend to have limited visuals but the same level of text complex-
ity, so they are slightly more difficult. Therefore, photo essays, journals
and diaries, complete and collective biographies, and autobiographies and
memoirs are most appropriate for Level 3–5 English learners in the inter-
mediate grades. Photo essays might have limited instructional application
with Level 2 students in the primary grades. Students might be interested
in looking through such books when they are related to a unit of study or
to their own interests or backgrounds, so primary-grade teachers should
include photo essays in classroom libraries and learning centers.
The many types of nonfiction texts described in this section are sure
to engage English learners and meet the needs of different proficiency
levels. The diverse formats both complicate the process of targeting a
book to a single proficiency level and broaden the applicability of many
nonfiction books to various proficiency levels. Just one example is Irene
Kelly’s It’s a Hummingbird’s Life (2003, TL3–5, A, NF). The facts in the
book are in script print and placed in different places on the page with
different orientations, both vertical and horizontal, to mimic the tiny

bird’s flight. Taken as single sentences, the book could be used with Level
2 and 3 English learners, but the content and language of the whole text
make it more appropriate for Level 3–5 students. These types of consid-
erations are discussed in more detail in the next section.
Criteria for Selecting Nonfiction Literature

The varied formats of nonfiction books offer many instructional choices

to teachers, but the literacy criteria often used for evaluating and select-
ing fiction (character, plot, setting, theme) do not apply when choosing
quality nonfiction. The most important criteria is accuracy. Other fea-
tures such as organization and style are also important, particularly when
working with English learners. The four basic criteria for matching books
to English learners presented in Chapter 2 (level of content familiarity
or background knowledge, level of language, level of textual support,
and level of cultural fit) have been focused on the selection of nonfic-
tion in Table 6.1. The issues of accuracy, organization, style, and so on
have been integrated within these four criteria. An in-depth discussion
of the selection criteria and how they have been applied to examples of
recently published nonfiction literature follow. There are areas where the
criteria may seem to overlap. For instance, content coverage influences
the level of language used and language can be a type of text support.
However, using these criteria and guiding questions, teachers can begin
to carefully weigh the most appropriate nonfiction books to meet Eng-
lish learners’ varying language proficiency needs and backgrounds and
to help increase their academic language and conceptual background
knowledge.
Level of Content Familiarity or Background Knowledge

The content load in nonfiction coupled with attempting to master those
concepts and facts in a new language can be overwhelming for English
learners, so it is important to consider how close a fit a text is to students’
existing content knowledge or background experiences. Is the text laying
a conceptual foundation or adding to an existing knowledge base from
the curriculum or from the learner’s own experience? To weigh these
issues, teachers should consider the following questions:
• What content and concepts are presented in the nonfiction text?

What is the content/conceptual load of the nonfiction text? Basic
and familiar? New but general? New and specialized?
• Is this presentation an introduction to the content and concepts or
is it continued conceptual development at a higher level?
• What is the English learner’s level of content familiarity or back-
ground knowledge related to the content and concepts? Is the con-
cept very familiar, familiar, unfamiliar, or not common?
• What content background knowledge does the English learner
have on the topic/focus of the nonfiction text?
• Has the topic/focus of the nonfiction text been previously covered
in the curriculum? When? At what level? What was the level of
success of English learners?
• Is the topic/focus of the nonfiction text likely to be part of the
readers’ background experiences? How so?
• How can the teacher best link English learners’ previous experi-
ences/understandings to the nonfiction text?
For an introduction to new content-area concepts and when the

teacher is laying a foundation, the selected book should have only a few
concepts and facts presented in clear language. If the concepts have been
previously presented, then more elaboration of information is possible.
For Level 1 English learners, in particular, teachers need to select non-
fiction books that address more universal content and topics. Books that
address basic and concrete topics suggested in Chapter 3 to build con-
ceptual background are a good starting point. For instance, movement
is a universal concept and two excellent books with basic content that
support Level 1 and 2 English learners are Stephen Swinburne’s Go, Go,
Go! Kids on the Move (2002, TL1–2, P, F) and Move! by Steve Jenkins
and Robin Page (2006, TL1–4, A, F) about the ways that animals move.
Food is another basic concept, and George Levenson’s Bread Comes to
Life: A Garden of Wheat and a Loaf to Eat (2004, TL2–5, A, NF) offers
a view of this ancient staple that is still a part of diets today around the
world: “Bread is the food we eat every day./ So many kinds. So many
ways./ White bread/ black bread/ small bread/ tall bread.” The author
extends the overview of bread including simple information on the pro-
cess of growing wheat and making bread with thumbnails, reduced-size
versions of the illustrations or photographs in the book, and additional
facts at the end. This book is similar to Ann Morris’s Bread, Bread, Bread
(1993, TL1–4, A, NF), which highlights the shapes, sizes, textures, and
colors of bread around the world. In fact, the Morris book is part of a
TABLE 6.1. Criteria and Guiding Questions for Selecting Nonfiction

Literature for English Learners in Grades K–6
Level of content •• What content and concepts are presented in the nonfiction
familiarity or text? What is the content/conceptual load of the nonfiction
background knowledge text? Basic and familiar? New but general? New and
How close a fit specialized?
is the fiction text •• Is this presentation an introduction to the content and
to the English concepts or is it continued conceptual development at a
learner’s knowledge higher level?
or background •• What is the English learner’s level of content familiarity or
experiences? How background knowledge related to the content and concepts?
close a fit is the poem/ Is the concept very familiar, familiar, unfamiliar, or not
poetry collection common?
to the English •• What content background knowledge does the English
learner’s knowledge learner have on the topic/focus of the nonfiction text?
or background •• Has the topic/focus of the nonfiction text been previously
experiences? How covered in the curriculum? When? At what level? What was
close a fit is the the level of success of English learners?
nonfiction text to •• Is the topic/focus of the nonfiction text likely to be part of
the English learner’s the readers’ background experiences? How so?
content knowledge •• How can the teacher best link English learners’ previous
or background experiences/understandings to the nonfiction text?
experiences?
Level of language •• What is the vocabulary load of the nonfiction text (e.g.,
How close a fit is the basic and familiar, sophisticated/advanced and unfamiliar,
nonfiction text to concrete or abstract, general or technical/specialized,
the English learner’s idiomatic, formal or informal, vocabulary with multiple
vocabulary, syntactic meanings, figurative language)?
knowledge, and overall •• How many new vocabulary words are presented?
proficiency level? •• Does the nonfiction text present new vocabulary in
meaningful contextual language?
•• How likely is the English learner to encounter the
vocabulary in this nonfiction text in other reading?
•• What is the English learner’s previous experience with
the vocabulary of the nonfiction text (completely new,
some exposure, should be part of active vocabulary)? Is
the vocabulary currently or likely to be part of the English
learner’s speaking vocabulary? Listening vocabulary?
Reading vocabulary? Writing vocabulary?
•• If the nonfiction text is predictable, what is the size of the
predictable unit and what percent of nonfiction text does the
predictable unit account for?
•• What is the syntactic structure of the nonfiction text? Word
level? Phrase level? Single simple sentences per page?
(cont.)
TABLE 6.1. (cont.)

Level of language (cont.) Multiple simple sentences? Short paragraphs with simple
sentences? Compound sentences? Complex sentences?
Compound/complex sentences? Embedded clauses? How
familiar is the English learner with those syntax patterns?
Does the English learner use that syntax pattern in
speaking? Writing?
•• What types of text structure does the nonfiction text use?
Chronological? Sequential? Description? Listing? Cause–
effect? Problem–solution?
•• How familiar is the English learner with this text structure
pattern? Has the English learner encountered this pattern
previously?
•• What type of nonfiction text is this (alphabet or counting
book, biography, etc.) and how familiar is the English
learner with the type?
Level of textual support •• Is the nonfiction text well organized?

What types of support •• Are there visuals (photographs or illustrations)?
does the nonfiction •• Are the visuals clear and direct? One-to-one
text provide and how correspondence of visuals to text? General connection to
familiar is the English text? Primarily for aesthetic purposes?
learner with these types •• Are there graphic aids in the nonfiction text (charts, maps,
of text support? tables, graphs)?
•• How much does the English learner know about these
types of graphic aids? Has the English learner successfully
used these types of aids in previous reading? Is the general
format of the aid new or familiar (e.g., different types of
graphs, picture, bar, line, circle)?
•• What types of text features are used? Print style such
as bold or italics? Headings and subheadings? Captions
and labeling of visuals/graphics? Table of contents, index,
glossary?
•• How familiar is the English learner with these types of text
features?
Level of cultural fit •• Is the nonfiction text culturally neutral (with general
How close a fit is the diversity portrayed but no focus on a specific group)?
nonfiction text to Culturally generic (with a group featured but less specific
the English learner’s detail provided)? Culturally specific (with explicit details
cultural or experiential about a group portrayed)?
background •• Does the nonfiction text reflect the background and/or
(ethnic, language, experiences of recent immigrants? U.S.-born English learners?
geographic, religious, •• Are the characters similar or different than English learners
socioeconomic, gender)? in the classroom?
(cont.)
TABLE 6.1. (cont.)

Level of cultural fit •• Have English learners had an experience like one described
(cont.) in the nonfiction text?
•• Have English learners lived in or visited places like those in
the nonfiction text?
•• How far removed is the nonfiction text from current times?
•• Do the characters talk like the English learners and their
families?
series of concept books with a global emphasis featuring clothing (Shoes,

Shoes, Shoes, 1998, TL1–4, A, NF; Hats, Hats, Hats, 1993, TL1–4, A,
NF), transportation (On the Go, 1994, TL1–4, A, NF), work (Tools, 1998,
TL1–4, A, NF), and so on. The minimal text and simple details in each
book are extended through thumbnails at the end offering at least two
levels of content in a single book.
As mentioned earlier, basic counting and alphabet books and con-
cept books are excellent initial nonfiction texts for English learners at
Levels 1 and 2, and they can be used with both primary and intermediate
grades. As a caution, some alphabet books and counting books are not as
simple as they appear; they go beyond numbers or letters. The most basic
counting books present the numbers 1 to 10 with phrases or simple sen-
tences as in One Is a Snail: Ten Is a Crab (Sayre & Sayre, 2003, TL1–4,
A, NF), so the focus is on the numbers and the concept of counting and
multiples of numbers even though there is an indirect lesson about dif-
ferences in number of feet among creatures. Some counting or alphabet
books require more background knowledge as in Smoke Jumpers One to
Ten (Demarest, 2002, TL2–4, A, NF), a book that counts forward from 1
to 10 and then in reverse, to describe the job of smoke jumpers. A need
for some initial context for smoke jumpers and what their job entails
along with a diagram of their equipment with the technical terms and
a lengthy author’s note make this book a better choice for Level 2 and 3
English learners.
As a means of helping with the content load, some authors use analo-
gies or comparisons of the new information to knowledge that readers
may already possess. For instance, in Like People (2008, TL2–4, A, NF),
Ingrid Schubert explains that “Many animals in the world have babies—
just like people.” And further, “Animal parents teach their babies how
to take care of themselves.” Thus, the author connects what the reader
already knows about human parenting behavior to animals. This type of

support is especially helpful to English learners. In addition, Are Trees
Alive? (Miller, 2003, TL2–5, A, NF) was inspired by a question from the
author’s daughter. In response to the child’s question, “Are trees alive?”
the author explains that there are features of trees that are similar to those
of humans. For example, “Bark protects the inside of a tree from harsh
weather and insects, like your skin protects you.” In Sparrows, Hans Post
and Kees Heij (2008, TL2–5, A, NF) offer some concrete comparisons:
“It can weigh as much as seven sugar cubes” and “The heart of a sparrow
beats eight hundred times in a minute. The heart of a person beats only
seventy times in a minute.” Finally, the question and answer book, Have
You Ever Seen a Duck in a Raincoat? (Kaner, 2009, TL1–3, P, NF) uses
concrete comparisons of human clothing to animal adaptations (e.g., a
parka for humans and blubber for a whale). These books serve to remind
teachers that all students bring background knowledge that can be help-
ful in understanding some of the academic requirements of school.
All classrooms have students, including English learners, at different
levels in terms of content knowledge. Some nonfiction authors actually
use a format that addresses differences in content background as they
provide layers of information, a type of spiral curriculum that revisits
the information with increasing complexity at each level. Steve Jenkins’s
books Biggest, Strongest, Fastest (1995, TL1–5, A, NF), Hottest, Coldest,
Highest, Deepest (1998, TL2–5, A, NF), and Animals in Flight (2001,
TL2–5, A, NF) are excellent examples of this content-layering technique.
He uses a simple sentence that serves as a basic overview of the informa-
tion for that page or two-page spread, a type of entry level or foundational
knowledge. Then, on the same page, additional facts and illustrations are
provided with more information, a second layer of content knowledge.
Finally, Jenkins sometimes provides thumbnails at the end accompanied
by paragraphs with further elaboration for another level of content infor-
mation. Through small group or paired sharing, English learners can
move through the layers with multiple readings. Due to the different lev-
els of content information, Jenkins’s books can be used by English learn-
ers at Levels 2–5 and in both the primary and intermediate grades.
Many other nonfiction authors use dual levels of text to provide
different levels of content. While the dual levels of text address differ-
ent reading levels, the technique also tackles the idea of drilling deeper
into more complex and sophisticated types of content knowledge. Other
examples of multiple levels of content include Stick Out Your Tongue!
Fantastic Facts, Features, and Functions of Human and Animal Tongues
(Bonsignore, 2001, TL3–5, A, NF) along with Sneed Collard’s survey
books, Leaving Home (2002, TL1–5, A, NF), about the many ways that
animals leave home, and Beaks (2002, TL2–5, A, NF), which examines
the types of beaks that birds have and how they use them. The simple
line of text at the top of the page can be read aloud to the class and would
be appropriate for Level 1 and 2 English learners. Reading aloud the sim-
ple text from Leaving Home, for instance, readers are reminded of some
real-world background knowledge: “Sooner or later, we all leave home./
Some of us walk./ Some of us crawl.” The paragraphs below are suitable
for students at Levels 3–5 although Level 3 students may need support
due to the technical information related to these science topics. To Be an
Artist (2004b) and Be My Neighbor (2004a), both written by Maya Ajmera
and John Ivanko (TL2–5, A, NF), are concept books that focus on uni-
versal, and thus, more accessible, content using the layers of information
format. Each of these books adds a global focus with photographs from
around the world and a map at the end that notes where each photograph
discussed in the book was taken.
Whether or not different levels of content are presented within the
same book, teachers can build collections of books, or text sets, that tar-
get different language proficiency levels and different depths of content,
a practice discussed in Chapter 3 with narrow reading. Such collections
may also feature different writing styles. On the topic of sharks, there are
many nonfiction books to choose. Three with different styles are All about
Sharks (2008, TL3–5, A, NF), part of the All About Series by Jim Arnosky,
Sharks (2006, TL4–5, I, NF) by Seymour Simon, and Surprising Sharks
(Davies, 2003, TL3–5, A, NF). Nicola Davies’s book is more conversa-
tional in tone, with some humor thrown in: “You see, MOST sharks are
not at all what you might expect. After all, who would expect a shark to
. . . have built-in fairy lights . . . or blow up like a party balloon . . . or lie on
the sea floor like a scrap of old carpet . . .” (pp. 10–11). Davies’s main text is
sentence length and accessible to Level 3 English learners with illustra-
tions and additional facts that can be revisited by Level 4 and 5 students.
All about Sharks has paragraph-length descriptions of sharks, what they
eat and how they give birth, and so on. Illustrations with labels and some
additional facts in simple sentences surround the main text. This book
can be used with Level 3–5 English learners. Finally, Simon’s books have
a distinctive style with full-page text (several paragraphs) about the topic
opposite stunning full page photographs. The photographs are connected
to the text, but Simon uses few diagrams and little labeling in his books.
Therefore, the Sharks book would be suitable for Level 4 and 5 English
learners in the intermediate grades. As an extension to the shark text set,
teachers might add books about the habitat of the shark. Two possibilities
include Oceans: The Vast, Mysterious Deep (Harrison, 2003, TL3–5, I,

NF) and Exploring the Deep, Dark Sea (Gibbons, 1999, TL3–5, A, NF).
Gibbons’s books always include diagrams and illustrations with labels to
clarify the text and this book on underwater exploration is no exception.
Harrison’s book, on the other hand, has illustrations connected to the text
descriptions but there is little labeling to focus attention on specifics.
In another text set, the topic of evolution is explored. Alice Schertle
uses a poetic writing style in We (2007, TL3–5, A, NF). With limited
punctuation and spacing that resembles a poem’s layout on a page, she
offers a simple and rhythmic recounting of evolution that is accessible
to Level 3 English learners in the intermediate grades. Another first-
person narrative version of evolution is Lisa Peters’s Our Family Tree:
An Evolution Story (2003, TL3–5, I, NF) as she begins with “All of us
are part of an old, old family./ The roots of our family tree/ reach way
back/ to the beginning of life on earth./ We’ve changed a lot since then.”
Peters includes thumbnails and a timeline at the end with more detailed
information that extends the content level. Finally, Steve Jenkins’s Life
on Earth: The Story of Evolution (2002, TL4–5, I, NF) reads more like
a traditional informational text but there are multiple layers including (1)
the main text (designated by a larger font size) in simple paragraphs with
more specific facts in smaller font; (2) a narrated timeline with paragraphs
related to each time entry; (3) a summary timeline at the end of the book
that compares the time periods in evolution to a single day, 24 hours, as a
means of simplifying earth’s 4.5 billion-year history; (4) a brief history of
Darwin, in the middle of the book, with details of his expedition and the
development of his ideas about evolution; and (5) highlights of Darwin’s
ideas explained in simple paragraphs (e.g., variation and mutation, with
illustrated examples and additional explanation). This last book could be
divided into multiple readings for several purposes just as the entire text
set could provide opportunities for English learners at different profi-
ciency levels to discover more about evolution.
Again, as teachers examine nonfiction books for the level of content
knowledge needed by the reader, they always need to keep in mind the
importance of accurate and up-to-date information. Readers go to nonfic-
tion literature for facts. Once the accuracy of the content has been veri-
fied, then teachers can consider whether the nonfiction book is a good
fit for the English learners in the classroom. As teachers examine the
content and consider their English learners, they need to distinguish
between concepts and vocabulary, too. Considering the conceptual load
of a nonfiction book is a content issue as highlighted in this section. If
English learners understand the concept, then they may only need to
learn the new English vocabulary labels for that content. That is a lan-
guage issue and will be discussed in the upcoming section.
Level of Language
The content load of informational writing directly correlates with the
level of language. Nonfiction is challenging not only because of the con-
tent and concepts presented but also because of the academic language
and technical and specialized vocabulary required to present the content.
Depending on the topic and grade level, the number of new terms can
rapidly escalate, thereby increasing the language load of the text. Also,
authors may or may not present new vocabulary in meaningful context.
More complex syntactic structure also increases with topic and grade
level. While basic concept books may have word- and phrase-level text,
many nonfiction books have more elaborated text with compound and
complex sentences and paragraphs. To determine the match of text to
learner, the teacher should consider the following language issues:
• What is the vocabulary load of the nonfiction text (e.g., basic

and familiar, sophisticated/advanced and unfamiliar, concrete
or abstract, general or technical/specialized, idiomatic, formal
or informal, vocabulary with multiple meanings, figurative lan-
guage)?
• Does the nonfiction text present new vocabulary in meaningful
contextual language?
this nonfiction text in other reading?
• What is the English learner’s previous experience with the vocabu-
lary of the nonfiction text (completely new, some exposure, should
be part of active vocabulary)? Is the vocabulary currently or likely
to be part of the English learner’s speaking vocabulary? Listening
• If the nonfiction text is predictable, what is the size of the predict-
able unit and what percent of nonfiction text does the predictable
unit account for?
• What is the syntactic structure of the nonfiction text? Word level?
Phrase level? Single simple sentences per page? Multiple simple
Embedded clauses?

Writing?
• What types of text structure does the nonfiction text use?
Chronological? Sequential? Description? Listing? Cause–effect?
Problem–solution?
• How familiar is the English learner with this text structure pat-
tern? Has the English learner encountered this pattern previ-
ously?
• What type of nonfiction text is this (alphabet or counting book,
biography, etc.) and how familiar is the English learner with the
type?
To select appropriate nonfiction books for English learners, the

teacher must consider how close a fit the text is to students’ vocabulary
and syntactic knowledge and their overall language proficiency level.
Beyond judging if the language of the text is accessible to the reader or
the listener, teachers should also take into account the potential of the
text to develop language such as moving English learners from basic to
more sophisticated vocabulary or introducing them to different sentence
patterns. While basic vocabulary and syntax contribute to beginning
English learners’ comprehension of text, ultimately they need to have fre-
quent encounters with text that is slightly beyond their proficiency level,
so that their language ability is constantly developing. Literature can
encourage vocabulary growth by exposing English learners to the idea of
word analysis, a useful strategy for independent learning. For instance,
some terms have clues to meaning. In the case of the polar bear, white
shark, or rat snake, the name provides helpful descriptive information.
Using simple language in They Call Me Woolly: What Animal Names Can
Tell Us (DuQuette, 2002, TL2–4, A, NF), the author highlights these
name clues and key words along with thumbnails containing more elabo-
rate text. This is a useful text for vocabulary building that almost seems
designed for English learners.
Just as with content complexity, authors have techniques that they
use to support all readers with the language level of the text. For instance,
English learners often view all new words as equally challenging and
important. So, authors need to emphasize key vocabulary. One way they
accomplish this is by using basic vocabulary and focusing on the words
that convey the meaning for beginning readers and Level 1 English
learners. The simple phrases in The Life of a Car (Steggall, 2008, TL1–2,
P, NF) are a good example of this technique. Strong, concrete verbs begin
the phrases emphasizing the key term and putting the meaning at the
front (“Fill the car./ Wash the car./ Fix the car.”). Only the verb changes
with each page, thereby lessening the language load. Similarly, Steve Jen-
kins and Robin Page spotlight action verbs in Move! (2006, TL1–4, A, F)
by presenting the key term on its own at the top of the page with a sen-
tence underneath that incorporates the term: “Swing/ A gibbon swings
through jungle trees/ Walk/ or walks on two back legs.”
While basic vocabulary assists in comprehension, English learners
need to move beyond simple vocabulary and to encounter more sophis-
ticated and advanced words to expand their vocabulary. As an example,
Lois Ehlert in Waiting for Wings (2000, TL1–3, A, NF) uses simple sen-
tences and chronological text structure to support the reader, but she
integrates descriptive verbs as butterflies pump their wings, catch a
whiff, dip and sip, and circle. Similarly, Melissa Stewart in When Rain
Falls (2008, TL3–5, A, NF) emphasizes description with words such as
nestles, dangle, and crouches and with the following sentence: “When
rain falls in a desert . . . a rattlesnake squeezes into a rocky crevice. It
curls up tight and falls asleep.”
As authors employ more colorful language, they sometimes use
slang, colloquialisms, and figurative language that are excellent to build
informal “insider” language for English learners at Levels 3–5 but that
can cause difficulties for beginning English learners at Level 1 or 2 profi-
ciency level. For instance, Pat Mora (2008, TL2–4, P, NF) in Join Hands:
The Ways We Celebrate Life uses the terms hoopla and ballyhoo. Vocab-
ulary of different eras also presents a problem for English learners. In
Colonial Voices, Hear Them Speak (Winters, 2008, TL4–5, I, NF), a book
of poems about different professions in Colonial times, both the text style
and the terms for jobs from the time period (errand boy, milliner, tavern
keeper, journeyman) make this a challenging text and so more appropri-
ate for Level 4 or 5 English learners. In another example, readers are
introduced to a jazz great in Before John Was a Jazz Giant: A Song of John
Coltrane (2008, TL3–5, I, NF). The language is simple with short, basic
sentences, but Carole Boston-Weatherford references a different era and
a specific style of music with phrases such as “a saxophone’s soulful solo,
blue notes crooning his name” and vocabulary such as hambones, phono-
graph, and jitterbuggers. This type of specialized language adds another
layer of complexity for English learners.
Just as English learners have problems deciding what words are
important, they also have difficulties determining what facts are signifi-
cant. To emphasize the key facts, Cathryn Sill uses simple sentence struc-
ture, one sentence per page (“Most amphibians spend part of their lives
in water . . .” or “Wetlands are places covered with shallow water.” or
“The water may be fresh or salty.”), in her series of basic survey/concept
books on animals: About Reptiles (1999, TL2–4, A, NF), About Amphib-
ians (2000, TL2–4, A, NF), About Fish (2002, TL2–4, A, NF), and About
Arachnids (2003, TL2–4, A, NF); and about habitats: About Wetlands
(2008, TL2–4, A, NF) and About Deserts (2008, TL2–4, A, NF). Mul-
tilevel or dual-level text is one means of supporting English learners in
their transition from simple sentences to more complex sentences and
paragraphs. The use of dual-level text, as discussed in the previous sec-
tion, is common in many nonfiction books. A sentence at the top of the
page, a type of summary statement, provides more simple language for
readers. This is complemented by more complex sentences or paragraphs
below the summary. In this way, readers are exposed to increasingly
complex text with more elaboration. Again, Steven Jenkins often uses this
technique in his books.
Repetition is another way that authors support readers with the lan-
guage load. Steve Jenkins and Robin Page use repetition in their concept
book, What Do You Do with a Tail Like This? (2003, TL2–5, A, NF). This
book concentrates on the ways animals use their nose, ears, tail, eyes,
mouth, and feet. The authors begin each exploration with a similar ques-
tion: “What do you do with a . . . like this?” With each response, that part
of the body is repeated in a sentence with the same beginning phrase; for
example, “If you’re a bat, you ‘see’ with your ears./ If you’re a jackrabbit,
you use your ears to keep cool.” This repetition supports comprehension
and language development in several ways. First, there is less new lan-
guage for the English learner to decipher, and so, hopefully, comprehen-
sion is easier. Second, the repetition helps build fluency and automaticity
in silent and oral reading. Third, the repetition signals that certain words
are key terms to take away from the reading and that cumulatively, in this
case, those terms or concepts are the overall focus of the text. One Water-
melon Seed (Lottridge, 2008, TL2–4, A, NF) uses repetition as a means
of dividing the counting book in two sections, first for numbers 1–10, the
verbs planted and grew are repeated (“They planted two pumpkin seeds
. . . and they grew.”). Next, for multiples of 10, the verb changes to picked
(“They picked ten watermelons, big and green, and twenty pumpkins,
glowing orange.”) to signal the change from ones to tens.
Different levels of language and repetition are combined in We’re
Sailing to the Galapagos: A Week in the Pacific (Krebs, 2005, TL2–5,
A, NF). The book appears to be a simple reinforcement of the days of
the week and an introduction to island life in the Galapagos. Each day
a different animal is highlighted in one sentence of rhyming text (“On

Monday, giant tortoises, with weathered shells of green,”), and each page
closes with a repeated refrain: “We’re sailing to the Galapagos, Galapa-
gos, Galapagos,/ We’re sailing to the Galapagos./ I wonder who we’ll see.”
At the end of the week, there is a summary page listing all seven ani-
mals with the associated descriptive adjective (“swimming sea lions”).
Then, the language shifts to more advanced text including two pages of
background on the Galapagos Islands, six pages on “The Creatures of
the Galapagos” with a paragraph each on the many animals found in the
islands, and a final page on Charles Darwin and his explorations in the
Galapagos. The first part of the book can be used as a participatory read-
aloud with Level 1 and 2 English learners, but the additional pages have
a content and language load that would be more suitable for proficiency
Levels 3–5.
When authors present new vocabulary in meaningful context, this
supports English learners and helps them to comprehend the text. Nagy
(1988) notes some problems with the idea of learning vocabulary in con-
text. First, contexts in most normal texts are not that helpful as they sel-
dom give complete information about the new word. Additionally, helpful
context information is only useful to a reader who already has some idea
about the new term. It is not adequate for the reader who has no other
knowledge about the meaning of the word. Still, teachers can draw stu-
dent attention to instances of common types of context clues (e.g., syn-
onyms, compare–contrast, summary or examples, definition or example,
and punctuation) when they are encountered in reading. In How Ani-
mal Babies Stay Safe (2002, TL2–5, A, NF), Mary Ann Fraser uses an
example to help readers grasp the meaning of instinct, noting “There are
babies who don’t need their parents./ When turtles, snails, snakes, and
saltwater crabs hatch, they already know how to find food and escape
from their enemies./ This kind of knowledge is called instinct.” And, Gail
Gibbons in Snakes (2007, TL3–5, A, NF) features constrictor snakes
using a definition: “Other kinds of snakes squeeze their prey to death.
This kind of snake is called a constrictor because the word constrict
means ‘to squeeze.’ ”
Writing style influences the language level and readability of all texts.
While teachers may associate nonfiction with a series of facts presented
in the third person, authors sometimes choose a conversational tone or
voice to convey information. Alice Schertle’s poetic writing style and use
of the first person in We (2007, TL3–5, A, NF) and Lisa Peters’s first-
person narrative in Our Family Tree: An Evolution Story (2003, TL3–5,
I, NF) bring a personal touch to this controversial topic. Some English
learners may understand better with an informational story as opposed

to traditional exposition.
A characteristic of nonfiction and expository writing is the use of
certain semantic and syntactic organizational patterns or text structures
such as chronological, sequential, description, listing, cause–effect,
comparison–contrast, and problem–solution. These text structures are
signaled by certain key terms that authors use to point out the organiza-
tion. In comparison–contrast, for instance, signal terms include similar
to and different from and for chronological text, words such as after, now,
when, first, second, and so on help readers follow the sequence. Build-
ing Manhattan (Vila, 2008, TL3–5, A, NF) is a chronological text about
the history of Manhattan with examples of signal words that teachers
can point out to assist English learners as in “Long ago, before maps
or words were used, a little island formed.” or “The first people came
and built homes using sticks and bark.” Another chronological nonfiction
book is Little Panda: The World Welcomes Hua Mei at the San Diego Zoo
(Ryder, 2001, TL2–5, A, NF), which chronicles the birth and first year of
Hua Mei, the first giant panda cub to survive in captivity in the Western
Hemisphere. The cub’s progress is observable in these written signals:
“At first she can’t hold up her head. Then . . ./ Look at her! She is sitting
and standing now, and eager to take her first steps.” Text structure is also
emphasized in nonfiction books and textbooks with graphic aids such
as timelines or Venn diagrams. Such visuals are part of the text support
discussed in the next section.
Level of Text Support

“Interesting texts are well organized, illustrated, and aligned with the
child’s conceptual knowledge base. The features of such texts include a
table of contents, an index, headings, bold print for new words, captioned
illustrations, a clear macro structure, and strong topic sentences. Vivid
details are included, but do not detract from the conceptual theme of the
content” (Guthrie, 2003, p. 124). Elements such as the table of contents,
index, author notes, glossary, visuals and graphic aids, and print features
provide tools that enable readers to drop in and out of nonfiction texts.
These features are distinctive in nonfiction literature as they provide
accessibility to the challenges of the increased content and language load
of informational texts. As teachers examine different nonfiction texts,
they should consider the following questions about the types of support
the text provides to the English learner:
• Is the nonfiction text well organized?

visuals to text? General connection to text? Primarily for aesthetic
purposes?
• Are there graphic aids in the nonfiction text (charts, maps, tables,
graphs)?
• How much does the English learner know about these types of
graphic aids? Has the English learner successfully used these
types of aids in previous reading? Is the general format of the aid
new or familiar (e.g., different types of graphs, picture, bar, line,
circle)?
als/graphics? Table of contents, index, glossary?
tures?
For English learners, it is essential that a book have a clear and well-
o rganized layout as the content and language load of nonfiction reading
are enough of a challenge. Visual layout is one organizational issue. As an
example, a simple concept book, Oh, Canada! (Gurth, 2009, TL1–2, P,
NF), provides a consistent layout to introduce readers to each province
in the country. On the two-page spreads, the name of the province is
provided on the left page and below that four squares show illustrations
of the province flag, tree, flower, and bird with the last three labeled.
The opposite page offers an illustration with one sentence about a loca-
tion in the province. As English learners turn from page to page, they
know what to expect. Likewise, alphabet, counting, and question and
answer books as well have consistent and predictable organizational
patterns that make them user-friendly. Hello, Bumblebee Bat (Lunde,
2007, TL2–5, A, NF), for instance, uses a simple question and answer
format. For every two pages, the left side features a question and the
right, the answer (“Bumblebee, what do you look like?/ My fur is reddish
brown. . . .”). Steve Jenkins also uses this format in What Do You Do with
a Tail Like This? (2003, TL2–5, A, NF) as he explores how animals use
their ears, eyes, tail, nose, mouth, and feet. The question is asked on one
page and then readers turn the page to see different animals featured
with responses related to each. Nonfiction books with a chronological
or sequence text structure offer support through organization as well.
Neil Waldman traces a single drop of water throughout 1 year in The

Snowflake: A Water Cycle Story (2003, TL3–5, A, NF). Each month is a
two-page spread with a paragraph about the changes and movement of
the water droplet on one page and an illustration on the other.
Visuals are critical elements to help English learners access the dif-
ficult conceptual and vocabulary load of nonfiction writing. For Level
1 English learners, in particular, there should be a direct correlation of
the content, terminology, and the visual within the text. Concept books,
in general, have photographs that clearly depict spatial relationships,
shapes, and antonyms as in Hot Cold Bold Shy (Harris, 1996, TL1–3, P,
NF) and What’s Opposite? (Swinburne, 2000, TL1–3, P, NF). As the con-
tent depth and language difficulty increases, the correlation of visual to
text sometimes becomes harder to accomplish. Still, more concrete ideas
are easier to convey with visuals. Some successful text to visual examples
in Fabulous Fishes (Stockdale, 2008, TL2–4, A, NF) include the distinc-
tion between fish that have spikes or are striped and fish that “swim in
numbers” or “alone,” but the difference between fish that leap and those
that glide is not as strong. Too, Cathryn Sill’s books have clear connec-
tions for many of the simple statements of fact that appear opposite full-
page illustrations. In About Fish (2002, TL2–4, A, NF), she begins, “Fish
live in water./ They may be found in nearly freezing water . . ./ or in warm
tropical water.” By separating the last sentence in two parts with two dif-
ferent illustrations, Sill is able to clearly illustrate the fish that live in cold
conditions by showing the layer of ice at the top of the water and the fish
below. Readers rely on the strong visual support of this example to under-
stand the second half of the sentence since it is more difficult to visually
demonstrate warm water. Later in the book, Sill notes, “They can breathe
underwater because they have gills.” While it may be easy for those with
background knowledge to “see” the gills in the illustration, there is no
label or arrow to direct the English learner who is just beginning to learn
about this concept and thus, help with comprehension.
One way that some authors clarify illustrations is to include labels
or arrows to focus the reader or to use insets for a close up. Jim Arnosky
and Gail Gibbons are masters of these techniques in their many non-
fiction books. For instance, teachers might compare the illustration and
statement in Cathryn Sill’s About Fish (2002, TL2–4, A, NF) “Most have
tough skin covered by scales.” to Arnosky’s visual and description in All
about Sharks (2008, TL3–5, A, NF). He provides an illustration of a
shark from above and below with an inset, or close-up view, and caption
noting, “Shark skin is covered with tiny tooth-like scales that make it feel
like sandpaper.” Another contrast of the detail in visuals and captions can
be made with Gibbons’s Coral Reefs (2007, TL3–5, A, NF) and Color-
ful, Captivating Coral Reefs (2003, TL3–5, I, NF) by Dorothy Hinshaw-
Patent. Both authors present the three types of coral reefs: atoll, fringe,
and barrier. Hinshaw-Patent uses an illustration divided into three sec-
tions with a sentence or two about each type of reef. There are no addi-
tional features to support the reader; consequently, the distinction among
the three types of reefs is not so clear. The visual to text connection in
Gibbons’s treatment of the same content is more obvious. She also has a
sentence with information about each reef type but she draws out other
key terms from the definitions such as shoreline, channel, and lagoon,
and provides those labels with connections to the illustration. Dianna
Aston uses a simple poetic line of text in script to introduce a page of facts
and detailed illustrations in An Egg Is Quiet (2006, TL3–5, A, NF), about
fish and bird eggs, and A Seed Is Sleepy (2007, TL3–5, A, NF), with basic
botany information including charts depicting a seed’s growth.
Several examples were cited earlier, Like People (Schubert, 2008,
TL2–4, A, NF), Are Trees Alive? (Miller, 2003, TL2–5, A, NF), and Have
You Ever Seen a Duck in a Raincoat? (Kaner, 2009, TL1–3, P, NF), of
authors using written analogies or comparisons to assist readers to con-
nect with information they may already possess. Visual comparisons
may prove even more powerful for some English learners. In Biggest,
Strongest, Fastest (1995, TL1–5, A, NF) and Hottest, Coldest, Highest,
Deepest (1998, TL2–5, A, NF), Steve Jenkins provides comparative illus-
trations and facts to support readers in their understanding of size and
proportion. In the first book, an illustration to scale of a blue whale is
shown next to one of a human and in the second book, Jenkins pictorially
contrasts the deepest lake, Lake Baikal in Russia (5,134 feet deep), with
the height of the Empire State Building in New York (1,250 feet). On
another two-page spread, the author also compares the length of the Nile,
the longest river in the world, to other rivers with a side box.
The end of the nonfiction book is where readers would typically
encounter resources such as the index, glossary, list of references, or
additional resources to explore. Yet, there are many other informational
tools found at the end of the book such as graphic aids, timelines, maps,
or additional visuals, as well as author’s notes that provide background
information about the book’s focus or a rationale for why the author wrote
the book. The following represent just a few examples. Beaks (Collard,
2002, TL2–5, A, NF) has a review at the end to “Test your ‘beak-ability.’ ”
Readers are encouraged to match illustrations of the birds’ beaks to the
task, “What would I eat with this beak?” Waiting for Wings (Ehlert, 2001,
TL1–3, A, NF) has a butterfly identification chart at the end with large
illustrations of several butterflies along with visuals of their appearance

as a caterpillar and a chrysalis. On another page, there is also a labeled
diagram of the body of a butterfly. One Watermelon Seed (Lottridge,
2008, TL2–4, A, NF) has a picture dictionary at the end with illustrations
of many of the featured fruits and vegetables along with some common
animals the reader might spot in a garden. Many counting books have a
visual summary at the end of the numbers and objects presented in the
book as in One Child, One Seed: A South African Counting Book (Cave,
2003, TL2–5, A, NF). Maps are often placed within the text of a nonfic-
tion book to provide specific information related to text on that page,
but they are also placed at the end of nonfiction books as a reference aid
when applicable to the entire book. One Child, One Seed features a map
of South Africa where Nothando, the child in the book, lives, and Ajmera
and Ivanko’s Be My Neighbor (2004a, TL2–5, A, NF) and To Be an Artist
(2004b, TL2–5, A, NF) have maps to identify the countries mentioned
in the photograph captions throughout the book. Timelines as well may
be integrated within the text of the book or at the end, depending on the
purpose. Gail Gibbons supplies a timeline of “Diving . . . Past and Pres-
ent” with important dates, an illustration, and an explanatory sentence at
the end of Exploring the Deep, Dark Sea (1999, TL3–5, A, NF) and Vila
uses a timeline at the end of Building Manhattan (2008, TL3–5, A, NF)
to offer additional information in paragraphs for different time periods,
1850–1950 (immigration), or a specific year, 1609, when the Dutch arr-
rived. DK Publishing even has a series of books, mentioned in the narrow
reading resource list in Chapter 3, and the entire text serves as a timeline
and each two-page spread moves a street, city, and farm through various
time periods.
No space is wasted in a nonfiction book and sometimes, even the
endpapers for a book offer information-sharing opportunities. As a case
in point, the endpapers of Surprising Sharks (Davies, 2003, TL3–5, A,
NF) have illustrations of various sharks with their average length listed
below. Also, the front endpapers of Becoming Butterflies (Rockwell, 2002,
TL3–5, A, NF) have illustrations of various caterpillars labeled with their
common and scientific name and the back endpapers have illustrations of
the butterflies that emerge from those caterpillars.
Whatever the mechanism—visuals on the endpapers, textual
author’s notes, or organizational format—and wherever they occur in the
book—beginning, middle, or end—text support features assist the reader
and such scaffolds are particularly important to English learners. In the
next section, cultural relevance is explored as another type of support for
English learners.

When thinking about nonfiction literature, teachers may not immediately
consider the genre as a means of introducing a multicultural or global
emphasis, but more and more nonfiction has a focus on diversity from
alphabet and counting books to biographies of historical figures from dif-
ferent ethnic, geographic, and religious backgrounds and photo essays
about different parts of the world. There are even bilingual books that
offer an opportunity for readers to experience cultural topics in more
than one language or to learn some words of another language in inter-
lingual books. When selecting nonfiction books, teachers should evaluate
the fit of the text to learners’ cultural or experiential background. For the
purposes of this discussion, cultural fit encompasses ethnicity or cultural
background, language, geography, religion, socioeconomic status, and
gender, and teachers might consider the following guiding questions in
their selection process:
• Is the nonfiction text culturally neutral (with general diversity

portrayed but no focus on a specific group)? Culturally generic
(with a group featured but less specific detail provided)? Cultur-
ally specific (with explicit details about a group portrayed)?
• Does the nonfiction text reflect the background and/or experi-
ences of recent immigrants? U.S.-born English learners?
the classroom?
the nonfiction text?
nonfiction text?
• How far removed is the nonfiction text from current times?
lies?
As teachers are thinking through issues of cultural fit, they are not
trying to limit books to only those that reflect the children in their class-
rooms although teachers should be concerned about selecting books with
a range of cultural representations so that all children can see them-
selves reflected in literature. Instead, they are making decisions about
the cultural accuracy and the depth of cultural detail as well as the type
of background knowledge students, in particular English learners, may
need to comprehend the text. As teachers examine books for cultural

accuracy and detail, they should take into account whether a book is cul-
turally specific with explicit details about a group, culturally generic with
a group featured but less specific detail provided, or culturally neutral
with general diversity portrayed but without a focus on a specific group.
Also, in terms of English learners, teachers can determine whether a
book reflects the experiences of recent immigrants or U.S.-born Eng-
lish learners. Too, teachers should not make assumptions about students
simply because they are part of a cultural group. All Latino children are
not familiar with quinceaneras or posadas celebrations nor are all Asian
children acquainted with the lunar New Year festivities. Just as with lim-
ited content knowledge, English learners may need additional support
to access books with cultural information that is distant from their own
experiences.
Counting books including One Child, One Seed: A South African
Counting Book (Cave, 2003, TL2–5, A, NF) and alphabet books such as
K Is for Korea (Cheung & Das, 2008, TL3–5, A, NF), M Is for Mexico
(Cordero, 2008, TL3–5, A, NF), and D Is for Dragon Dance (Compes-
tine, 2006, TL2–5, A, NF) offer many opportunities to highlight cultur-
ally specific details about different groups. The vocabulary load in the
alphabet books, however, may be challenging to English learners who
are learning a new language and are unfamiliar with these cultures.
Another excellent overview book with different geographic facts for set-
tings around the globe is Laura Ljungkvist’s Follow the Line around the
World (2008, TL3–5, A, NF). Each two-page spread spotlighting a differ-
ent place could be used as a stand-alone. For instance for Kenya, readers
learn, “Kenya is a country located in Africa./ Female elephants and their
babies live together in herds. Male elephants usually live alone.”
Among the culturally relevant nonfiction books, there are many pic-
ture book biographies that depict historical figures: Pocahontas, Princess
of the New World (Krull, 2007, TL3–5, A, NF), Harvesting Hope: The
Story of Cesar Chavez (Krull, 2003, TL3–5, A, NF), and The Bus Ride
That Changed History: The Story of Rosa Parks (Edwards, 2009, TL3–5,
A, NF); and sports greats: Nothing but Trouble: The Story of Althea Gib-
son (Stauffacher, 2007, TL3–5, A, NF), Campy, the Story of Roy Cam-
panela (Adler, 2007, TL3–5, A, NF), and Young Pele: Soccer’s First Star
(Cline-Ransome, 2007, TL3–5, A, NF) to name just a few. As noted ear-
lier, most picture biographies are suitable for Level 3–5 English learners.
However, teachers should not assume that Latino English learners will
automatically know Cesar Chavez or Roy Campanela, but they may be
familiar with baseball or simply appreciate learning about individuals
who have made a contribution. The biographies noted would be either

culturally specific or culturally generic depending on the level of detail
included. Certainly, the individuals featured in the biography are part of
one or more specific groups, but the focus in biography may be more on
the individual rather than details about the cultural group.
Photo essays, on the other hand, would be culturally specific as
they offer a detailed snapshot of a cultural group. Again, Diane Hoyt-
Goldsmith and George Ancona have numerous culturally relevant photo
essays to their credit including Celebrating Ramadan (Hoyt-Goldsmith,
2001, TL3–5, I, NF), Cinco de Mayo: Celebrating the Traditions of Mex-
ico (Hoyt-Goldsmith, 2008, TL3–5, I, NF), Mayeros: A Yucatec Maya
Family (Ancona, 1997, TL3–5, I, NF), and Harvest (Ancona, 2001, TL3–
5, I, NF). Add to these excellent examples, An Elephant in the Backyard
(Sobol, 2004, TL3–5, I, NF), Hands of the Maya: Villagers at Work and
Play (Crandell, 2002, TL3–5, I, NF), which could be paired with Anco-
na’s book on a Maya family, and Celebrate Cinco de Mayo with Fiestas,
Music and Dance (Otto, 2008, TL3–5, I, NF), which could be teamed up
with Hoyt-Goldsmith’s book on this Latino celebration.
Finally, there are many informational picture books that can provide
a global view. A few culturally specific examples include Kamal Goes to
Trinidad (Frederick, 2008, TL3–5, I, NF) about a boy’s first trip to his
parent’s home, Gervelie’s Journey: A Refugee Diary (Robinson & Young,
2008, TL3–5, I, NF), which chronicles a young Congolese girl and her
father as they flee their war-torn homeland and settle in England, 14
Cows for America (Deedy & Naiyomah, 2009, TL3–5, I, NF), a poignant
story of the gift from a Maasai village to a grieving America still remem-
bering September 11, 2001, and Going to School in India (Heydlauff,
2003, TL3–5, I, NF), which offers a fascinating glimpse of schooling in
India including the many places school is held and the many ways chil-
dren reach those schools. Each of these books would be suitable for Level
4 and 5 English learners. Three culturally neutral books that feature a
wide spectrum of diversity are Celebrate! Connections among Cultures
(Reynolds, 2006, TL3–5, I, NF), It’s Back to School We Go!: First Day
Stories from around the World (Jackson, 2003, TL3–5, I, NF), and Chil-
dren around the World (Montanari, 2004, TL2–4, A, NF). The latter
book could be used with Level 2 English learners but the other examples
are more appropriate for Levels 3–5.
Once teachers are convinced about the appeal and the effectiveness
of nonfiction literature for English learners, they begin to think about
implementing this genre into the classroom. Quite often nonfiction lit-
erature finds its way into the classroom first through supplementing con-
tent-area textbooks or in interdisciplinary or thematic units. Teachers can

begin to create text sets linked by a common theme or topic but written at
varying readability levels. This themed emphasis helps English learners
encounter the same vocabulary and concepts multiple times.
Conclusion
Nonfiction literature furnishes meaningful input for literacy activities as

English learners develop both language and content literacy. Yet, fiction
use still surpasses that of nonfiction in elementary classrooms by a wide
margin. The critical need for academic language development, however,
makes nonfiction a natural choice when working with English learners.
One means of scaffolding English learners with the content and lan-
guage load of nonfiction text is through read-alouds. Unfortunately, read-
ing aloud nonfiction rarely seems to occur. This may be due to the kinds
of nonfiction published in the past or to a general assumption that chil-
dren prefer stories. Whatever the case, there are some excellent options
for reading aloud nonfiction. Cover-to-cover read-alouds are not the typi-
cal choice for nonfiction except perhaps for very engaging picture books.
Similar to a cover-to-cover read-aloud, however, teachers might try a
chapter read-aloud. For additional read-aloud options, teachers might try
participatory read-alouds when there is strong repetition in a book, or
they might focus on the text features of nonfiction and use caption read-
ing or introducing the structural elements of a nonfiction book through
reading aloud. Finally, much nonfiction is filled with fascinating facts, so
a read-aloud with believe-it-or-not or not sharing might be an excellent
choice.
I’m Learning to Speak English
J. Patrick Lewis
Be pashunt please, I don’t know how to spell

Or read or write your language. Por favor,
I’m learning to speak English—ESL.
And I am getting better, I can tell.

“The bull is mad. Be carefull, matadoor!”
Be payshent please, I don’t know how to spell.
For words like ant and aunt or bell and belle,

You must know what the extra letter’s for.
My teacher said I’m going to excell.

Excell. A word worth 50 cents—or more!
Be paishunt please, I don’t know how to spell.
She told me that I’d fall. . . . I did! I fell

Into meaty words like a . . . carnivore!
I want to know my nouns and verbs so well

That someday I will get a perfect score.
Be patient (!) with me while I learn to spell
And write and speak in English—ESL.
Copyright by J. Patrick Lewis. This poem appeared on the children’s

literature blog Chicken Spaghetti on Poetry Friday, June 6, 2008.
197
App e n d i x A
Books for Learning about Immigrants

and English Learners
Picture books for students and teachers Books for teachers

A Movie in My Pillow/ Una Pelicula en A Step from Heaven by An Na
Mi Almohada by Jorge Argueta, poetry,
Salvadoran American Born Chinese by Gene Yang,
Chinese
A Picnic in October by Eve Bunting,
Italian American American Eyes: New Asian-American
Short Stories for Young Adults by Lori
Amelia’s Road by Linda Altman, Carlson
Mexican
The Arrival, Shaun Tan, unspecified
Angel Child, Dragon Child by Michele
Maria Surat, Vietnamese Ask Me No Questions by Marina
Budhos, Muslim/Bangladeshi
Apple Pie 4th of July by Janet Wong,
Chinese Celebrating Ramadan by Diane Hoyt-
Goldsmith
The Color of Home by Mary Hoffman,
Somalian Cool Salsa: Bilingual Poems on
Growing Up Latino in the United States
Coming to America: A Muslim Family’s by Lori Carlson
Story by Bernard Wolf, Egyptian/
Muslim Crossing the Wire by Will Hobbs,
Mexican
Dear Juno by Soyung Pak, Korean
Does My Head Look Big in This?
Dia’s Story Cloth by Dia Cha, Hmong by Randa Abdel-Fattah, Muslim
Palestinian
Good-Bye, 382 Shin Dang Dong by
Frances and Ginger Park, Korean Drita, My Homegirl by Jenny Lombard,
Albanian First Crossing: Stories about
How Many Days to America? A Teen Immigrants by Donald Gallo
Thanksgiving Story by Eve Bunting,
unspecified The Fold by An Na, Korean
I Hate English! by Ellen Levine, Hong Home of the Brave by Katherine

Kong Applegate, Sudanese
In the Small, Small Night by Jane In the Year of the Boar and Jackie
Kurtz, Ghanaian La Mariposa by Robinson by Bette Lord, Chinese
Francisco Jiménez, Mexican
La Linea by Ann Jaramillo, Mexican
199
Picture books for students and teachers Books for teachers
The Lotus Seed by Sherry Garland, Lowji Discovers America by Candace
Vietnamese Fleming, Indian
Marianthe’s Story: Painted Words and Red Hot Salsa: Bilingual Poems on
Spoken Memories by Aliki, unspecified Being Young and Latino in the United
States by Lori Carlson
My Chinatown: One Year in Poems by
Kam Mak, Chinese Remix: Conversations with Immigrant
Teenagers by Marian Budhos
My Diary from Here to There/ Mi
diario de Aqui Hasta by Amada Perez, Something about America by Maria
Mexican Testa, Albanian
My Name is Jorge on Both Sides of the The Story of My Life: An Afghan

River by Jane Medina, Mexican Girl on the Other Side of the Sky by
Farah Ahmedi and Tamim Ansary,
My Name is Yoon by Helen Recorvits, Afghanistan
Korean
Tangled Threads: A Hmong Girl’s Story
The Name Jar by Yangsook Choi, by Pegi Deitz Shea, Laotian
Korean
Ten Things I Hate about Me by Randa
Three Cheers for Catherine the Great! Abdel-Fattah, Muslim Lebanese
by Cari Best, Russian
Voices from the Field: Children of
The Whispering Cloth: A Refugee’s Migrant Farmworkers Tell Their Stories
Story by Pegi Deitz Shea, Hmong by S. Beth Atkin
Ziba Came by Boat by Liz Lofthouse, Wait for Me by An Na, Korean

unspecified
Note. Coding for TESOL proficiency level, grade level, and genre is found in the
“Children’s Books Cited” section
200
App e n d i x B
Guidelines for Matching Literature

to English Learner Proficiency Levels
TESOL proficiency level

and learner characteristics Text matching criteria
TESOL Level 1, Starting Level of content familiarity or background
knowledge
Initially:
• The text addresses familiar topics and concepts
Limited or no
• Content focused on the concrete and observable
understanding of English
• Typical story structure
Seldom uses English to
communicate Level of language
Responds nonverbally • Vocabulary reflects English learner’s oral
to simple commands, language
statements, and questions • Vocabulary is focused on informal, social
language, survival topics, and basic content
Visual literacy (“reading”) concepts
through pictures and • Text is at the word, phrase, or simple sentence
environmental print level
• Simple sentence has clear subject and predicate
Later: or is in imperative/command form
Begins to repeat and • Text has predictable, repetitive, or rhyming text
imitate others by using
single words, and simple Level of textual support
phrases • Limited text per page
Begins to use English • Text located in the same location on each page
spontaneously • Illustrations are on each page or directly opposite
text on a two-page spread
Reads familiar words, • One-to-one correspondence of text to illustration,
phrases, and very simple photographs, and graphic support
sentences with support
Writing consists of copied Level of cultural fit
letters, words, and phrases • Text is a close cultural fit or revolves around
universal themes (mealtime, play, cooking)
Note. TESOL levels are based on TESOL (2006). The more the material deviates
from the criteria at each proficiency level, the more teacher support will be needed
to assist English learners with the obvious language and structural difficulties.
201
TESOL Level 2, Emerging Level of content familiarity or background
knowledge
Understands phrases and
• Familiar story or topic
short sentences
• Typical story structure
Shares limited information • New topic or academic content presented
in simple everyday and with limited number of concrete details, and
routine situations characteristics
Uses memorized phrases,
groups of words, and Level of language
formulaic language • General academic vocabulary and familiar
everyday expressions
Uses simple structures • Phrases and short sentences
correctly but still produces • Predictable and repetitive text
basic errors • Simple narrative with single setting, clear
Uses general academic resolution, and clear problem
vocabulary and familiar • Simple language
everyday expressions • Phrases and simple or compound sentences
Reads familiar phrases Level of textual support
and sentences and simple • Limited text on a two-page spread
academic vocabulary with • Illustrations on a two-page spread
support • Illustrations support storyline or text or add rich
Makes writing errors contextualizations to text
that often interfere with
communication Level of cultural fit
• Text is a cultural fit or revolves around universal
themes (mealtime, play, cooking)
TESOL Level 3, Level of content familiarity or background

Developing knowledge
• Texts/topics for which students have some
Understands more complex
background knowledge require less textual/
speech with repetition
teacher support
Uses English spontaneously • Unfamiliar texts/topics require increased teacher
Has difficulty expressing and textual support
some thoughts due to
limited vocabulary and lack Level of language
of command of language • High-frequency language of the content areas
structure • Common idioms, figures of speech, and
multimeaning words with teacher support
Speaks in simple, • Some literary language related to different genres
comprehensible, and such as fairytales, e.g., kingdom
appropriate sentences • Sentences in written paragraphs
202
Makes frequent Level of textual support
grammatical errors • Less dependence on illustrations with familiar
topic
Proficiency in reading
• Illustrations support storyline or topic with
varies considerably
unfamiliar story or text
Comprehends texts for • More text on page
which English learner has
background knowledge Level of cultural fit
• Text reflects cultural content that may not be a fit
with English learner, so background and support
are needed
TESOL Level 4, Level of content familiarity or background

Expanding knowledge
• More complex, episodic text with multiple
Language skills are
settings
adequate for most daily
• Narratives with different points of view
communication needs
• Parodies and fractured fairytales
Communicates in English • Academic content, both familiar and unfamiliar
in unfamiliar settings with support for new concepts
Has occasional difficulty
with complex structures Level of language
and abstract academic • Specific and some technical language of the
concepts content areas
• A variety of sentence lengths of varying linguistic
May read with considerable complexity
fluency • Compound, complex sentences with dependent
Locates and identifies phrases and embedded clauses
specific facts within the • Idioms, figures of speech, sophisticated language,
text and multimeaning words
Has problems with Level of textual support
concepts presented in a • Fewer illustrations in text
decontextualized manner • Graphs, charts, and figures with academic
Has problems with complex content
sentence structure, abstract • Needs support with concepts presented in a
vocabulary, or vocabulary decontextualized manner, complex sentence
with multiple meanings structure, or the abstract vocabulary or
multimeaning words
Reads independently
Level of cultural fit
Has occasional
• Text reflects cultural content that is often not a
comprehension problems
fit with English learner, so some background and
with grade-level
support may be needed
information
203
TESOL Level 5, Bridging Level of content familiarity or background
knowledge
Uses fluent and
• Academic content with new concepts
spontaneous
• Complex narratives with subplots, flashbacks
communication on a range
• Fantasy with invented vocabulary
of personal, general,
academic, or social topics in
Level of language
a variety of contexts
• The technical language of the content areas
Interacts with native- • A variety of sentence lengths of varying linguistic
speaking peers with complexity in extended written discourse,
minimal language support including stories, essays, or reports
or guidance • Vocabulary representing a wide range of
Has good command of personal, general, academic, or social topics for a
technical and academic variety of contexts
vocabulary, idiomatic • Idiomatic expressions and colloquialisms
expressions, and
colloquialisms Level of textual support
• Limited or no illustrations in text; illustrations for
Produces clear, smoothly aesthetic purposes
flowing, well-structured • More complex graphs, charts, and figures with
texts of differing lengths academic content
and degrees of linguistic • Needs support with some concepts presented in
complexity a decontextualized manner, complex sentence
Makes few errors structure, or the abstract vocabulary or
multimeaning words
Can correct errors when
they occur Level of cultural fit
• Text represents a variety of cultural backgrounds.
Occasional background and support may be
needed for unfamiliar information.
204
App e n d i x C
Children’s Books for Social Language

(Basic “Survival” Topics)
Animals
• The Zoo by Suzy Lee
• My Cat Copies Me by Yoon Kwon
• A Tiger Cub Grows Up by Joan Hewett
• Hattie and the Fox by Mem Fox
• I Love Animals by Flora McDonald
• I Went Walking by Sue Williams
• Wild Animals of America ABC by Hope Ryden
• Yum, Yum! What Fun! by Mara Bergman
Body
• My Five Senses and My Hands and My Feet by Aliki
• Here Are My Hands by Bill Martin
• If I Didn’t Have Elbows by Sandi Toksvig
• All of Me! A Book of Thanks by Molly Bang
Clothing
• Hats, Hats, Hats and Shoes, Shoes, Shoes by Ann Morris
• Little Mouse Gets Ready by Jeff Smith
• Naked Mole Rat Gets Dressed by Mo Willems
Colors
• Red Is a Dragon: A Book of Colors by Roseanne Thong
• Growing Colors by Bruce McMillan
• Color Zoo and Color Farm by Lois Ehlert
• Colors Everywhere by Tana Hoban
• Color Dance by Ann Jonas
• Red Sings from Tree Tops: A Year in Colors by Joyce Sidman
Days of the Week and Months of the Year

• Mrs. Muffly’s Monster by Sarah Dyer
• Today Is Monday by Eric Carle
205
• Cookie’s Week by Cindy Ward
• Can You Hear the Sea? by Judy Cumberbatch
• We’re Sailing to the Galapagos: A Week in the Pacific by Laurie Krebs
• Snowy, Flowy, Blowy: A Twelve Months Rhyme by Nancy Tafuri
• When Lucy Goes Out Walking: A Puppy’s First Year by Ashley Wolf
Family
• Family Pictures/ Cuadros de Familia by Carmen Garza
• Families by Ann Morris
Foods
• Bee-Bim Bop! by Linda Sue Park
• Let’s Eat: What Children Eat around the World by Beatrice Hollyer
• What the World Eats by Faith D’Aluisio
• The Very Hungry Caterpillar by Eric Carle
• Bread, Bread, Bread by Ann Morris
• Everybody Cooks Rice and Everybody Bakes Bread by Norah Dooley
• Feast for 10 by Cathryn Falwell
Homes and Houses

• Building a House by Byron Barton
• Wonderful Houses around the World by Akira Nishiyama
• Homes around the World by Bobbie Kalman
• A Chair for My Mother by Vera Williams
• Houses and Homes by Ann Morris
Letters of the Alphabet

• Eating the Alphabet: Fruits & Vegetables from A to Z by Lois Ehlert
• The Graphic Alphabet by David Pelletier
• Alphabet City by Stephen Johnson
Manners and Etiquette

• What Do You Say, Dear? and What Do You Do, Dear? by Sesyle Joslin
• Do unto Otters: A Book about Manners by Laurie Keller
• Perfect Pigs by Marc Brown and Stephen Krensky
• It’s a Spoon, Not a Shovel by Caralyn Buehner
• Manners by Aliki
206
Measurement
• Inch by Inch by Leo Lionni
• Measuring Penny by Loreen Leedy
• Ton by Taora Miura
Money
• 26 Letters and 99 Cents by Tana Hoban
• The Coin Counting Book by Rozanne Williams
• Bunny Money by Rosemary Wells
• Monster Money Book by Loreen Leedy
Movement
• Go, Go, Go! Kids on the Move by Stephen Swinburne
• Monkey and Me by Emily Gravett
Numbers and Counting

• We All Went on Safari: A Counting Journey through Tanzania by Laurie
Krebs
• Feast for 10 by Cathryn Falwell
• One Is a Drummer: A Book about Numbers by Roseanne Thong
• Ten Go Tango by Arthur Dorros
• 100 Is a Family by Pam Ryan
• Mouse Count by Ellen Walsh
Occupations
• Tools by Taoro Miura
• Tools by Ann Morris
• The Piñata Maker/ El Piñatero by George Ancona
• Career Day by Anne Rockwell
• Sally Gets a Job by Stephen Huneck
School
• A School Like Mine by Smith and Shaley
• School Bus by Donald Crews
• Emily’s First 100 Days of School by Rosemary Wells
• Where Are You Going, Manyoni? by Catherine Stock
• Off to First Grade by Louise Borden
207
• First Grade, Here I Come by Nancy Carlson
• School Days around the World by Francis Chambers
Self
• ABC I Like Me and I Like Me by Nancy Carlson
• Whoever You Are by Mem Fox
• Me I Am! by Jack Prelutsky
• A Life Like Mine by Dorling Kindersley
Shapes
• Round Is a Mooncake: A Book of Shapes by Roseanne Thong
• Color Farm and Color Zoo by Lois Ehlert
• Shape by Shape by Suse MacDonald
Shopping
• Supermarket by Kathleen Krull
• Bebe Goes Shopping by Susan Elya
• Shopping with Dad by Matt Harvey
• Shopping by Rosemary Wells
Signs and Symbols

• City Signs by Zoran Milich
• I Read Signs and I Read Symbols by Tana Hoban
Time and Money

• Time To by Bruce McMillan
• Isn’t It Time by Judy Hindley
• Telling Time: How to Tell Time on Digital and Analog Clocks by Jules
Older
• Somewhere in the World Right Now by Stacey Schuett
Weather
• Weather Forecasting by Gail Gibbons
• Weather Words and What They Mean by Gail Gibbons
• Weather: Poems for All Seasons by Lee Hopkins
208
App e n d i x D
Narrow Reading Suggestions for Different Formats
Same Author
• Seymour Simon, Storms; Lightning; Autumn Across America; Winter
Across America; Volcanoes; Earthquakes
• David Harrison, Volcanoes: Nature’s Incredible Fireworks; Rivers:
Nature’s Wondrous Waterways; Caves: Mysteries Beneath Our Feet;
Oceans: The Vast, Mysterious Deep
• Cathryn Sill, About Arachnids; About Amphibians
• Jim Arnosky, All about Sharks; All about Owls; All about Alligators
• Sandra Markle, Outside and Inside Big Cats; Outside and Inside Giant
Squid; Growing Up Wild: Wolves; Growing Up Wild: Penguins
• Laurence Pringle, Whales! Strange and Wonderful; Crows! Strange and
Wonderful
• Chris Demarest, Hotshots; Firefighters: A to Z; Smoke Jumpers One to
Ten
• Steve Jenkins, Hottest, Coldest, Highest, Deepest; Biggest, Strongest,
Fastest
• Diane Hoyt-Goldsmith, Celebrating Ramadan; Celebrating a Quincean-
era: A Latina’s 15th Birthday Celebration
Same Author/Same Topic (Language Study)

• Brian Cleary, To Root, to Toot, to Parachute: What Is a Verb?; Hairy,
Scary, Ordinary: What Is an Adjective?; Dearly, Nearly, Insincerely:
What Is an Adverb?; Under, over, by the Clover: What Is a Preposition?;
I and You and Don’t Forget Who: What Is a Pronoun?
Same Author/Same Format (Cumulative Repetition)

• Madeleine Dunphy, Here Is the Coral Reef; Here Is the Wetland; Here
Is the African Savanna; Here Is the Arctic Winter; Here Is the Tropical
Rain Forest
Same Format (Timelines)/Same Publisher (DK)

• A Street through Time by Anne Millard
• A City through Time by Philip Steele
• A Farm through Time by Angela Wilkes
209
Series Books with Similar Focus
• Kingfisher Young Knowledge Series: Animal Homes (Wilkes); Robots
(Gifford); Rocks and Fossils (Hynes); Birds (Davies)
• Kingfisher The Best Book of . . . : Wolves and Wild Dogs (Gunzi); Snakes
(Gunzi)
Similar Subject Matter

Animal Friendships
• Mama: A True Story in which a Baby Hippo Loses His Mama during a
Tsunami but Finds a New Home, and a New Mama by Jeanette Winter
• Owen & Mzee: Best Friends by Isabella Hatkoff, Craig Hatkoff, and
Paula Kahumbu (board book)
• Owen & Mzee: A Day Together by Craig Hatkoff and Isabella Hatkoff
(board book)
• A Mama for Owen by Marion Bauer
• Owen & Mzee: The True Story of a Remarkable Friendship by Isabella
Hatkoff, Craig Hatkoff, and Paula Kahumbu
• Owen & Mzee: The Language of Friendship by Isabella Hatkoff, Craig
Hatkoff, and Paula Kahumbu
Music
• M Is for Music by Kathleen Krull

• Ah, Music! by Aliki
Disasters
• Volcano: The Eruption and Healing of Mount St. Helens by Patricia Lau-
ber
• Volcanoes by Seymour Simon
Holidays/Celebrations
• Celebrating a Quinceanera: A Latina’s 15th Birthday Celebration by

Diane Hoyt-Goldsmith
• Celebrating Ramadan by Diane Hoyt-Goldsmith
Evolution
• Life on Earth: The Story of Evolution by Steve Jenkins

• Our Family Tree: An Evolution Story by Lisa Peters
• We by Alice Schertle
210
Stairstep Apporach/Layering Difficulty Levels
(Presented from Simple to More Challenging)
Spiders
• Spinning Spiders by Melvin Berger

• Sneaky, Spinning Baby Spiders by Sandra Markle
Penguins
• Penguin Chick by Betty Tatham

• Growing Up Wild: Penguins by Sandra Markle
Wolves
• Wolves by Jim Arnosky

• Growing Up Wild: Wolves by Sandra Markle
• Wolves by Seymour Simon
Animal Friendships
• Mama: A True Story in which a Baby Hippo Loses His Mama during a
Tsunami but Finds a New Home, and a New Mama by Jeanette Winter
• Owen & Mzee: Best Friends by Craig Hatkoff, Isabella Hatkoff, and
• Owen & Mzee: A Day Together by Craig Hatkoff, Isabella Hatkoff, and
• A Mama for Owen by Marion Bauer
• Owen & Mzee: The True Story of a Remarkable Friendship by Isabella
Hatkoff, Craig Hatkoff, and Paula Kahumbu
• Owen & Mzee: The Language of Friendship by Isabella Hatkoff, Craig
Hatkoff, and Paula Kahumbu
Music

• Ah, Music! by Aliki
Branching Out: Exploring Different Facets of a Subject

Desert
• Desert Trek: An Eye-Opening Journey through the World’s Driest Places

by Marie-Ange Le Rochais (geography)
• Dig, Wait, Listen: A Desert Toad’s Tale by April Sayre (animal life)
211
American Flag
• Stars and Stripes: The Story of the American Flag by Sarah Thompson
• American Flags: Designs for a Young Nation by Nancy Druckman
• I Pledge Allegiance by Bill Martin and Michael Sampson
Wide Angle to Close Up: From General to Specific

Voting/Voting for the President of the United States
• America Votes: How Our President Is Elected by Linda Granfield

• Grace for President by Kelly Dipucchio
• Vote! by Eileen Christelow
Collective Biographies/Biographies
• Feathers, Flaps, & Flops: Fabulous Early Fliers by Bo Zaunders

• Fly High! The Story of Bessie Coleman by Louise Borden and Mary Kay
Kroeger
Overview of Many/Zoom In on One
• Animals Nobody Loves by Seymour Simon with Outside and Inside

Rats and Mice by Sandra Markle
• Birds by Nicola Davies (general overview of birds) or Birds: Nature’s
Magnificent Flying Machines by Caroline Arnold with On the Wing:
American Birds in Migration by Carol Lerner
• Giant Pandas by Gail Gibbons with Little Panda: The World Welcomes
Hua Mei at the San Diego Zoo by Joanne Ryder
• Bugs Are Insects by Anne Rockwell with Army Ant Parade by April
Sayre and The Life and Times of the Ant by Charles Micucci
• About Arachnids by Cathryn Sill with Spinning Spiders by Melvin
Berger and Sneaky, Spinning Baby Spiders by Sandra Markle
• About Amphibians by Cathryn Sill with Little Green Frogs by Fran-
ces Barry, Tadpoles by Betsy James, and Frogs Sing Songs by Yvonne
Winer
Similar Writing Format

Narrative/Expository
• It’s Back to School We Go! First Day Stories from around the World by
Ellen Jackson
• Vote! by Eileen Christelow
• Grace for President by Kelly Dipucchio
212
Letters
• Dear Alexandra: A Story of Switzerland by Helen Gudel

• Ask Dr. K. Fisher about Creepy-Crawlies by Claire Llewellyn
Journal
• Antarctic Journal: Four Months at the Bottom of the World by Jennifer

Dewey
• Antartic Journal: The Hidden Worlds of Antarctica’s Animals by Mer-
edith Hooper
• Sir Reginald’s Logbook by Matt Hammill
• Rachel’s Journal: The Story of a Pioneer Girl by Marissa Moss
Question–Answer
• Don’t Know Much About . . . Series by Kenneth Davis

• Don’t Know Much about the Pioneers
• Don’t Know Much about History
• Don’t Know Much about Geography
• Don’t Know Much about the Civil War
• Don’t Know Much about Sitting Bull
• Don’t Know Much about George Washington
Alphabet
• Capital! Washington D.C. from A to Z by Laura Melmed

Life Cycle/Timeline/Process
• A Taste of Honey by Nancy Wallace

• Waiting for Wings by Lois Ehlert
• The Snowflake: A Water Cycle Story by Neil Waldman
• Pick, Pull, Snap! Where a Flower Once Bloomed by Lola M. Schaefer
• It’s a Hummingbird’s Life by Irene Kelly
• Flick a Switch: How Electricity Gets to Your Home by Barbara Seuling
The Story of . . .
• Popcorn! by Elaine Landau

• How Sweet It Is (and Was): The History of Candy by Ruth Swain
• Ice Cream Cones for Sale by Elaine Greenstein
213
Children’s Books Cited
For abbreviations, see “Coding Scheme for Children’s Books Cited” on page xiii.
Abdel-Fattah, R. (2005). Does my head look big in this? New York: Orchard. TL5,
S, F
Abdel-Fattah, R. (2006). Ten things I hate about me. New York: Orchard. TL5, S, F
Ada, A. F. (2002). I love Saturdays and Domingos. New York: Atheneum. TL2–4,
P, F
Adler, D. A. (1992). A picture book of Jesse Owens. New York: Holiday House. TL3–
5, A, NF
Adler, D. A. (1994). A picture book of Anne Frank. New York: Holiday House. TL3–5,
A, NF
Adler, D. A. (1995). A picture book of Rosa Parks. New York: Holiday House. TL3–5,
A, NF
Adler, D. A. (2000). A picture book of Sacagawea. New York: Holiday House. TL3–5,
A, NF
Adler, D. A. (2007). Campy, the story of Roy Campanela. New York: Viking. TL3–5,
A, NF
Ahmedi, F., & Ansary, M. T. (2005). The story of my life: An Afghan girl on the other
side of the sky. New York: Simon & Schuster. TL5, S, NF
Ajmera, M., & Ivanko, J. D. (2004a). Be my neighbor. Watertown, MA: Charles-
bridge. TL2–5, A, NF
Ajmera, M., & Ivanko, J. D. (2004b). To be an artist. Watertown, MA: Charlesbridge.
TL2–5, A, NF
Ajmera, M., & Versola, A. R. (1997). Children from Australia to Zimbabwe: A pho-
tographic journey around the world. Watertown, MA: Charlesbridge. TL3–5,
A, NF
Alarcón, F. (1997). Laughing tomatoes and other spring poems/ Jitomates risueños
y otros poemas de primavera. San Francisco: Children’s Book Press. TL3–5,
A, P
Alarcón, F. (1998). From the bellybutton of the moon: And other summer poems/ Del
215
216 Children’s Books Cited
ombligo de la luna: Y otros poemas de verano. San Francisco: Children’s Book

Press. TL3–5, A, P
Alarcón, F. (1999). Angels ride bikes: And other fall poems/ Los angeles andan en
bicicleta: Y otros poemas de otoño. San Francisco: Children’s Book Press.
TL3–5, A, P
Alarcón, F. (2005a). Iguanas in the snow: And other winter poems/ Iguanas en la
nieve: Y otros poemas de invierno. San Francisco: Children’s Book Press. TL3–
5, I, P
Alarcón, F. (2005b). Poems to dream together/ Poemas para sonar juntos. New York:
Lee & Low. TL3–5, A, P
Alarcón, F. (2008). Animal poems of the Iguazu/ Animalario del Iguazu. San Fran-
cisco: Children’s Book Press. TL3–5, I, P
Aliki. (1991a). My feet. New York: HarperCollins. TL1–3, P, NF
Aliki. (1991b). My five senses. New York: Harper Festival. TL1–3, P, NF
Aliki. (1997). Manners. New York: Greenwillow. TL1–4, A, NF
Aliki. (1998). Marianthe’s story: Painted words and spoken memories. New York:
Greenwillow. TL3–5, A, F
Aliki. (2005). Ah, music!. New York: HarperCollins. TL2–5, A, NF
Altman, L. J. (1993). Amelia’s road. New York: Lee & Low. TL3–5, A, F
Ancona, G. (1994). The piñata maker/ El piñatero. San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace.
TL3–5, I, NF
Ancona, G. (1997). Mayeros: A Yucatec Maya family. New York: Lothrop, Lee, &
Shephard. TL3–5, I, NF
Ancona, G. (1998a). Barrio: El barrio de José. San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace. TL3–
5, I, NF
Ancona, G. (1998b). Fiesta fireworks. New York: Lothrop, Lee, & Shephard. TL3–5,
I, NF
Ancona, G. (2001). Harvest. New York: Cavendish. TL3–5, I, NF
Ancona, G. (2003). Murals: Walls that sing. New York: Cavendish. TL3–5, I, NF
Andrews-Goebel, N. (2002). The pot that Juan built. New York: Lee & Low. TL3–5,
I, P
Applegate, K. (2007). Home of the brave. New York: Feiwel & Friends. TL5, S, F
Argueta, J. (2001). A movie in my pillow/ Una pelicula en mi almohada. San Fran-
cisco: Children’s Book Press. TL3–5, I, P
Argueta, J. (2006). Talking with mother earth/ Hablando con madre tierra, illus-
trated by L. A. Perez. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Groundwood. TL3–5, I, P
Argueta, J. (2009). Sopa de frijoles/ Bean soup. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Ground-
wood. TL2–5, A, P
Arnold, C. (2003). Birds: Nature’s magnificent flying machines. Watertown, MA:
Charlesbridge. TL4–5, I, NF
Arnosky, J. (1999). All about owls. New York: Scholastic. TL3–5, A, NF
Arnosky, J. (2001). Wolves. Washington, DC: National Geographic. TL1–3, A, NF
Arnosky, J. (2008a). All about alligators. New York: Scholastic. TL3–5, A, NF
Arnosky, J. (2008b). All about sharks. New York: Scholastic. TL3–5, A, NF
Aston, D. H. (2006). An egg is quiet. San Francisco: Chronicle Books. TL3–5, A,
NF
Aston, D. H. (2007). A seed is sleepy. San Francisco: Chronicle Books. TL3–5, A,
NF
Atkin, S. B. (2000). Voices from the field: Children of migrant farmworkers tell their
stories. New York: Little, Brown. TL3–5, IS, NF
Aylesworth, J. (2009). Our Abe Lincoln. New York: Scholastic. TL2–5, A, P
Azarian, M. (2000). A gardener’s alphabet. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. TL1–5, A,
NF
Bae, H. (2007). New clothes for New Year’s Day. La Jolla, CA: Kane/Miller. TL2–4,
A, F
Baker, J. (2002). Window. New York: Walker. TL2–5, A, F
Baker, J. (2004). Home. New York: Greenwillow. TL2–5, A, F
Bang, M. (2009). All of me! A book of thanks. New York: Scholastic. TL1–3, P, NF
Barasch, L. (2007). Hiromi’s hands. New York: Lee & Low. TL3–5, I, F
Barner, B. (1996). Dem bones. San Francisco: Chronicle. TL1–3, A, NF
Barry, F. (2008). Little green frogs. Cambridge, MA: Candlewick Press. TL1–2, P,
NF
Barton, B. (1990a). Bones, bones, dinosaur bones. New York: Crowell. TL1–3, P,
NF
Barton, B. (1990b). Building a house. New York: Mulberry. TL1–3, P, NF
Bash, B. (2002). Desert giant: The world of the saguaro cactus. San Francisco: Sierra
Club Books for Children. TL3–5, A, NF
Bates, K. L. (1994). O beautiful for spacious skies. San Francisco: Chronicle. TL3–5,
A, P
Bauer, M. D. (2007). A mama for Owen. New York: Simon & Schuster. TL2–4, A,
F
Beake, L. (2007). Home now. Watertown, MA: Charlesbridge. TL3–5, A, F
Beck, C. (2008). Buttercup’s lovely day. Victoria, BC: Orca. TL3–5, A, F
Bell, K. (2008). If the shoe fits. Cambridge, MA: Candlewick Press. TL4–5, I, F
Benjamin, F. (2008). My two grannies. London: Lincoln. TL3–5, A, F
Berger, M. (2002). Spinning spiders. New York: HarperCollins. TL3–5, A, NF
Bergman, M. (2009). Yum, yum! What fun! New York: Greenwillow. TL2–3, P, F
Berner, R. S. (2008). In the town all year ‘round. San Francisco: Chronicle. TL1–5,
P, F
Bernier-Grand, C. T. (2006). César: Sí se puede/ Cesar: Yes, we can! Tarrytown, NY:
Cavendish. TL3–5, I, P
Best, C. (1999). Three cheers for Catherine the great! New York: DK. TL3–5, A, F
Blabey, A. (2009). Sunday chutney. Honesdale, PA: Front Street. TL2–4, A, F
Blackstone, S. (2005). My granny went to market: A round-the-world counting
rhyme. Cambridge, MA: Barefoot Books. TL2–4, A, P
Bley, A. (2009). A friend. La Jolla, CA: Kane/Miller. TL2–5, A, F
Bonsignore, J. (2001). Stick out your tongue! Fantastic facts, features, and functions
of human and animal tongues. Atlanta, GA: Peachtree. TL3–5, A, NF
Booth, D. (1990). Voices on the wind: Poems for all sesasons. New York: Morrow.
TL3–5, A, P
Borden, L. (2005). America is . . . New York: Aladdin. TL2–5, A, P
Borden, L. (2008). Off to first grade. New York: McEderry. TL2–4, P, P
Borden, L., & Kroeger, M. K. (2001). Fly high! The story of Bessie Coleman. New
York: McElderry. TL3–5, A, NF
Boston-Weatherford, C. (2007). Jesse Owens: Fastest man alive. New York: Walker.
TL3–5, A, NF
Boston-Weatherford, C. (2008). Before John was a jazz giant: A song of John Col-
trane. New York: Holt. TL3–5, I, NF
Boutignon, B. (2009). Not all animals are blue: A big book of little differences. New
York: Kane/Miller. TL1–4, A, F
Brown, M., & Krensky, S. (1983). Perfect pigs. New York: Little, Brown. TL2–5, A,
NF
Brown, R. (2001). Ten seeds. New York: Knopf. TL1–3, P, NF
Bruel, N. (2005). Bad kitty. New York: Roaring Brook. TL2–5, A, F
Bryan, A. (2007). Let it shine: Three favorite spirituals. New York: Atheneum. TL1–
5, A, P
Budhos, M. T. (1999). Remix: Conversations with immigrant teenagers. New York:
Holt. TL5, S, NF
Budhos, M. T. (2006). Ask me no questions. New York: Atheneum. TL5, S, F
Buehner, C. (1998). It’s a spoon, not a shovel. New York: Puffin. TL2–4, A, NF
Bunting, E. (1989). How many days to America? A Thanksgiving story. New York:
Clarion. TL2–4, A, F
Bunting, E. (1999). A picnic in October. San Diego, CA: Harcourt. TL2–4, A, F
Bunting, E. (2006). One green apple. New York: Clarion. TL3–5, A, F
Burleigh, R. (2007). Stealing home: Jackie Robinson against the odds. New York:
Simon & Schuster. TL2–5, A, NF
Cabrera, J. (2008). Old MacDonald had a farm. New York: Holiday House. TL1–2,
P, F
Cali, D. (2009). The enemy: A book about peace. New York: Schwartz & Wade. TL3–
4, I, F
Campoy, I., & Ada, A. F. (2006). Tales our abuelitas told: A Hispanic folktale collec-
tion. New York: Atheneum. TL4–5, I, F
Carle, E. (1997). Today is Monday. New York: Putnam. TL1–3, P, F
Carle, E. (2008). The very hungry caterpillar. New York: Holt. TL1–4, P, F
Carling, A. L. (2005). Sawdust carpets. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Groundwood.
TL4–5, I, F
Carlson, L. (1994a). American eyes: New Asian-American short stories for young
adults. New York: Holt. TL5, S, F
Carlson, L. (1994b). Cool salsa: Bilingual poems on growing up Latino in the United
States. New York: Holt. TL5, S, P
Carlson, L. (2005). Red hot salsa: Bilingual poems on being young and Latino in the
United States. New York: Holt. TL5, S, P
Carlson, N. (1990). I like me. New York: Puffin. TL1–4, P, F
Carlson, N. (1999). ABC I like me. New York: Puffin. TL1–4, P, F
Carlson, N. (2009). First grade, here I come. New York: Puffin. TL2–5, P, F
Carter, D. (1997). If you’re happy and you know it, clap your hands! New York:
Cartwheel. TL1–3, P, F
Cave, K. (2003). One child, one seed: A South African counting book. New York:
Holt. TL2–5, A, NF
Cha, D. (1996). Dia’s story cloth. New York: Lee & Low. TL3–5, A, F
Chamberlain, M. (2008). Please don’t tease Tootsie. New York: Dutton. TL1–4, A,
F
Chambers, F. E. (2007). School days around the world. New York: DK Children.
TL2–5, A, NF
Chandra, D., & Comora, M. (2003). George Washington’s teeth. New York: Farrar,
Straus & Giroux. TL2–4, A, NF
Cheney, L. (2002). America: A patriotic primer. New York: Simon & Schuster. TL2–
5, A, NF
Cheney, L. (2003). A is for Abigal: An almanac of amazing American women. New
York: Simon & Schuster. TL2–5, A, NF
Chessa, F. (2008). Holly’s red boots. New York: Holiday House. TL1–2, P, F
Cheung, H., & Das, P. (2008). K is for Korea. London: Lincoln. TL3–5, A, NF
Chihiro, N. (2008). Who made this cake? Honesdale, PA: Front Street. TL1–2, P, F
Child, L. (2008). I completely know about guinea pigs. New York: Dial. TL3–5, A,
F
Child, L. (2009). We are extremely very good recyclers. New York: Dial. TL3–5, A,
F
Chin-Lee, C. (1997). A is for Asia. London: Lincoln Children’s Books. TL3–5, A,
NF
Chin-Lee, C. (2005). Amelia to Zora: Twenty-six women who changed the world.
Watertown, MA: Charlesbridge. TL3–5, I, NF
Chin-Lee, C. (2006). Akira to Zoltan: Twenty-six men who changed the world.
Watertown, MA: Charlesbridge. TL3–5, I, NF
Chin-Lee, C., & de la Peña, T. (1999). A is for the Americas. London: Lincoln. TL3–
5, A, NF
Choi, Y. (2001). The name jar. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. TL4–5, A, F
Choi, Y. (2006). Behind the mask. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. TL3–5, A, F
Christelow, E. (2008). Vote! New York: Sandpiper. TL3–5, A, NF
Church, C. J. (2003). Do your ears hang low? New York: Chicken House. TL1–3, P,
F
Church, C. J. (2008). Ping pong pig. New York: Holiday House. TL2–4, A, F
Clarke, J. (2008). Stuck in the mud. New York: Walker. TL2–3, A, F
Cleary, B. P. (2001a). Hairy, scary, ordinary: What is an adjective? Minneapolis,
MN: Lerner. TL2–5, A, NF
Cleary, B. P. (2001b). To root, to toot, to parachute: What is a verb? Minneapolis,
Clearly, B. P. (2003a). Dearly, nearly, insincerely: What is an adverb? Minneapolis,
Cleary, B. P. (2003b). Under, over, by the clover: What is a preposition? Minneapolis,
Cleary, B. P. (2006). I and you and don’t forget who: What is a pronoun? Minneapo-
lis, MN: Lerner. TL2–5, A, NF
Cline-Ransome, L. (2007). Young Pele: Soccer’s first star. New York: Schwartz &
Wade. TL3–5, A, NF
Cobb, V. (2002). I get wet. New York: HarperCollins. TL3–5, A, NF
Cole, H. (2003). On the way to the beach. New York: Greenwillow. TL2–4, A, NF
Cole, J. (1989). Anna Banana: 101 jump-rope rhymes. New York: Morrow Junior
Books. TL2–5, A, F
Cole, J. (1997). The magic school bus and the electric field trip. New York: Scholastic.
TL3–5, A, NF
Cole, J. (1999). The magic school bus explores the senses. New York: Scholastic.
TL3–5, A, NF
Collard, S. B. (2002a). Beaks. Watertown, MA: Charlesbridge. TL2–5, A, NF

Collard, S. B. (2002b). Leaving home. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. TL1–5, A, NF
Compestine, Y. C. (2006). D is for dragon dance. New York: Holiday House. TL2–5,
A, NF
Cooling, W. (Ed.). (2004). Come to the great world: Poems from around the globe.
New York: Holiday House. TL2–5, A, P
Cordero, F. D. M. (2008). M is for Mexico. London: Lincoln. TL3–5, A, NF
Cotton, C. (2008). Rainplay. New York: Holt. TL2–4, A, P
Cousins, L. (2007). Maisy’s amazing big book of words. Cambridge, MA: Candle-
wick. TL1–2, P, NF
Cousins, L. (2009). Yummy: Eight favorite fairy tales. Watertown, MA: Candlewick
Press. TL3–5, A, F
Crandell, R. (2002). Hands of the Maya: Villagers at work and play. New York: Holt.
TL3–5, A, NF
Crews, D. (1993). School bus. New York: Greenwillow. TL1–3, P, NF
Cumberbatch, J. (2006). Can you hear the sea? New York: Bloomsbury. TL2–4, A,
F
Cumyn, A. (2008). Dear Sylvia. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Groundwood. TL4–5, I,
F
D’Aluisio, F. (2008). What the world eats. Berkley, CA: Tricycle Press. TL4–5, I,
NF
Daly, N. (2006a). Happy birthday, Jamela! London: Lincoln. TL3–5, A, F
Daly, N. (2006b). Pretty Salma: A Little Red Riding Hood story from Africa. New
York: Clarion. TL3–5, A, F
Davies, N. (2000). Big blue whale. Cambridge, MA: Candlewick Press. TL3–5, A,
NF
Davies, N. (2001). One tiny turtle. Cambridge, MA: Candlewick Press. TL3–5, A,
NF
Davies, N. (2003a). Birds. New York: Kingfisher. TL3–5, A, NF
Davies, N. (2003b). Surprising sharks. New York: Walker. TL3–5, A, NF
Davis, K. (1998). Who hops? New York: Harcourt. TL1–3, P, F
Davis, K. (2000). Who hoots? New York: Harcourt. TL1–3, P, F
Davis, K. C. (1999). Don’t know much about the Civil War. New York: HarperCol-
lins. TL4–5, I, NF
Davis, K. C. (2001). Don’t know much about geography. New York: HarperCollins.
TL4–5, I, NF
Davis, K. C. (2002a). Don’t know much about George Washington. New York: Har-
perCollins. TL4–5, I, NF
Davis, K. C. (2002b). Don’t know much about Sitting Bull. New York: HarperCollins.
TL4–5, I, NF
Davis, K. C. (2003). Don’t know much about the pioneers. New York: HarperCollins.
TL4–5, I, NF
Davis, K. C. (2004). Don’t know much about history. New York: HarperCollins.
TL4–5, I, NF
Deedy, C. A. (2007). Martina, the beautiful cockroach: A Cuban folktale. Atlanta,
GA: Peachtree. TL3–5, A, F
Deedy, C. A., & Naiyomah, W. K. (2009). 14 cows for America. Atlanta, GA:
Peachtree. TL3–5, I, NF
Delacre, L. (Ed.). (1989). Arroz conleche: Popular songs and rhymes from Latin
America. New York: Scholastic. TL2–4, A, F
Demarest, C. L. (2002). Smoke jumpers one to ten. New York: McElderry. TL2–4,
A, NF
Demarest, C. L. (2003a). Firefighters A to Z. New York: McElderry. TL2–4, A, NF
Demarest, C. L. (2003b). Hotshots! New York: McElderry. TL2–4, A, NF
Dewdney, A. (2005a). Llama, llama misses mama. New York: Viking. TL1–2, P, F
Dewdney, A. (2005b). Llama, llama red pajama. New York: Viking. TL1–2, P, F
Dewdney, A. (2007). Llama, llama mad at mama. New York: Viking. TL1–2, P, F
Dewey, J. (2001). Antarctic journal: Four months at the bottom of the world. New
York: HarperCollins. TL4–5, I, NF
Diakite, B. W. (2007). Mee-An and the magic serpent. Toronto, Ontario, Canada:
Groundwood. TL3–5, I, F
Diakite, P. (2006). I lost my tooth in Africa. New York: Scholastic. TL4–5, A, F
Dipucchio, K. (2008). Grace for president. New York: Hyperion. TL3–5, A, F
Dodd, E. (2008). What pet to get? New York: Bloomsbury. TL2–4, A, F
Donaldson, J. (2008a). The fish who cried wolf. New York: Levine. TL2–5, A, F
Donaldson, J. (2008b). Where’s my mom? New York: Dial. TL3–5, A, F
Dooley, N. (1992a). Everybody bakes bread. Minneapolis, MN: Carolrhoda. TL3–5,
A, F
Dooley, N. (1992b). Everybody cooks rice. Minneapolis, MN: Carolrhoda. TL3–5,
A, F
Dorling Kindersley. (2003). A life like mine. New York: DK. TL3–5, A, NF
Dorros, A. (2000). Ten go tango. New York: HarperCollins. TL1–3, P, F
Dorros, A. (2005). Julio’s magic. New York: HarperCollins. TL4–5, I, F
Dorros, A. (2008). Papá and me. New York: HarperCollins. TL2–4, P, F
Dotlich, R. K. (2001). When riddles come rumbling: Poems to ponder. Honesdale,
NY: Boyds Mills Press. TL2–5, A, P
Druckman, N. (2003). American flags: Designs for a young nation. New York: Henry
N. Abrams. TL4–5, I, NF
Dunphy, M. (2006a). Here is the African Savanna. New York: Web of Life. TL3–5,
A, NF
Dunphy, M. (2006b). Here is the coral reef. New York: Web of Life. TL3–5, A, NF
Dunphy, M. (2006c). Here is the tropical rain forest. New York: Web of Life. TL3–5,
A, NF
Dunphy, M. (2007a). Here is the Arctic winter. New York: Web of Life. TL3–5, A,
NF
Dunphy, M. (2007b). Here is the wetland. New York: Web of Life. TL3–5, A, NF
DuQuette, Keith. (2002). They call me woolly: What animal names can tell us. New
York: Putnam. TL2–4, A, NF
Dyer, S. (2008). Mrs. Muffly’s monster. London: Frances Lincoln. TL2–4, A, F
Edwards, P. D. (2009). The bus ride that changed history: The story of Rosa Parks.
New York: Sandpiper. TL3–5, A, NF
Ehlert, L. (1989). Color zoo. New York: HarperCollins. TL1–2, P, NF
Ehlert, L. (1990). Color farm. New York: HarperCollins. TL1–2, P, NF
Ehlert, L. (1996). Eating the alphabet: Fruits and vegetables from A to Z. San Diego,
CA: Harcourt. TL1–3, A, NF
Ehlert, L. (2001). Waiting for wings. San Diego, CA: Harcourt. TL1–3, A, NF
Elvegren, J. R. (2006). Josias, hold the book. Honesdale, PA: Boyds Mills Press.
TL3–5, A, F
Elya, S. M. (2006). Bebe goes shopping. San Diego, CA: Harcourt. TL1–3, P, F
Elya, S. M., & Banks, M. (2007). N is for Navidad. San Francisco: Chronicle. TL2–5,
A, F
Falwell, C. (1993). Feast for 10. New York: Scholastic. TL1–3, P, F
Fanelli, S. (2007). My map book. New York: Walker. TL1–3, P, F
Fearnley, J. (2008). Martha in the middle. New York: Walker. TL3–5, A, F
Fine, E. H. (2007). Armando and the blue tarp school. New York: Lee & Low. TL4–
5, I, F
Fitzgerald, J. (2008). Yum! Yum! Delicious nursery rhymes. Markham, Ontario, Can-
ada: Fitzhenry & Whiteside. TL2–4, A, F
Fleischman, P. (2007). Glass slipper, gold sandal: A worldwide Cinderella. New
York: Henry Holt. TL3–5, A, F
Fleming, C. (2005). Lowji discovers America. New York: Atheneum. TL5, S, F
Fleming, D. (2000). The everything book. New York: Henry Holt. TL1–2, P, F
Florian, D. (2000a). A pig is big. New York: Greenwillow. TL1–4, A, P
Florian, D. (2000b). On the wing. New York: Voyager Books. TL2–5, A, P
Florian, D. (2001). In the swim. New York: Voyager Books. TL2–5, A, P
Florian, D. (2002). Insectlopedia. New York: Voyager Books. TL2–5, A, P
Florian, D. (2004). Mammalibilia. New York: Voyager Books. TL2–5, A, P
Florian, D. (2005a). Lizards, frogs, and polliwogs. New York: Sandpiper Books.
TL2–5, A, P
Florian, D. (2005b). Zoo’s who. San Diego, CA: Harcourt. TL2–5, A, P
Florian, D. (2007a). Bing bang boing. San Diego, CA: Harcourt. TL1–5, A, P
Florian, D. (2007b). Comets, stars, the moon, and Mars: Space poems and paintings.
San Diego, CA: Harcourt. TL2–5, A, P
Foreman, J. & Foreman, M. (2008). Say hello. Cambridge, MA: Candlewick Press.
TL1–2, P, F
Foreman, M. (2006). Mia’s story: A sketchbook of hopes and dreams. Cambridge,
MA: Candlewick Press. TL2–5, A, F
Forest, H. (2005). Feathers: A Jewish tale from Eastern Europe. Little Rock, AR:
August House. TL3–5, I, F
Fox, M. (1992). Hattie and the fox. New York: Aladdin. TL1–3, A, F
Fox, M. (1997). Whoever you are. San Diego, CA: Harcourt. TL1–3, A, F
Franco, B. (2009). Messing around on the monkey bars: And other school poems for
two voices. Somerville, MA: Candlewick Press. TL1–5, A, P
Fraser, M. A. (2002). How animal babies stay safe. New York: HarperCollins. TL2–
5, A, NF
Fredrick, M. (2008). Kamal goes to Trinidad. London: Lincoln Children’s Books.
TL3–5, I, NF
Friedman, I. R. (1984). How my parents learned to eat. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
TL3–5, A, F
Gallo, G. R. (2004). First crossing: Stories about teen immigrants. Cambridge, MA:
Candlewick Press. TL5, S, F
Garland, S. (1993). The lotus seed. San Diego, CA: Harcourt. TL3–5, A, F
Garza, C. L. (2000). In my family/ En mi familia. San Francisco: Children’s Book
Press. TL3–5, A, NF
Garza, C. L. (2005). Family pictures/ Cuadros de familia. San Francisco: Children’s

Book Press. TL3–5, A, NF
Gay, M.L. (2008). On the road again! More travels with my family. Toronto, Ontario,
Canada: Groundwood. TL4–5, I, F
Gibbons, G. (1992). Weather words and what they mean. New York: Holiday House.
TL3–5, A, NF
Gibbons, G. (1993). Weather forecasting. New York: Aladdin. TL3–5, A, NF
Gibbons, G. (1996). Recycle: A handbook for kids. New York: Little, Brown. TL3–5,
A, NF
Gibbons, G. (1999). Exploring the deep, dark sea. New York: Little, Brown. TL3–5,
A, NF
Gibbons, G. (2001). Polar bears. New York: Holiday House. TL3–5, A, NF
Gibbons, G. (2004). Giant pandas. New York: Holiday House. TL3–5, A, NF
Gibbons, G. (2005). Owls. New York: Holiday House. TL3–5, A, NF
Gibbons, G. (2007a). Coral reefs. New York: Holiday House. TL3–5, A, NF
Gibbons, G. (2007b). Snakes. New York: Holiday House. TL3–5, A, NF
Gibbons, G. (2007c). The vegetables we eat. New York: Holiday House. TL3–5, A,
NF
Gibbons, G. (2009). Hurricanes. New York: Holiday House. TL3–5, A, NF
Gifford, C. (2003). Robots. New York: Kingfisher. TL3–5, A, NF
Gilchrist, J. S. (2007). My America. New York: HarperCollins. TL1–5, A, P
Giovanni, N. (2008). Hip hop speaks to children: A celebration of poetry with a beat.
Naperville, IL: Jabberwocky/Sourcebooks. TL2–5, A, P
Gonzalez, M. C. (2009). I know the river loves me/ Yo se que el rio me ama. San
Francisco: Children’s Press. TL1–3, P, F
Graham, B. (2008). How to heal a broken wing. Cambridge, MA: Candlewick Press.
TL1–3, P, F
Graham, J. B. (2001). Splish splash. New York: Sandpiper. TL2–5, A, P
Graham, J. B. (2003). Flicker flash. New York: Sandpiper. TL2–5, A, P
Granfield, L. (2005). America votes: How our president is elected. New York: Kids
Can. TL3–5, A, NF
Gravett, E. (2008a). Little mouse’s big book of fears. New York: Simon & Schuster.
TL1–5, A, F
Gravett, E. (2008b). Monkey and me. New York: Simon & Schuster. TL1, P, F
Greenfield, E. (1991). Night on neighborhood street. New York: Dial. TL2–5, I, P
Greenfield, E. (2006a). The friendly four. New York: Amistad/HarperCollins. TL1–
4, A, P
Greenfield, E. (2006b). When the horses ride by: Children in the times of war. New
York: Lee & Low. TL2–5, A, P
Greenstein, E. (2003). Ice cream cones for sale. New York: Levine. TL3–5, A, NF
Grey, M. (2008). Traction Man meets Turbo Dog. New York: Knopf. TL4–5, I, F
Grifalconi, A. (2007) Ain’t nobody a stranger to me. New York: Jump at the Sun.
TL4–5, I, F
Gudel, H. (1999). Dear Alexandra: A story of Switzerland. Norwalk, CT: Sound-
prints. TL2–4, A, F
Gunning, M. (2004). America: My new home. Honesdale, PA: Boyds Mills Press.
TL3–5, A, P
Gunzi, C. (2003). Wolves and wild dogs. New York: Kingfisher. TL3–5, A, NF
Gunzi, C. (2006). Snakes. New York: Kingfisher. TL3–5, A, NF

Gurth, P. (2009). Oh, Canada! Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Kids Can Press. TL1–2,
P, NF
Hächler, B. (2008). Anna’s wish. New York: NorthSouth. TL3–5, A, F
Hamilton, M., & Weiss, M. (2007). Priceless gifts. Little Rock, AR: August House.
TL3–5, A, F
Hamilton, R. (2008). If I were you: A daddy–daughter story. New York: Bloomsbury.
TL2–5, A, F
Hammill, M. (2008). Sir Reginald’s logbook. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Kids Can
Harris, P. (1996). Hot cold bold shy. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Kids Can Press.
TL1–3, P, NF
Harrison, D. L. (2001). Caves: Mysteries beneath our feet. Honesdale, PA: Boyds
Mills Press. TL3–5, I, NF
Harrison, D. L. (2002a). Rivers: Nature’s wondrous waterways. Honesdale, PA:
Boyds Mills Press. TL3–5, I, NF
Harrison, D. L. (2002b). Volcanoes: Nature’s incredible fireworks. Honesdale, PA:
Boyds Mills Press. TL3–5, I, NF
Harrison, D. L. (2003). Oceans: The vast, mysterious deep. Honesdale, PA: Boyds
Mills Press. TL3–5, I, NF
Harvey, M. (2008). Shopping with dad. Cambridge, MA: Barefoot Books. TL2–4,
A, F
Hatkoff, C., & Hatkoff, I. (2008). Owen & Mzee: A day together. New York: Cart-
wheel Books. TL2–4, A, NF
Hatkoff, I., Hatkoff, C., & Kahumbu, P. (2006). Owen & Mzee: The true story of a
remarkable friendship. New York: Scholastic. TL3–5, A, NF
Hatkoff, I., Hatkoff, C., & Kahumbu, P. (2007a). Owen & Mzee: Best friends. New
York: Scholastic. TL2–4, A, NF
Hatkoff, I., Hatkoff, C., & Kahumbu, P. (2007b). Owen & Mzee: The language of
friendship. New York: Scholastic. TL3–5, A, NF
Hayes, S. (2008). Dog day. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. TL2–4, A, F
Heard, G. (2009). Falling down the page: A book of list poems. New York: Roaring
Brook Press. TL2–5, A, P
Herrera, J. F. (1998). Laughing out loud, I fly: A carcajadas yo vuelo. New York:
HarperCollins. TL4–5, I, P
Herrera, J. F. (2000). The upside down boy. San Francisco: Children’s Book Press.
TL3–5, A, F
Hewett, J. (2001). A tiger cub grows up. Minneapolis, MN: First Avenue Editions.
TL2–4, A, NF
Heydlauff, L. (2003). Going to school in India. Watertown, MA: Charlesbridge.
TL3–5, I, NF
Hindley, J. (2008). Isn’t it time. New York: Walker. TL1–3, A, F
Hinshaw-Patent, D. (2003). Colorful, captivating coral reefs. New York: Walker.
TL3–5, I, NF
Hoban, T. (1983). I read symbols. New York: Greenwillow. TL1–3, A, NF
Hoban, T. (1987). I read signs. New York: Greenwillow. TL1–3, A, NF
Hoban, T. (1995a). Colors everywhere. New York: Greenwillow. TL1–3, A, NF
Hoban, T. (1995b). 26 letters and 99 cents. New York: Greenwillow. TL1–3, A, NF
Hoban, T. (1997). Exactly the opposite. New York: Greenwillow. TL1–3, A, NF

Hoban, T. (1998). More, fewer, less. New York: Greenwillow. TL1–3, A, NF
Hoban, T. (2008). Over, under, through. New York: Aladdin. TL1–3, A, NF
Hobbs, W. (2006). Crossing the wire. New York: HarperCollins. TL5, S, F
Hoberman, M. A. (2004). The eensy-weensy spider. New York: Little Brown. TL1–3,
P, F
Hodge, D. (2008). Who lives here? Desert animals. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Kids
Can Press. TL2–4, A, NF
Hoestlandt, J. (2008) Gran, you’ve got mail! New York: Delacorte. TL4–5, I, F
Hoffman, M. (2002). The color of home. New York: Fogelman. TL4–5, A, F
Hollyer, B. (2004). Let’s eat: What children eat around the world. New York: Holt.
TL3–5, I, NF
Hooper, M. (2001). Antarctic journal: The hidden worlds of Antarctica’s animals.
London: Lincoln. TL4–5, I, NF
Hopkins, L. B. (1995a). Weather: Poems for all seasons. New York: Harcourt. TL2–5,
A, P
Hopkins, L. B. (Ed). (1995b). Small talk: A book of short poems. San Diego, CA:
Harcourt. TL2–5, A, P
Hopkins, L. B. (1996). Blast off! Poems about space. New York: HarperCollins. TL2–
5, A, P
Hopkins, L. B. (1997). Marvelous math: A book of poems. New York: Simon & Schus-
ter. TL3–5, A, P
Hopkins, L. B. (1999a). Dino-roars. New York: Golden. TL2–5, A, P
Hopkins, L. B. (1999b). Spectacular science: A book of poems. New York: Simon &
Schuster. TL3–5, A, P
Hopkins, L. B. (2000). Sports! Sports! Sports! A poetry collection. New York: Harp-
erCollins. TL2–5, A, P
Hopkins, L. B. (2003). Alphathoughts: Alphabet poems. Honesdale, PA: Boyds Mills
Hopkins, L. B. (2009a). City I love. New York: Abrams. TL1–5, A, P
Hopkins, L. B. (2009b). Sky magic. New York: Dutton. TL2–5, A, P
Horácek, P. (2008). Look out, Suzy Goose! Cambridge, MA: Candlewick Press. TL2–
3, P, F
Horse, H. (2008a). The last cowboys. Atlanta, GA: Peachtree. TL4–5, I, F
Horse, H. (2008b). The last gold diggers. Atlanta, GA: Peachtree. TL4–5, I, F
Howell, F. (2002). Zoo flakes. New York: Walker. TL1–3, A, NF
Hoyt-Goldsmith, D. (1998a). Celebrating Chinese New Year. New York: Holiday
House. TL3–5, I, NF
Hoyt-Goldsmith, D. (1998b). Lacrosse: The national game of the Iroquois. New York:
Holiday House. TL3–5, I, NF
Hoyt-Goldsmith, D. (1999). Las Posadas: An Hispanic Christmas celebration. New
York: Holiday House. TL3–5, I, NF
Hoyt-Goldsmith, D. (2000). Celebrating Passover. New York: Holiday House. TL3–
5, I, NF
Hoyt-Goldsmith, D. (2001). Celebrating Ramadan. New York: Holiday House. TL3–
5, I, NF
Hoyt-Goldsmith, D. (2002). Celebrating a Quinceanera: A Latina’s 15th birthday
celebration. New York: Holiday House. TL3–5, I, NF
Hoyt-Goldsmith, D. (2004). Three Kings Day: A celebration at Christmastime. New

York: Holiday House. TL3–5, I, NF
Hoyt-Goldsmith, D. (2008). Cinco de Mayo: Celebrating the traditions of Mexico.
New York: Holiday House. TL3–5, I, NF
Huneck, S. (2008). Sally gets a job. New York: Abrams. TL2–5, A, F
Hynes, M. (2008). Rocks and fossils. New York: Kingfisher. TL3–5, I, NF
Ichikawa, S. (2006). My father’s shop. La Jolla, CA: Kane/Miller. TL2–4, A, F
Isadora, R. (2007a). The princess and the pea. New York: Putnam. TL2–4, A, F
Isadora, R. (2007b). Twelve dancing princesses. New York: Putnam. TL3–5, A, F
Isadora, R. (2007c). Yo, Jo! San Diego, CA: Harcourt. TL1–3, A, F
Iyengar, M. M. (2007). Romina’s rangoli. Walnut Creek, CA: Shen’s Books. TL4–5,
I, F
Jackson, E. (2003a). It’s back to school we go! First day stories from around the
world. Brookfield, CT: Millbrook Press. TL3–5, I, NF
Jackson, E. (2003b). My tour of Europe by Teddy Roosevelt, age 10. Brookfield, CT:
Millbrook Press. TL3–5, I, NF
James, B. (2006). Tadpoles. New York: Scholastic. TL4–5, A, F
Janeczko, P. (2001). A poke in the I: A collection of concrete poems. Cambridge, MA:
Candlewick Press. TL2–5, A, P
Jaramillo, A. (2006). La linea. New York: Roaring Brook. TL5, S, F
Jenkins, M. (2001). Chameleons are cool! Cambridge, MA: Candlewick Press. TL3–
5, A, NF
Jenkins, S. (1995). Biggest, strongest, fastest. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. TL1–4, A,
NF
Jenkins, S. (2001). Animals in flight. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. TL2–5, A, NF
Jenkins, S. (2002). Life on Earth: The story of evolution. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
TL4–5, I, NF
Jenkins, S. (2004). Hottest, coldest, highest, deepest. New York: Sandpiper. TL2–5,
A, NF
Jenkins, S., & Page, R. (2003). What do you do with a tail like this? Boston: Houghton
Mifflin. TL2–5, A, NF
Jenkins, S., & Page, R. (2006). Move! Boston: Houghton Mifflin. TL1–4, A, F
Ji, Z., & Xu, C. (2008). No! That’s wrong! La Jolla, CA: Kane/Miller. TL1–3, P, F
Jiménez, M. (1998). La mariposa. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. TL3–5, P, F
Johnson, A. (2007). Wind flyers. New York: Simon & Schuster. TL3–5, I, F
Johnson, S. (1999). Alphabet city. New York: Puffin. TL1–5, A, NF
Johnston, T. (1999). My Mexico/ México mío. New York: Putnam. TL3–5, I, P
Jonas, A. (1989). Color dance. New York: Greenwillow. TL1–3, P, NF
Joslin, S. (1986a). What do you do, dear? New York: HarperCollins. TL2–4, P, NF
Joslin, S. (1986b). What do you say, dear? New York: HarperCollins. TL2–4, P,
NF
Kalman, B. (1994). Homes around the world. New York: Crabtree. TL2–5, A, NF
Kaner, E. (2009). Have you ever seen a duck in a raincoat? Toronto, Ontario, Canada:
Kids Can Press. TL1–3, P, NF
Katz, B. (2006). Once around the sun. San Diego, CA: Harcourt. TL2–5, A, P
Katz, B. (2009). More pocket poems. New York: Dutton. TL2–5, A, P
Katz, K. (2007). My first Ramadan. New York: Holt. TL2–4, A, F
Keller, L. (2007). Do unto otters: A book about manners. New York: Holt. TL2–5,
A, F
Kelly, I. (2003). It’s a hummingbird’s life. New York: Holiday House. TL3–5, A, NF
Kennemore, T. (2008) Alice’s birthday pig. Grand Rapids, MI: Erdmans. TL4–5, I,
F
Kerley, B. (2006). A cool drink of water. Washington, DC: National Geographic.
TL1–4, A, NF
Kerley, B. (2007). A little peace. Washington, DC: National Geographic. TL1–4, A,
NF
Kerrin, J. S. (2008). Martin Bridge: In high gear. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Kids Can
Press. TL4–5, I, F
Kerrin, J. S. (2009). Martin Bridge: Onwards and upwards! Toronto, Ontario, Can-
ada: Kids Can Press. TL4–5, I, F
Kosaka, F. (2001). Let’s count the raindrops. New York: Viking. TL2–4, A, P
Krebs, L. (2003). We all went on safari: A counting journey through Tanzania. Cam-
bridge, MA: Barefoot Books. TL2–5, A, NF
Krebs, L. (2005). We’re sailing to the Galapagos: A week in the Pacific. Cambridge,
MA: Barefoot Books. TL2–5, A, NF
Krull, K. (2001). Supermarket. New York: Holiday House. TL2–4, A, NF
Krull, K. (2003a). Harvesting hope: The story of Cesar Chavez. San Diego, CA: Har-
court. TL3–5, A, NF
Krull, K. (2003b). M is for music. San Diego, CA: Harcourt. TL2–5, A, NF
Krull, K. (2007). Pochahontas: Princess of the new world. New York: Walker. TL3–5,
A, NF
Kurtz, J. (2005). In the small, small night. New York: Greenwillow. TL2–4, P, F
Kwon, Y. (2007). My cat copies me. La Jolla, CA: Kane/Miller. TL1–3, P, F
Landau, E. (2003). Popcorn! Watertown, MA: Charlesbridge.TL3–5, I, NF
Lauber, P. (1994). Volcano: The eruption and healing of Mount St. Helens. New York:
Simon & Schuster. TL3–5, I, NF
Lee, H. Y. (2008). Something for school. La Jolla, CA: Kane/Miller. TL2–3, P, F
Lee, M. (2006). Landed. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. TL4–5, I, F
Lee, S. (2007). The zoo. La Jolla, CA: Kane/Miller. TL1–2, P, F
Lee-Tai, A. (2006). A place where sunflowers grow. San Francisco: Children’s Book
Leedy, L. (2000a). Measuring Penny. New York: Holt. TL2–4, A, NF
Leedy, L. (2000b). Monster money book. New York: Holiday House. TL3–5, I, NF
Lehman, B. (2004). The red book. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. TL2–5, A, F
Lehman, B. (2006). Museum trip. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. TL2–5, A, F
Lehman, B. (2007). Rainstorm. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. TL2–5, A, F
Lerner, C. (2005). On the wing: American birds in migration. New York: HarperCol-
lins. TL3–5, I, NF
Le Rochais, M. (2001). Desert trek: An eye-opening journey through the world’s dri-
est places. New York: Walker. TL2–5, A, NF
Lessac, F. (2005). Island counting 1 2 3. Cambridge, MA: Candlewick Press. TL1–2,
A, F
Lester, A. (2009a). Horse crazy (Horse Crazy Series). San Francisco: Chronicle
Books. TL4–5, I, F
Lester, A. (2009b). The silver horse switch (Horse Crazy Series). San Francisco:
Chronicle Books. TL4–5, I, F
Levenson, G. (2004). Bread comes to life: A garden of wheat and a loaf to eat. Berk-
ley, CA: Tricycle Press. TL2–5, A, NF
Levine, E. (1995). I hate English! New York: Scholastic. TL3–5, A, F
Lewis, E. B. (2005). This little light of mine. New York: Simon & Schuster. TL1–5,
A, P
Lewis, J. P. (2002). Doodle dandies: Poems that take shape. New York: Atheneum.
TL2–5, A, P
Lewis, J. P. (2007). Big is big (and little, little): A book of contrasts. New York: Holi-
day House. TL1–4, A, P
Lionni, L. (1995). Inch by inch. New York: HarperCollins. TL2–4, P, F
Lipp, F. (2008). Running shoes. Watertown, MA: Charlesbridge. TL3–5, A, F
Ljungkvist, L. (2008). Follow the line around the world. New York: Viking. TL3–5,
A, NF
Llewellyn, C. (2008). Ask. Dr. K. Fisher about creepy-crawlies. New York: King-
fisher. TL2–5, A, F
Lofthouse, L. (2007). Ziba came by boat. La Jolla, CA: Kane/Miller. TL2–5, A, F
Lombard, J. (2006). Drita, my homegirl. New York: Putnam. TL5, S, F
Long, S. (2001). Twinkle, twinkle little star. San Francisco: Chronicle. TL1–3, P, F
Look, L. (2004). Ruby Lu, brave and true. New York: Atheneum. TL4–5, I, F
Look, L. (2006a). Ruby Lu, empress of everything. New York: Atheneum. TL4–5,
I, F
Look, L. (2006b). Uncle Peter’s amazing Chinese wedding. New York: Atheneum.
TL3–5, A, F
Lord, B. B. (1984). In the year of the boar and Jackie Robinson. New York: Harper
& Row. TL5, I-S, F
Lottridge, C. B. (2008). One watermelon seed. Markham, Ontario, Canada: Fit-
zhenry & Whiteside. TL2–4, A, NF
Lujan, J. (2008). Colors! Colores! Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Groundwood. TL3–5,
A, P
Lunde, D. (2007). Hello, bumblebee bat. Watertown, MA: Charlesbridge. TL2–5,
A, NF
MacDonald, M. R. (2004). Three minute tales: Stories from around the world to read
or tell when time is short. Little Rock, AR: August House. TL4–5, I, F
MacDonald, M. R. (2006a). Conejito: A folktale from Panama. Little Rock, AR:
August House. TL3–5, A, F
MacDonald, M. R. (2006b). Go to sleep, Gecko! A Balinese folktale. Little Rock, AR:
August House. TL3–5, A, F
MacDonald, M. R. (2007a). Five minute tales: More stories to read and tell when
time is short. Little Rock, AR: August House. TL4–5, I, F
MacDonald, M. R. (2007b). The great smelly, slobbery, small-tooth dog: A folktale
from Great Britain. Little Rock, AR: August House. TL3–5, A, F
MacDonald, S. (2009). Shape by shape. New York: Simon & Schuster. TL1–3, P,
NF
Mado, M. (1992). The animals. New York: McElderry. TL3–5, I, P
Mado, M. (1998). The magic pocket: Selected poems. New York: McElderry. TL1–5,
A, P
Mak, K. (2001). My Chinatown: One year in poems. New York: HarperCollins. TL3–
5, A, P
Markle, S. (2001). Growing up wild: Wolves. New York: Atheneum. TL3–5, A, NF
Markle, S. (2002). Growing up wild: Penguins. New York: Atheneum. TL3–5, A,
NF
Markle, S. (2003). Outside and inside big cats. New York: Atheneum. TL3–5, NF
Markle, S. (2005). Outside and inside giant squid. New York: Walker. TL3–5, A,
NF
Markle, S. (2008a). Outside and inside rats and mice. New York: Aladdin. TL3–5,
I, NF
Markle, S. (2008b). Sneaky, spinning baby spiders. New York: Walker. TL3–5, A,
NF
Martin, Jr., B. (2007). Here are my hands. New York: Henry Holt. TL1–3, P, NF
Martin, Jr., B., & Sampson, M. (2004). I pledge allegiance. Cambridge, MA: Candle-
wick. TL2–5, A, NF
Marzollo, J. (1997). Pretend you’re a cat. New York: Puffin. TL1–2, P, F
Matthews, T. (2007). Out of the egg. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. TL2–3, A, F
Mayhew, J. (2008). Where’s my hug? New York: Bloomsbury. TL2–5, A, F
McClure, G. (2008). The land of the Dragon King and other Korean stories. London:
Lincoln. TL4–5, I, F
McDonald, F. (1996). I love animals. Cambridge, MA: Candlewick Press. TL2–4,
P, F
McGrath, B. B. (2003). Soccer counts! Watertown, MA: Charlesbridge. TL2–5, A,
NF
McKissack, P. C. (2007). A song for Harlem. New York: Viking. TL4–5, I, F
McMillan, B. (1989). Time to. New York: Lothrop, Lee & Shepard. TL1–3, P, NF
McMillan, B. (1992). One sun: A book of terse verse. New York: Holiday House.
TL1–3, A, P
McMillan, B. (1994). Growing colors. New York: Mulberry. TL1–3, P, NF
Medina, J. (1999). My name is Jorge on both sides of the river. Honesdale, PA: Boyds
Mills Press. TL3–5, A, P
Melmed, L.K. (2003). Capital! Washington D.C. from A to Z. New York: HarperCol-
lins. TL2–5, A, NF
Micucci, C. (2006). The life and times of the ant. New York: Sandpiper. TL3–5, I,
NF
Milich, Z. (2005). City signs. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Kids Can Press. TL1–5, A,
NF
Millard, A. (1998). A street through time. New York: DK. TL4–5, I, NF
Miller, D. S. (2003). Are trees alive? New York: Walker. TL2–5, A, NF
Miura, T. (2006). Ton. San Francisco: Chronicle. TL1–2, P, NF
Miura, T. (2007). Tools. San Francisco: Chronicle. TL1–2, P, NF
Mobin-Uddin, A. (2005). My name is Bilal. Honesdale, PA: Boyds Mills Press. TL4–
5, I, F
Mobin-Uddin, A. (2007). The best Eid ever. Honesdale, PA: Boyds Mills Press. TL4–
5, I, F
Montanari, D. (2004). Children around the world. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Kids
Can Press. TL2–4, A, NF
Moodie, F. (2008). Noko’s surprise party. London: Lincoln. TL3–5, A, F
Moore, L. (2005). Mural on second avenue and other city poems. Cambridge, MA:
Candlewick Press. TL2–5, A, P
Mora, P. (1999). Confetti: Poems for children. New York: Lee & Low. TL2–5, A, P
Mora, P. (1997). Tomás and the library lady. New York: Knopf. TL4–5, A, F
Mora, P. (2007). Yum! Mmmm! Que rico! America’s sproutlings. New York: Lee &
Low. TL3–5, A, P
Mora, P. (2008). Join hands: The ways we celebrate life. Watertown, MA: Charles-
bridge. TL2–4, P, NF
Morgan, P. (1996). The turnip. New York: Putnam. TL2–3, A, F
Morris, A. (1993a). Bread, bread, bread. New York: HarperCollins. TL1–4, A, NF
Morris, A. (1993b). Hats, hats, hats. New York: HarperCollins. TL1–4, A, NF
Morris, A. (1993c). Weddings. New York: HarperCollins. TL1–4, A, NF
Morris, A. (1994). On the go. New York: HarperCollins. TL1–4, A, NF
Morris, A. (1998a). Shoes, shoes, shoes. New York: HarperCollins. TL1–4, A, NF
Morris, A. (1998b). Tools. New York: HarperCollins. TL1–4, A, NF
Morris, A. (2000). Families. New York: HarperCollins. TL1–4, A, NF
Morris, A. (2005). Houses and homes. New York: HarperCollins. TL1–4, A, NF
Moss, M. (2001). Rachel’s journal: The story of a pioneer girl. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin. TL4–5, I, F
Na, A. (2001). A step from Heaven. Honesdale, PA: Front Street. TL5, S, F
Na, A. (2006). Wait for me. New York: Putnam. TL5, S, F
Na, A. (2008). The fold. New York: Putnam. TL5, S, F
Nayar, N. (2009). What should I make? Berkley: Tricycle Press. TL1–3, P, F
Nelson, K. (2005). He’s got the whole world in His hands. New York: Dial. TL1–5,
A, P
Nicholson, C. D. (2008). Niwechihaw, I help. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Ground-
wood. TL1–2, P, F
Nishiyama, A. (2004). Wonderful houses around the world. Bolinas, CA: Shelter.
TL3–5, I, NF
Nitto, T. (2006). The Red rock: The graphic fable. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Ground-
wood. TL2–5, A, F
Nye, N. S. (1997). Sitti’s secrets. New York: Aladdin. TL3–5, A, F
Okimoto, J. D. (2007). Winston of Churchill: One bear’s battle against global warm-
ing. Seattle, WA: Sasquatch. TL2–5, A, F
Older, J. (2000). Telling time: How to tell time on digital and analog clocks. Water-
town, MA: Charlesbridge. TL2–4, P, NF
Otto, C. (2008). Celebrate Cinco de Mayo with fiestas, music and dance. Washing-
ton, DC: National Geographic. TL3–5, I, NF
Pak, S. (1999). Dear Juno. New York: Viking. TL3–5, P, F
Paraskevas, B. (1995). Gracie Graves and the kids from room 402. San Diego, CA:
Harcourt. TL2–5, A, P
Park, F., & Park, G. (2002). Good-bye, 382 Shin Dang Dong. Washington, DC:
National Geographic. TL4–5, A, F
Park, F., & Park, G. (2005). The have a good day café. New York: Lee & Low. TL4–5,
I, F
Park, L. S. (2004). The firekeeper’s son. New York: Sandpiper. TL2–5, A, F
Park, L. S. (2005). Bee-bim bop! New York: Clarion. TL2–4, P, F
Parker, T. T. (2005). Sienna’s scrapbook: Our African American heritage trip. San
Francisco: Chronicle. TL4–5, I, F
Patz, N., & Roth, S. (2007). Babies can’t eat kimchee! New York: Bloomsbury. TL2–3,
P, F
Pelletier, D. (1996). The graphic alphabet. New York: Scholastic. TL1–5, A, NF
Pennypacker, S. (2008). Clementine’s letter. New York: Hyperion. TL4–5, I, F
Perez, A. I. (2002). My diary from here to there/ Mi diario de aqui hasta alla. San
Francisco: Children’s Book Press. TL4–5, A, F
Peters, L. W. (2003). Our family tree: An evolution story. San Diego, CA: Harcourt.
TL3–5, I, NF
Pinchon, L. (2008). Penguins. New York: Orchard. TL2–4, P, F
Pinkney, M., & Pinkney, S. (2007). I am Latino: The beauty in me. New York: Little,
Brown. TL2–4, A, F
Poole, A. (2005). The pea blossom. New York: Holiday House. TL3–5, A, F
Porter, P. (2008). Yellow moon, apple moon. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Groundwood
Books. TL1–5, P, P
Post, H., & Heij, K. (2008). Sparrows. Honesdale, PA: Boyds Mills Press. TL2–5,
A, NF
Prelutsky, J. (2007). Me I am! New York: Random House. TL2–4, A, P
Prelutksy, J. (2008). It’s Thanksgiving! New York: HarperCollins. TL2–4, A, P
Pringle, L. (2002). Crows! Strange and wonderful. Honesdale, PA: Boyds Mills
Press. TL4–5, I, NF
Pringle, L. (2003). Whales! Strange and wonderful. Honesdale, PA: Boyds Mills
Press. TL4–5, I, NF
Quarmby, K. (2008). Fussy Freya. London: Lincoln. TL3–5, A, F
Raschka, C. (1993). Yo! Yes. New York: Scholastic. TL1–2, A, F
Ravishankar, A. (2008). Elephants never forget. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. TL2–4,
A, F
Recorvits, H. (2002). My name is Yoon. New York: Foster. TL3–5, P, F
Reynolds, J. (2006). Celebrate! Connections among cultures. New York: Lee & Low.
TL3–5, I, NF
Rinck, M. (2008). I feel a foot! Rotterdam, Netherlands: Lemniscaat. TL2–4, A, F
Rink, C. A. (2002). Where does the wind blow? Nevada City, CA: Dawn. TL2–3,
A, F
Ritchie, S. (2009). Follow that map! A first look at mapping skills. Toronto, Ontario,
Canada: Kids Can Press. TL3–5, A, NF
Robinson, A., & Young, A. (2008). Gervelie’s journey: A refugee diary. London: Lin-
coln. TL3–5, I, NF
Rockwell, A. (2000). Career day. New York: HarperCollins. TL3–5, A, F
Rockwell, A. (2001). Bugs are insects. New York: HarperCollins. TL3–5, A, NF
Rockwell, A. (2002). Becoming butterflies. New York: Walker. TL3–5, A, NF
Root, P. (2002). Big mama makes the world. Cambridge, MA: Candlewick Press.
TL2–5, A, F
Ryan, P. M. (1996). 100 is a family. New York: Hyperion. TL2–5, A, F
Ryden, H. (1988). Wild animals of America ABC. New York: Dutton. TL2–5, A, NF
Ryder, J. (2001). Little panda: The world welcomes Hua Mei at the San Diego Zoo.
New York: Simon & Schuster. TL2–5, A, NF
Rylant, C. (2008). Alligator Boy. New York: Harcourt. TL2–4, A, F

Sakai, K. (2009). The snow day. New York: Levine. TL1–3, P, F
Say, A. (2005). Kamichibai man. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. TL3–5, I, F
Sayre, A. P. (2001). Dig, wait, listen: A desert toad’s tale. New York: Greenwillow.
TL2–4, A, F
Sayre, A. P. (2002a). Army ant parade. New York: Holt. TL3–5, A, NF
Sayre, A. P. (2002b). Shadows. New York: Holt. TL2–4, A, F
Sayre, A. P., & Sayre, J. (2003). One is a snail, ten is a crab: A counting by feet book.
Cambridge, MA: Candlewick Press. TL1–4, A, NF
Schaefer, L. M. (2004). Pick, pull, snap! Where a flower once bloomed. New York:
Greenwillow. TL3–5, A, NF
Schanzer, R. (1998). How we crossed the west: The adventures of Lewis and Clark.
Washington, DC: National Geographic. TL3–5, I, NF
Schertle, A. (2007). We. New York: Lee & Low. TL3–5, A, NF
Schneider, R. M. (1995) Add it, dip it, fix it: A book of verbs. Boston: Houghton Mif-
flin. TL1–2, P, NF
Schubert, I. (2008). Like people. Honesdale, PA: Boyds Mills Press. TL2–4, A, NF
Schuett, S. (1997). Somewhere in the world right now. Albuquerque, NM: Dragonfly
Books. TL2–5, A, F
Schwartz, A. (1992). And the green grass grew all around: Folk poetry from every-
one. TL2–5, A, F
Sciurba, K. (2007). Oye, Celia!: A song for Celia Cruz. New York: Holt. TL2–5, I, F
Seuling, B. (2003). Flick a switch: How electricity gets to your home. New York:
Holiday House. TL3–5, A, NF
Shahan, S. (2004). Spicy hot colors/ colores picantes. Little Rock, AR: August House.
TL1–5, A, NF
Shahan, S. (2005). Cool cats counting. Little Rock, AR: August House. TL1–5, A,
NF
Shannon, G. (2007). Rabbit’s gift. San Diego, CA: Harcourt. TL2–4, A, F
Shaw, N. (1986). Sheep in a jeep. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. TL1–2, P, F
Shaw, N. (1989). Sheep on a ship. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. TL1–2, P, F
Shaw, N. (1991). Sheep in a shop. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. TL1–2, P, F
Shaw, N. (1992). Sheep out to eat. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. TL1–2, P, F
Shaw, N. (1994). Sheep take a hike. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. TL1–2, P, F
Shaw, N. (1997). Sheep trick or treat. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. TL1–2, P, F
Shaw, N. (2003). Raccoon tune. New York: Holt. TL1–2, P, F
Shaw, N. (2008). Sheep blast off. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. TL1–2, P, F
Shea, P. D. (1996). The whispering cloth: A refugee’s story. Honesdale, PA: Boyds
Mills. TL2–5, I, F
Shea, P. D. (2003). Tangled threads: A Hmong girl’s story. New York: Clarion. TL4–
5, S, F
Sheth, K. (2007). My dadima wears a sari. Atlanta, GA: Peachtree. TL4–5, A, F
Shields, G. (2008). Dogfish. New York: Atheneum. TL2–4, A, F
Shore, D. Z., & Alexander, J. (2006). This is the dream. New York: HarperCollins.
TL2–5, I, P
Showers, P. (1994). Where does the garbage go? New York: HarperCollins. TL2–4,
A, NF
Sidman, J. (2009). Red sings from tree tops: A year in colors. Boston: Houghton Mif-
flin. TL3–5, A, P
Siebert, D. (1992). Mojave. New York: HarperCollins. TL3–5, I, P
Siebert, D. (1996). Sierra. New York: HarperCollins. TL3–5, I, P
Siebert, D. (2000). Cave. New York: HarperCollins. TL3–5, I, P
Siebert, D. (2001). Mississippi. New York: HarperCollins. TL3–5, I, P
Sill, C. P. (1991). About birds. Atlanta, GA: Peachtree. TL2–4, A, NF
Sill, C. P. (1997). About mammals. Atlanta, GA: Peachtree. TL2–4, A, NF
Sill, C. P. (1999). About reptiles. Atlanta, GA: Peachtree. TL2–4, A, NF
Sill, C. P. (2000a). About amphibians. Atlanta, GA: Peachtree. TL2–4, A, NF
Sill, C. P. (2000b). About insects. Atlanta, GA: Peachtree. TL2–4, A, NF
Sill, C. P. (2001). About amphibians: A guide for children. Atlanta, GA: Peachtree.
TL2–4, A, NF
Sill, C. P. (2002). About fish. Atlanta, GA: Peachtree. TL2–4, A, NF
Sill, C. P. (2003). About arachnids. Atlanta, GA: Peachtree. TL2–4, A, NF
Sill, C. P. (2008a). About deserts. Atlanta, GA: Peachtree. TL2–4, A, NF
Sill, C. P. (2008b). About rodents. Atlanta, GA: Peachtree. TL2–4, A, NF
Sill, C. P. (2008c). About wetlands. Atlanta, GA: Peachtree. TL2–4, A, NF
Sill, C. P. (2009). About penguins. Atlanta, GA: Peachtree. TL2–4, A, NF
Silverstein, S. (2000). Where the sidewalk ends. New York: HarperCollins. TL1–5,
A, P
Silverstein, S. (2001). A light in the attic. New York: HarperCollins. TL1–5, A, P
Simon, S. (1992). Storms. New York: HarperCollins. TL4–5, I, NF
Simon, S. (1994a). Autumn across America. New York: HarperCollins. TL4–5, I,
NF
Simon, S. (1994b). Winter across America. New York: HarperCollins. TL4–5, I, NF
Simon, S. (1995a). Volcanoes. New York: HarperCollins. TL4–5, I, NF
Simon, S. (1995b). Wolves. New York: HarperCollins. TL4–5, I, NF
Simon, S. (2002). Animals nobody loves. San Francisco: Chronicle. TL3–5, I, NF
Simon, S. (2006a). Earthquakes. New York: HarperCollins. TL4–5, I, NF
Simon, S. (2006b). Lightning. New York: HarperCollins. TL4–5, I, NF
Simon, S. (2006c). Sharks. New York: HarperCollins. TL3–5, A, NF
Simon, S. (2006d). Whales. New York: HarperCollins. TL3–5, A, NF
Simon, S. (2009). Wolves. New York: HarperCollins. TL3–5, A, NF
Simon, S., & Fauteux, N. (2003a). Let’s try it out in the air: Hands-on early-learning
science activities. New York: Aladdin. TL3–5, A, NF
Simon, S., & Fauteux, N. (2003b). Let’s try it out in the water: Hands-on early-
learning science activities. New York: Aladdin. TL3–5, A, NF
Simon, S., & Fauteux, N. (2003c). Let’s try it with towers and bridges: Hands-on
early-learning science activities. New York: Simon & Schuster. TL3–5, A, NF
Smith, J. (2009). Little mouse gets ready. New York: Raw Junior. TL1–2, P, F
Smith, P., & Shaley, Z. (2007). A school like mine. New York: DK. TL2–5, A, NF
Sobol, R. (2004). An elephant in the backyard. New York: Dutton. TL3–5, I, NF
Soto, G. (1994). Too many tamales. New York: Putnam. TL3–4, A, F
Soto, G. (1996). Que monton de tamales! New York: PaperStar. TL3–4, A, F
Spanyol, J. (2003). Carlos likes colors. Cambridge, MA: Candlewick Press. TL1, P,
F
Stanton, K. (2007). Papi’s gift. Honesdale, PA: Boyds Mills Press. TL3–5, A, F
Stauffacher, S. (2007). Nothing but trouble: The story of Althea Gibson. New York:
Knopf. TL3–5, A, NF
Steele, P. (2004). A city through time. New York: DK. TL4–5, I, NF
Steffensmeier, A. (2008). Millie in the snow. New York: Walker. TL2–4, A, F
Steggal, S. (2008). The life of a car. New York: Holt. TL1–2, P, NF
Stewart, M. (2008). When rain falls. Atlanta, GA: Peachtree. TL3–5, A, NF
Stock, C. (1993). Where are you going, Manyoni? New York: HarperCollins. TL2–5,
A, F
Stockdale, S. (2008). Fabulous fishes. Atlanta, GA: Peachtree. TL2–4, A, NF
Surat, M. M. (1989). Angel child, dragon child. New York: Scholastic. TL3–5, A, F
Swain, R. F. (2003). How sweet it is (and was): The history of candy. New York: Holi-
day House. TL3–5, A, NF
Swinburne, S. R. (2000). What’s opposite? Honesdale, PA: Boyds Mills Press. TL1–
3, P, NF
Swinburne, S. R. (2002a). Go go go! Kids on the move. Honesdale, PA: Boyds Mills
Press. TL1–2, P, NF
Swinburne, S. R. (2002b). What color is nature? Honesdale, PA: Boyds Mills Press.
TL1–2, P, NF
Symes, H. (2008). Harriet dancing. New York: The Chicken House. TL2–4, A, F
Taback, S. (1997). There was an old lady who swallowed a fly. New York: Dutton.
TL2–4, A, F
Taback, S. (2002). This is the house that Jack built. New York: Putnam. TL2–4, A, F
Tafuri, N. (2000). Snow, flowy, blowy: A twelve months rhyme. New York: Scholas-
tic. TL1–5, A, F
Tan, S. (2006). The arrival. New York: Levine. TL4–5, IS, F
Tatham, B. (2001). Penguin chick. New York: HarperCollins. TL3–5, A, NF
Taylor, S. (2008). The great snake: Stories from the Amazon. London: Frances Lin-
coln. TL4–5, I, F
Testa, M. (2005). Something about America. Cambridge, MA: Candlewick Press.
TL4–5, S, P
Thompson, H. (2007). The Wakame gatherers. Walnut Creek, CA: Shen’s Books.
TL4–5, I, F
Thompson, S. (2003). Stars and stripes: The story of the American flag. New York:
HarperCollins. TL3–5, I, NH
Thong, R. (2000). Round is a mooncake: A book of shapes. San Francisco: Chronicle.
TL2–4, A, F
Thong, R. (2008). One is a drummer: A book about numbers. San Francisco: Chron-
icle. TL2–4, A, F
Thong, T. (2008). Red is a dragon: A book of colors. San Francisco: Chronicle. TL2–
4, A, F
Toksvig, S. (1998). If I didn’t have elbows. New York: Kingfisher. TL2–4, P, NF
Tougas, C. (2008). Art’s supplies. Victoria, BC: Orca. TL3–5, A, F
Uegaki, C. (2008). Rosie and Buttercup. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Kids Can Press.
TL3–5, A, F
Vila, L. (2008). Building Manhattan. New York: Viking. TL3–5, A, NF
Voake, J. (2008). Tweedle-dee-dee. Cambridge, MA: Candlewick Press. TL2–5, A,
P
Voake, S. (2008). Daisy Dawson is on her way! Cambridge, MA: Candlewick Press.
TL4–5, I, F
Voake, S. (2009). Daisy Dawson and the secret pond. Watertown, MA: Candlewick
Waldman, N. (2003). The snowflake: A water cycle story. Brookfield, CT: Millbrook
Press. TL3–5, A, NF
Walker, A. (2007). Why war is never a good idea. New York: HarperCollins. TL3–5,
I, P
Wallace, N. E. (2005). A taste of honey. New York: Cavendish. TL2–4, P, NF
Walsh, E. S. (1995). Mouse count. New York: Voyager Books. TL1–3, P, F
Walsh, M. (2008). Ten things I can do to help my world. Cambridge, MA: Candle-
wick Press. TL1–4, A, NF
Ward, C. (1997). Cookie’s week. New York: Putnam. TL1–3, P, F
Waring, G. (2008).Oscar the bat: A book about sound. Cambridge, MA: Candlewick
Watt, M. (2006). Scaredy squirrel. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Kids Can Press. TL3–
5, A, F
Watt, M. (2007). Scaredy squirrel makes a friend. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Kids
Can Press. TL3–5, A, F
Watt, M. (2008). Scaredy squirrel at the beach. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Kids Can
Watt, M. (2009). Scaredy squirrel at night. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Kids Can
Webb, S. (2000). My season with penguins: An Antarctic journal. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin. TL4–5, I, NF
Weeks, S. (2006). Counting ovejas. New York: Atheneum. TL1, P, F
Wells, R. (2000). Bunny money. New York: Puffin. TL2–3, P, F
Wells, R. (2005). Emily’s first 100 days of school. New York: Hyperion. TL1–3, P, F
Wells, R. (2008). Yoko writes her name. New York: Hyperion. TL2–3, P, F
Wells, R. (2009). Shopping. New York: Viking. TL1–3, P, F
Wiesner, D. (1991). Tuesday. New York: Clarion. TL2–5, A, F
Wiesner, D. (2006). Flotsam. New York: Clarion. TL2–5, A, F
Wiesner, D. (2008). Free fall. New York: HarperCollins. TL2–5, A, F
Wilkes, A. ( 2002). A farm through time. New York: DK. TL4–5, I, NF
Wilkes, A. (2007). Animal homes. New York: Kingfisher. TL3–5, I, NF
Willems, M. (2009). Naked mole rat gets dressed. New York: Hyperion. TL2–4, A,
F
Williams, K. L., & Mohammad, K. (2007). Four feet, two sandals. Grand Rapids, MI:
Eerdmans. TL3–5, A, F
Williams, M. (2005). Brothers in hope: The story of the lost boys of Sudan. New York:
Lee & Low. TL4–5, I, F
Williams, M. (2007). Archie’s war: My scrapbook of the first world war, 1914–1918.
Cambridge, MA: Candlewick Press. TL4–5, I, F
Williams, R. L. (2001). The coin counting book. Watertown, MA: Charlesbridge.
TL1–3, A, NF
Williams, S. (1990). I went walking. San Diego, CA: Gulliver Books. TL1–3, P, F
Williams, V. (1984). A chair for my mother. New York: Greenwillow. TL2–4, P, F
Willis, J. (2008). Cottonball Colin. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. TL2–4, A, F
Wilson, K. (2007). How to bake an American pie. New York: McElderry. TL3–5, I,
F
Winer, Y. (2003). Frogs sing songs. Watertown, MA: Charlesbridge. TL3–5, I, P
Winter, J. (2006). Mama: A true story in which a baby hippo loses his mama during
a tsunami but finds a new home, and a new mama. San Diego, CA: Harcourt.
TL1–2, P, NF
Winter, J. (2007). Angelina’s island. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. TL2–4, A,
F
Winters, K. (2008). Colonial voices: Hear them speak. New York: Dutton. TL4–5,
I, NF
Wolf, A. (2009). When Lucy goes out walking: A puppy’s first year. New York: Holt.
TL2–4, P, F
Wolf, B. (2003). Coming to America: A Muslim family’s story. New York: Lee & Low.
TL4–5, I, NF
Wolff, F. (2008). The story blanket. Atlanta, GA: Peachtree. TL2–4, A, F
Wong, J. (2000). The trip back home. San Diego, CA: Harcourt. TL2–5, A, F
Wong, J. (2002). Apple pie 4th of July. San Diego, CA: Harcourt. TL2–4, A, F
Wong, J. (2007a). Good luck gold. Seattle: BookSurge. TL3–5, I, P
Wong, J. (2007b). Night garden: Poems from the world of dreams. New York: Alad-
din. TL3–5, I, P
Wong, J. (2008a). The rainbow hand. Seattle, WA: BookSurge. TL3–5, I, P
Wong, J. (2008b). A suitcase of seaweed and other poems. Seattle, WA: BookSurge.
TL3–5, I, P
Wong, J. S. (2000). This next new year. New York: Foster. TL2–4, A, F
Yang, B. (2004). Hannah is my name. Cambridge, MA: Candlewick Press. TL4–5,
A, F
Yang, G. L. (2007). American born Chinese. New York: First Second. TL5, S, F
Yim, S. (2002). Ruby’s wish. San Francisco: Chronicle. TL4–5, I, F
Yolen, J. (1992). Street rhymes around the world. Honesdale, PA: Wordsong/Boyds
Mill Press. TL2–5, A, F
Yolen, J. (2005). Snow, snow: Winter poems for children. Honesdale, PA: Boyds Mills
Zaunders, B. (2001). Feathers, flaps, & flops: Fabulous early fliers. New York: Dut-
ton. TL3–5, A, NF
Zelinksy, P. O. (1990). The wheels on the bus. New York: Dutton. TL1–3, P, F
Zelinksy, P. O. (2002). Knick knack paddywhack. New York: Dutton. TL1–3, P, F
References
Allen, V. G. (1994). Selecting materials for the reading instruction of ESL children.
In K. Spangenberg-Urbschat & R. Pritchard (Eds.), Kids come in all languages:
Reading instruction for ESL students (pp. 108–131). Newark, DE: Interna-
tional Reading Association.
Allington, R. L. (2009a). What really matters in fluency: Research-based practices
across the curriculum. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Allington, R. L. (2009b). What really matters in response to intervention: Research-
based designs. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Anderson, J., Anderson, A., Lynch, J., & Shapiro, J. (2003). Storybook reading in a
multicultural society: Critical perspectives. In A. van Kleek, S. A. Stahl, & E.
B. Bauer (Eds.), On reading books to children: Parents and teachers (pp. 203–
230). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Anderson, T. H., & Armbruster, B. B. (1986). Readable textbooks: Or, selecting a
textbook is not like buying a pair of shoes. In J. Orasanu (Ed.), Reading compre-
hension: From research to practice (pp. 151–162). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Angus, C. (2007). Keys to global understanding: Notable books for a global society
text sets. In N. L. Hadaway & M. J. McKenna (Eds.), Breaking boundaries
with global literature: Celebrating diversity In K–12 classrooms (pp. 131–140).
Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Armbruster, B., & Anderson, T. H. (1985). Producing “considerate” expository text:
Or easy reading is damned hard writing. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 17,
247–263.
Arreaga-Mayer, C., & Perdomo-R ivera, C. (1996). Ecobehavioral analysis of instruc-
tion for at-risk language-minority students. Elementary School Journal, 96(3),
245–258.
Asher, J. (1982). Learning another language through actions: The complete teachers’
guidebook. Los Gatos, CA: Sky Oaks.
Association of Library Services for Children. (2005). Bilingual books for children
booklist. Retrieved June 7, 2006, from www.ala.org/ala/alsc/alscresources/
booklists/bilingualbooks.htm.
237
238 References
August, D., Beck, I. L., Calderón, M., Francis, D. J., Lesaux, N. K., Shanahan, T., et
al. (2008). Instruction and professional development. In D. August & T. Sha-
nahan (Eds.), Developing reading and writing in second-language learners:
Lessons from the report of the National Literacy Panel on language-minority
children and youth (pp. 131–250). New York: Routledge.
Beaty, J. J. (1997). Building bridges with multicultural picture books: For children
3–5. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Beck, I. L., McKeown, M., Omanson, R., & Pople, M. (1984). Improving the compre-
hensibility of stories: The effects of revisions that improve coherence. Reading
Research Quarterly, 19, 263–277.
Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., & Kucan, L. (2002). Bringing words to life: Robust
vocabulary instruction. New York: Guilford Press.
Bermúdez, A. B. (1994). Doing our homework: How schools can engage Hispanic
communities. Culturally and Linguistically Appropriate Services, Early Child-
hood Research Institute. Retrieved July 8, 2007, from clas.uiuc.edu/fulltext/
cl00136/chapter1.html.
Bishop, R. S. (1997). Selecting literature for a multicultural curriculum. In V. J. Har-
ris (Ed.), Using multiethnic literature in the K–8 classroom (pp. 1–20). Nor-
wood, MA: Christopher-Gordon.
Bridge, C. (1986). Predictable books for beginning readers and writers. In M. R.
Sampson (Ed.), The pursuit of literacy: Early reading and writing (pp. 50–66).
Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt.
Brozo, W. G., & Flynt, E. (2008). Motivating students to read in the content class-
room: Six evidence-based principles. The Reading Teacher, 62, 172–174.
Buhrow, B., & Garcia, A. U. (2006). Ladybugs, tornadoes, and swirling galaxies:
English language learners discover their world through inquiry. Portland,
ME: Stenhouse.
Capellini, M. (2005). Balancing reading & language learning: A resource for teach-
ing English language learners, K–5. Newark, DE: International Reading Asso-
ciation.
Cassidy, J., & Cassidy, D. (2004–2005). What’s hot, what’s not for 2005. Reading
Today, 22, 1.
Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement (CIERA). (2003). Put
reading first: The building blocks of reading instruction, kindergarten through
grade 3 (2nd ed.). Retrieved September 9, 2009, from www.nifl.gov/partner-
shipforreading/publications/Cierra.pdf.
Chamot, A. U., & O’Malley, J. M. (1987). The cognitive academic learning approach:
A bridge to the mainstream. TESOL Quarterly, 21, 227–249.
Chatton, B. (2009). Using poetry across the curriculum: Learning to love language.
Santa Barbara, CA: Libraries Unlimited.
Christian, D. (2004). Advancing the achievement of English language learners.
Paper presented at the Fourth Annual Claiborne Pell Education Policy Semi-
nar. Retrieved October 31, 2004, from www.alliance.brown.edu/pubs/IS2000/
downloads/christian.pdf.
Christison, M. A., & Bassano, S. (1995). Purple cows & potato chips: Multisensory
language acquisition activities. Provo, UT: Alta Book Center.
Collier, V. P. (1989). How long? A synthesis of research on academic achievement in
a second language. TESOL Quarterly, 23, 509–531.
References 239
Colorín Colorado. (2007). Capitalizing on similarities and differences between

Spanish and English. Retrieved April 2, 2008, from www.colorincolorado.org/
educators/background/capitalizing.
Cornell, E. H., Sénéchal, M., & Brodo, L. S. (1988). Recall of picture books by
3-year-old children: Testing and repetition effects in joint reading activities.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 80(4), 537–542.
Crago, H., & Crago, M. (1976). The untrained eye? A preschool child explores Felix
Hoffman’s “Rapunzel.” Children’s Literature in Education, 22, 135–151.
Cullinan, B. E. (1993). Fact and fiction across the curriculum. Newark, DE: Inter-
national Reading Association.
Cullinan, B. E., Scala, M. C., & Schroder, V. C. (1995). Three voices: An invitation to
poetry across the curriculum. York, ME: Stenhouse.
Cummins, J. (1980). The construct of language proficiency in bilingual education. In
J. E. Alatis (Ed.), Georgetown University roundtable on languages and linguis-
tics (pp. 76–93). Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.
Cummins, J. (1981). The role of primary language development in promoting edu-
cational success for language minority students. In Schooling and language
minority students: A theoretical framework. Sacramento: California State
Department of Education.
Cummins, J. (2001). Negotiating identities: Education for empowerment in a diverse
society. Los Angeles: California Association for Bilingual Education.
Cummins, J. (2003). Reading and the bilingual student: Fact and friction. In G.
Garcia (Ed.), English learners: Reaching the highest levels of English literacy
(pp. 2–33). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Cummins, J., & Schecter, S. (2003). School-based language policy in culturally diverse
contexts. In S. Schecter & J. Cummins (Eds.), Multilingual education in practice:
Using diversity as a resource (pp. 1–16). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Cunningham, P. M. (2007). Best practices in teaching phonological awareness and
phonics. In L. B. Gambrell, L. M. Morrow, & M. Pressley (Eds.), Best practices
in literacy instruction (pp. 159–177). New York: Guilford Press.
Dorfman, L. R., & Cappelli, R. (2007). Mentor texts: Teaching writing through chil-
dren’s literature, K–6. Portland, ME: Stenhouse.
Duke, N. K. (2000). 3.6 minutes per day: The scarcity of informational texts in first
grade. Reading Research Quarterly, 35, 202–224.
Duke, N. K. (2003). Informational text? The research says, “Yes!” In L. Hoyt, M.
Mooney, & B. Parkes (Eds.), Exploring informational texts: From theory to
practice (pp. 2–7). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Duke, N. K., & Bennett-A rmistead, V. S. (2003). Reading and writing informational
text in the primary grades: Research-based practices. New York: Scholastic.
Dulay, H. C., & Burt, M. K. (1974). Errors and strategies in child second language
acquisition. TESOL Quarterly, 8, 129–136.
Echevarria, J., Vogt, M. E., & Short, D. (2008). Making content comprehensible for
English learners: The SIOP model. Boston: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon.
Ehmann, S., & Gayer, K. (2009). I can write like that! A guide to mentor texts and
craft studies for writer’s workshop, K–6. Newark, DE: International Reading
Association.
Elley, W. B. (1989). Vocabulary acquisition from listening to stories. Reading
240 References
Ernst-Slavit, G., & Mulhern, M. (2003, September/October). Bilingual books: Pro-

moting literacy and biliteracy in the second-language and mainstream class-
room. Reading Online, 7(2). Available at www.readingonline.org/articles/art_
index.asp?HREF=ernst-slavit/index.html.
Ervin-Tripp, S. (1974). Is second language learning like the first? TESOL Quarterly,
8, 111–127.
Evers, A. J., Lang, L. F., & Smith, S. V. (2009). An ABC literacy journey: Anchor-
ing in text, bridging literacy, and creating stories. The Reading Teacher, 62,
461–470.
Fagin, L. (1991). The list poem: A guide to teaching and writing catalog verse. New
York: Teachers and Writers Collaborative.
Fillmore, L. W. (2002). Issues of language differences and literacy development:
What do language minority students need? Paper presented at the Spicola
Forum, Texas Woman’s University, Denton, TX.
Fillmore, L. W., & Snow, C. E. (2002). What teachers need to know about language.
Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics, ERIC Clearinghouse on
Languages and Linguistics. Retrieved December 12, 2002, from www.cal.org/
ericcll/teachers/teachers.pdf.
Fisher, D., Flood, J., Lapp, D., & Frey, N. (2004). Interactive read-alouds: Is there a
common set of implementation practices? The Reading Teacher, 58, 8–17.
Freeman, D. E., & Freeman, Y. S. (2006). Teaching language through content themes:
Viewing our world as a global village. In T. A. Young & N. L. Hadaway (Eds.),
Supporting the literacy development of English learners: Increasing success in
all classrooms (pp. 61–78). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Freeman, D. E., & Freeman, Y. S. (2007). English language learners: The essential
guide. New York: Scholastic.
Freeman, Y., & Freeman, D. (2004). Connecting students to culturally relevant texts.
Talking Points, 15, 7–11.
García, G. E. (2000). Bilingual children’s reading. In M. L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal,
P. D. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.), Handbook of reading research, Volume III
(pp. 813–834). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Gardner, D. (2008). Vocabulary recycling in children’s authentic reading materials: A
corpus-based investigation of narrow reading. Reading in a Foreign Language,
20, 92–122.
Gersten, R., & Baker, S. (2002). What we know about effective instructional prac-
tices for English-language learners. Exceptional Children, 55, 454–471.
Gill, S. (1996). Shared book experience with poetry. The State of Reading: Journal of
the Texas State Reading Association, 3(1), 27–30.
Giorgis, C., & Glazer, J. I. (2009). Literature for young children: Supporting emer-
gent literacy, ages 0–8. Boston: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon.
Goodman, K., Shannon, P., Freeman, Y., & Murphy, S. (1988). Report card on basal
readers. New York: Owen.
Gottlieb, M., Cranley, M. E., & Cammilleri, A. (2007). Understanding the WIDA
English Language Proficiency Standards: A resource guide. Madison: Board of
Regents of the University of Wisconsin System, on behalf of the WIDA Consor-
tium. Retrieved September 27, 2009, from www.wida.us/standards/Resource_
Guide_web.pdf.
References 241
Grabe, W. (2009). Reading in a second language: Moving from theory to practice.

New York: Cambridge.
Guthrie, J. T. (2002). Preparing students for high-stakes test taking in reading. In
A. E. Farstrup & S. J. Samuels (Eds.), What research has to say about reading
instruction (pp. 370–391). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Guthrie, J. T. (2003). Concept-oriented reading instruction: Practices of teaching
reading for understanding. In A. P. Sweet & C. E. Snow (Eds.), Rethinking
reading comprehension (pp. 115–140). New York: Guilford Press.
Guthrie, J. T., Schafer, W. D., VonSecker, C., & Alban, T. (2000). Contributions of
instructional practices to reading achievement in a statewide improvement
program. Journal of Educational Research, 93, 211–225.
Hadaway, N. L. (2009, April). A narrow bridge to academic reading. Educational
Leadership, 38–41.
Hadaway, N. L., Vardell, S. M., & Young, T. A. (2001). Scaffolding oral language
development through poetry for students learning English. The Reading
Teacher, 54, 796–806.
Hadaway, N. L., Vardell, S. M., & Young, T. A. (2002a). Highlighting nonfiction lit-
erature: Literacy development and English language learners. New England
Reading Association Journal, 38(2), 16–22.
Hadaway, N. L., Vardell, S. M., & Young, T. A. (2002b, October/November). Linking
science and literature for ESL students. Book Links, 12(2), 31–36.
Hadaway, N. L., Vardell, S. M., & Young, T. A. (2002c). Literature-based instruction
for English language learners: K–12. Boston: Allyn & Bacon/Longman.
Hadaway, N. L., Vardell, S. M., & Young, T. A. (2006). Language play, language work:
Using poetry to develop oral language. In T. A. Young & N. L. Hadaway (Eds.),
Supporting the literacy development of English learners: Increasing success in
all classrooms (pp. 168–184). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Hamayan, E. V. (1990). Preparing mainstream classroom teachers to teach poten-
tially English proficient students. In Proceedings of the First Research Sym-
posium on Limited English Proficient Student Issues. Washington, DC: U.S.
Department of Education, Office of Bilingual Education and Minority Lan-
guages Affairs. Retrieved December 12, 2002, from www.ncela.gwu.edu/ncbe-
pubs/symposia/first/preparing.htm.
Harper, C., & de Jong, E. (2004). Misconceptions about teaching English-language
learners. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 48, 152–162.
Hass, B. (2002). How equitable is U.S. education for English language learners?
Stanford Educator. Retrieved April 2, 2008, from ed.stanford.edu/suse/news-
b ureau/educator/fall2002/pages/article-us-education-fall02.html.
Helman, L. (2009). Emergent literacy: Planting the seeds for accomplished reading
and writing. In L. Helman (Ed.), Literacy development with English learners:
Research-based instruction in grades K–6. New York: Guilford Press.
Helman, L. A. (2004). Building on the sound system of Spanish: Insights from the
alphabetic spellings of English-language learners. The Reading Teacher, 57,
452–460.
Hiebert, E. H. (1998). Selecting text for beginning readers. In T. E. Raphael & K. H.
Au (Eds.), Literature-based instruction: Reshaping the curriculum (pp. 195–
218). Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon.
242 References
Hopkins, L. B. (1993). Poetry—practically. In M. K. Rudman (Ed.), Children’s litera-

ture: Resource for the classroom (pp. 201–210). Norwood, MA: Christopher-
Gordon.
Jett-Simpson, M. (1986). Reading resource book. Lake Worth: FL: Humanics.
Johnson, P. (1981). Effects on reading comprehension of language complexity and
cultural background of a text. TESOL Quarterly, 15, 169–181.
Juel, C. (1991). Beginning reading. In R. Barr, M. L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, & P.
D. Pearson (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (pp. 759–788). New York:
Longman.
Kamil, M. L., & Hiebert, E. H. (2005). The teaching and learning of vocabulary:
Perspectives and persistent issues. In E. H. Hiebert & M. L. Kamil (Eds.),
Teaching and learning vocabulary: Bringing research to practice (pp. 1–23).
Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Kindler, A. (2002). Survey of the states’ limited English proficient students and avail-
able educational programs and services, 2000–2001 summary report. Wash-
ington, DC: National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition and
Language Instruction Educational Programs.
Kletzien, S. B., & Dreher, M. J. (2004). Informational text in K–3 classrooms: Help-
ing children read and write. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Klingner, J. K., & Vaughn, S. (1996). Reciprocal teaching of reading comprehension
strategies for students with learning disabilities who use English as a second
language. The Elementary School Journal, 96, 275–293.
Krashen, S. (1987). Principles and practices in second language acquisition. Engle-
wood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall International.
Krashen, S. (2003). The (lack of) experimental evidence supporting the use of Accel-
erated Reader. Journal of Children’s Literature, 29, 16–30.
Krashen, S. (2004). The case for narrow reading. Language Magazine, 3(5), 17–19.
Retrieved September 13, 2009, from www.sdkrashen.com/articles/narrow/all.
html.
Krashen, S. D. (1985). The input hypothesis: Issues and implications. New York:
Longman.
Krashen, S. D., & Terrell, T. D. (1983). The natural approach. San Francisco: Ale-
many Press.
Kutiper, K., & Wilson, P. (1993). Updating poetry preferences: A look at the poetry
children really like. Reading Teacher, 47, 28–34.
Lehman, B. A., & Crook, P. R. (1998). Doubletalk: A literary pairing of The Giver and
We Are All in the Dumps with Jack and Guy. Children’s Literature in Educa-
tion, 29, 69–78.
Lesaux, N. K., Geva, E., Koda, K., Siegel, L. S., & Shanahan, T. (2008). Development
of literacy in second-language learners. In D. August & T. Shanahan (Eds.),
Developing reading and writing in second-language learners: Lessons from the
report of the National Literacy Panel on language-minority children and youth
(pp. 27–59). New York: Routledge.
Lesaux, N., Koda, K., Siegel, L., & Shanahan, T. (2006) Development of literacy.
In D. August & T. Shanahan (Eds.), Developing literacy in second-language
learners: Report of the National Literacy Panel on language-minority children
and youth (pp. 75–122). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Lightbown, P. M., & Spada, N. (1990). Focus on form and corrective feedback in
References 243
communicative language teaching. Studies in Second Language Acquisition,

12, 429–448.
Linan-Thompson, S., & Vaughn, S. (2007). Research-based methods of reading
instruction for English language learners, grades K–4. Alexandria, VA: Asso-
ciation for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
McGee, L. M., & Schickedanz, J. A. (2007). Repeated interactive read-alouds in
preschool and kindergarten. The Reading Teacher, 60, 742–751.
McGill-Franzen, A., Allington, R., Yokoi, L., & Brooks, G. (1999). Putting books
in the classroom seems necessary but not sufficient. Journal of Educational
Research, 93(2), 67–74.
Meeks, L. L., & Austin, C. J. (2003). Literacy in the secondary English classroom:
Strategies for teaching the way kids learn. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Mesmer, H. A. E. (2008). Tools for matching readers to texts. New York: Guilford
Press.
Meyer, L. (2000). Barriers to meaningful instruction for English learners. Theory
into Practice, 39, 228–236.
Milon, J. (1974). The development of negation in English by a second language
learner. TESOL Quarterly, 8, 137–143.
Mitchell, D. (2003). Children’s literature: An invitation to the world. Boston: Allyn
& Bacon.
Mooney, M. E. (2004). A book is a present: A resource for intentional teaching. Kato-
nah, NY: Owens.
Mora, J. K. (2004). NCLB’s Reading First and multilingual, multicultural learners. In
K. Goodman, P. Shannon, Y. Goodman, & R. Rapoport (Eds.), Saving our schools:
The case for public education (pp. 229–231). Berkeley, CA: RDR Books.
Morrow, L. M. (2004). Methods of research on teaching English language arts. In J.
Flood, D. Lapp, J. R. Squires, & J. M. Jensen (Eds.), Handbook of research on
teaching the English language arts (pp. 857–867). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Morrow, L. M., & Brittain, R. (2003). The nature of storybook reading in the elemen-
tary school: Current practices. In A. van Kleek, S. A. Stahl, & E. B. Bauer
(Eds.), On reading books to children: Parents and teachers (pp. 140–158). Mah-
wah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Moss, B. (1992). Children’s nonfiction trade books: A complement to content area
texts. The Reading Teacher, 45, 26–32.
Moustafa, M., & Land, R. (2002). The reading achievement of economically-
disadvantaged children in urban schools using Open Court vs. comparably
disadvantaged children in urban schools using non-scripted reading programs.
American Educational Research Association (AERA) Urban Learning, Teach-
ing and Research 2002 Yearbook, 44–53.
Multilingual Resources for Children Project. (1995). Building bridges: Multilingual
resources for children. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Muñiz-Swicegood, M. (1994). The effects of metacognitive reading strategy training
on the reading performance and student reading analysis strategies of third
grade bilingual students. Bilingual Research Journal, 18, 83–97.
Nagy, W. (1988). Teaching vocabulary to improve comprehension. Newark, DE:
International Reading Association.
Nash, R. (1997). NTC’s dictionary of Spanish cognates thematically organized.
TESOL Quarterly, 8, 137–143.
244 References
Natalicio, D. S., & Natalicio, L. F. S. (1971). A comparative study of English plu-

ralization by native and non-native English speakers. Child Development, 42,
1302–1306.
National Council of Teachers of English. (2009). English language learners: A policy
research brief. Retrieved September 12, 2009, from www.ncte.org/library/
files/Publications/Newspaper/Chron0308PolicyBrief.pdf.
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (Public Law 107-110, 115 Stat. 1425, enacted
January 8, 2002).
Odlin, T. (1989). Language transfer: Cross-linguistic influence in language learning.
Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
Olmedo, I. M. (2003). Language mediation among emergent bilingual children. Lin-
guistics and Education, 14, 143–162.
Olsen, L. (2006). Ensuring academic success for English learners. University of Cal-
ifornia Linguistic Minority Research Institute Newsletter, 15, 1–8.
Ovando, C. J., Collier, V. P., & Combs, M. C. (2003). Bilingual and ESL classrooms:
Teaching in multicultural contexts (3rd ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Paivio, A. (1968). A factor-analytic study of word attributes and learning. Journal of
Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 7, 41–48.
Pellegrini, A. D., & Galda, L. (1982). The effects of thematic-fantasy play training
on the development of children’s story comprehension. American Educational
Research Journal, 19, 443–452.
Pica, T. (1994). Research on negotiation: What does it reveal about second-language
learning, conditions, processes, and outcomes? Language Learning, 44, 493–
527.
Pilgreen, J. (2006). Supporting English learners: Developing academic language in
the content area classroom. In T. A. Young & N. L. Hadaway (Eds.), Support-
ing the literacy development of English learners in all classrooms (pp. 41–60).
Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Ramírez, J. D. (1992). Executive summary. Bilingual Research Journal, 16, 1–62.
Ranker, J. (2009). Learning nonfiction in an ESL class: The interaction of situated
practice and teacher scaffolding in a genre study. The Reading Teacher, 62,
580–589.
Rasinski, T. V. (2000). Speed does matter in reading. The Reading Teacher, 54, 146–
151.
Rasinski, T. V. (2003). Reading first: Fluency is fundamental. Instructor, 113(4),
15–20.
Rasinski, T. V. (2006). Reading fluency instruction: Moving beyond accuracy, auto-
maticity, and prosody. The Reading Teacher, 59(7), 704–706.
Ravem, R. (1968). Language acquisition in second language environment. Interna-
tional Review of Applied Linguistics, 6, 175–185.
Reed, B., & Railback, J. (2003). Strategies and resources for mainstream teachers of
English language learners. Northwest Regional Laboratory. Retrieved August
12, 2009, from www.nwrel.org/request/2003may/index.html.
Reese, E., & Cox, A. (1999). Quality of adult book reading affects children’s emergent
literacy. Developmental Psychology, 35(1), 20–28.
Richard-Amato, P. A. (2003). Making it happen: From interactive to participatory
language teaching. White Plains, NY: Longman.
References 245
Rosenshine, B., Meister, C., & Chapman, S. (1996). Teaching students to gener-
ate questions: A review of the intervention studies. Review of Educational
Research, 66, 181–221.
Routman, R. (2003). Reading essentials: The specifics you need to teach reading
well. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Rowe, D. W. (1998). The literate potentials of book-related dramatic play. Reading
Savage, J. F. (1994). Teaching reading using literature. Madison, WI: Brown &
Benchmark.
Scarcella, R. (1990). Teaching language minority students in the multicultural class-
room. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall Regents.
Scarcella, R. C., & Oxford, R. L. (1992). The tapestry of language learning: The indi-
vidual in the communicative classroom. Belmont, CA: Heinle ELT/Cengage.
Schon, I. (2004, June). Caveat emptor/Inferior translations. Presentation at the Sum-
mer Institute, Barahona Center for the Study of Books in Spanish for Children
and Adolescents, San Marcos, California.
Schrank, F. A., Fletcher, T. V., & Alvarado, C. G. (1996). Comparative validity of
three English oral language proficiency tests. Bilingual Research Journal, 20,
55–68.
Sénéchal, M., Lefevre, J., Thomas, E. M., & Daley, K. E. (1998). Differential effects
of home literacy experiences on the development of oral and written language.
Reading Research Quarterly, 33, 96–116.
Short, K. G., & Harste, J. C. (with Burke, C.). (1996). Creating classrooms for authors
and inquirers (2nd ed.). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Snow, C. E., Burns, M. S., & Griffin, P. (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in
young children. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Snow, C. (1993). Bilingualism and second language acquisition. In J. B. Gleason &
N. B. Ratner (Eds.), Psycholinguistics (pp. 392–416). Ft. Worth, TX: Harcourt
Brace.
Snow, C. (2008). Cross-cutting themes and future research directions. In D. August
& T. Shanahan (Eds.), Developing reading and writing in second-language
learners: Lessons from the report of the National Literacy Panel on language-
minority children and youth (pp. 275–300). New York: Routledge.
Solari, E. (2007). Improving reading comprehension of English learners through lis-
tening comprehension instruction. University of California Linguistic Minority
Research Institute Newsletter, 16, 1.
Spada, N., & Lightbown, P. M. (1993). Instruction and the development of ques-
tions in L2 classrooms. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 15, 205–
224.
Stahl, S., & Nagy, W. (2006). Teaching word meanings. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Stanley, N. (2004). A celebration of words. Teaching Pre-K–8, 34(7), 56–57.
Stanovich, K. (1985). Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of individ-
ual differences in the acquisition of literacy. Reading Research Quarterly, 21,
360–407.
Stein, N. L., & Glenn, C. G. (1979). An analysis of story comprehension in elemen-
tary children. In R. Freedle (Ed.), New directions in discourse processing
(pp. 53–120). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
246 References
Suárez-Orozco, C., & Suárez-Orozco, M. M. (2001). Children of immigration. Cam-

bridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: Some roles of comprehensible input
and comprehensible output in its development. In S. Gass & C. Madden (Eds.),
Input in second language acquisition (pp. 235–253). Rowley, MA: Newbury
House.
Swain, M. (1995). Three functions of output in second language learning. In G. Cook
& B. Seidlhofer (Eds.), Principle and practice in applied linguistics: Studies
in honour of H. G. Widdowson (pp. 125–144). Oxford, UK: Oxford University
Press.
Teale, W. H. (2003). Reading aloud to young children as a classroom instructional
activity: Insights from research and practice. In A. van Kleek, S. A. Stahl, & E.
B. Bauer (Eds.), On reading books to children: Parents and teachers (pp. 114–
139). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
TESOL. (2006). Pre-K–12 English language proficiency standards in the core
content areas. Retrieved April 4, 2008, from www.tesol.org/s_tesol/bin.
asp?CID=1186&DID=3461&DOC=FILE.PDF.
Thomas, W., & Collier, V. (1995). Language minority student achievement and pro-
gram effectiveness. California Association for Bilingual Education Newsletter,
17(5), 19, 24.
Tompkins, G. E. (2007). Teaching writing: Balancing process and product. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Trelease, J. (2006). The read-aloud handbook. New York: Penguin.
van der Veur, B. (1975). Imagery rating of 1,000 frequently used words. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 67, 44–56.
Vardell, S. M. (2007). Poetry people: A practical guide to children’s poets. Santa Bar-
bara, CA: Greenwood.
Vardell, S. M., Hadaway, N. L., & Young, T. A. (2002, April/May). Choosing and shar-
ing poetry with ESL students. Book Links, 11(5), 51–56.
Vardell, S. M., Hadaway, N. L., & Young, T. A. (2006). Matching books and readers:
Selecting books for English learners. The Reading Teacher, 59, 734–741.
Vogel, M., & Tilley, J. (1993). Story poems and the stories we’ve been waiting to tell.
English Journal, 82, 86–89.
Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind and society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Walker, S., Edwards, V., & Blacksell, R. (1996). Designing bilingual books for chil-
dren. Visible Language, 30, 268–283.
Wasik, B. A., & Bond, M. A. (2001). Beyond the pages of a book: Interactive book
reading and language development in preschool classrooms. Journal of Experi-
mental Psychology, 93, 243–250.
Wells, C. G. (1986). The meaning makers: Children learning language and using
language to learn. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
WIDA Consortium. (2007). World-Class Instructional Design and Assessment Con-
sortium. Understanding the WIDA English Language Proficiency Standards:
A Resource Guide. Retrieved June 24, 2008, from www.wida.us/standards/
Resource_Guide_web.pdf.
Yang, A. (2001). Reading and the non-academic learner: A mystery solved. System,
29(4), 451–466.
References 247
Yokota, J. (1993). Issues in selecting multicultural children’s literature. Language

Arts, 70, 156–167.
Yopp, H. K. (1998). Read aloud books for developing phonemic awareness: An anno-
tated bibliography. In R. Allington (Ed.), Teaching struggling readers: Articles
from The Reading Teacher (pp. 217–225). Newark, DE: International Reading
Association.
Young, T. A. (2006). Weaving the magic together: Threads of student success and
engagement. In M. E. Mooney & T. A. Young (Eds.), Caught in the spell of writ-
ing and reading: Grade 3 and beyond (pp. 173–190). Katonah, NY: Owen.
Young, T. A., & Moss, B. (2006). Nonfiction in the classroom library: A literacy neces-
sity. Childhood Education, 82, 207–212.
Index
Note. f, figure; t, table
Academic fluency Anthologies and collections, 138–140

book selection to develop, 73–78, 109 Applegate, Katherine, 9
challenge for students, 79 Argueta, Jorge, 125–127
characteristics of academic English, 24 Autobiographies, 173, 174
continuum of language development, 62f Automatic word recognition, 137
definition, 16
instructional progression, 61–62, 71–73
interactive processes in acquisition of, 70 B
scope of subject areas, 70
social fluency and, 60, 61 Bilingual books, 49, 50, 120–121
standards, 60–61 poetry, 141, 156
teaching strategies, 73 Biographies
vocabulary tiers, 70–71 collective, 78, 173, 174
Age at immigration, 12 complete and partial, 172–173, 174
Aliki, 33 cultural fit, 194–195
Alphabet instruction levels of difficulty, 174
basic books, 206 picture book, 172, 173, 174
cultural fit, 194 poetry books, 147–148
Level 1 language learners, 18–19 timelines, 172
Level 2 language learners, 19 types of, 171–172
nonfiction literature, 165–166, 173–174 Book selection
teacher’s knowledge of language academic language development, 73–78
differences for, 13 authentic versus adapted texts, 36–37
Analogies and comparisons, 179–180, 191 challenge, 34
Animal books, 106–107, 179–180, 205 considerate/inconsiderate texts, 26, 46
249
250 Index
Book selection (cont.) days of calendar, 205–206

content familiarity considerations, 42– diaries and journals, 109, 170
43 dramatic play, 69, 70f
criteria, 38–39, 40–41t education and school, 121–122, 207–208
cultural fit, 48–50 examples of first language acquisition, 25
difficulty of text, 34 familiar topics, 102–109
distracting features of texts, 39 family topics, 206
diversity of materials, 37, 39 folklore and traditional literature, 97–99
guiding questions, 40–41t food, 108, 121, 176, 206
importance of, 33, 52–54 highlighting key vocabulary, 184–185
instructional content considerations, 43, highlighting language differences, 13
52, 53t highlighting phonemes, 13
language load considerations, 44–46 historical timelines, 102
language proficiency considerations, holidays and celebrations, 122
50–52 homes and houses, 206
Level 1 English learners, 39 how-to and activity books, 169–170
multilayer books, 43 illustrated poetry books, 151–153
narrow reading, 74–77 immigrant experience, 105–106, 122,
to nurture fluent reading, 136 199–200
objectives, 34, 37–38, 39 informational storybooks, 171
pairs and text sets, 73–74, 181–182 insider language, 185
predictability of text, 94 Level 1 language learners, 18–19
reader characteristics considered in, 36, Level 2 language learners, 19–20
38 Level 3 language learners, 20
reading aloud, 51 Level 4 language learners, 21
social language instruction, 64–65 measurement, 207
supportive features of texts, 39, 46–48 money, 207
thematic formats, 77–78 Muslim American experience, 29–31
tools for, 34–36 narrow reading, 209–213
See also Book titles and applications; occupations, 207
Fiction; Nonfiction; Poetry photo essay books, 169
Book titles and applications picture books, 38
academic language instruction, 73–74 poetry books, 131–132, 138, 139–142
alphabet books, 165–166, 206 predictable books, 94–96
animals, 106–107, 179–180, 205 recycling, 71–73
appropriate level of language in fiction, repetition of text, 186–187
110–113 shapes, 208
basic survival topics, 43, 146–147, shopping, 208
205–208 social behavior, 107–108, 206
bilingual books, 49, 50, 120–121 songbooks, 96
biographies, 78, 172–173 spirituals, 152–153
body and senses, 205 supportive illustrations and graphic
choral reading, 134–135 elements, 47, 114–117, 189–192
clothing, 108, 176–179, 205 survey books, 170–171
colors, 205 thematic collections, 77–78
concept books, 167–168 time, 208
content-layering books, 180–181 Total Physical Response, 70f
context clues for learning new words, transitional books, 100f
187 U.S. geography, 153
counting books, 166–167, 179, 207 weather, 208
cultural relevance, 49–50, 119–121, 155, winter weather, 108
156, 194–195 See also Book selection
cycle/life cycle books, 168 Branching out, 78, 211–212
Index 251
C cultural fit, 166–167, 194

Level 1 language learners, 18
Cantonese language, 13 nonfiction books, 166–167, 173–174, 179
Chain-format stories, 94–95 Cultural fit
Choi, Yangsook, 5–7 book awards and reviews, 118–119
Choral reading, 133–135 as book selection criterion, 39
Chronological progression, 188 counting books, 166–167
Chunking, 112–113, 116 cultural diversity and, 118
Circular stories, 94–95 diversity within cultural groups, 155–156
Classroom environment, 123 elements of, 48
Clothing, books about, 108, 176–179, 205 evaluations of texts, 48–50, 117–122,
Cognates, 132 193–194
Cognitive Academic Language Learning fiction book selection, 100–101
Approach, 163 guiding questions, 117–118
Cognitive load, 26–27 humor, 156–157
book selection criteria, 42–43 nonfiction book selection, 193–196
Collections of books/text sets, 73–74, 181–182 photo essay books, 169
Colors, books about, 205 picture books, 93
Concept books poetry books, 154–157
basic survival topics, 43 rationale, 48
definition, 167 Cumulative stories, 95
good qualities, 167–168 poetry, 150–151
instruction application, 167 Curriculum
layers of information, 43 combining content learning and language
Level 1 language learners, 18–19 learning, 25–28, 52, 53f
Level 2 language learners, 19 consideration of local conditions, 28
Concrete poetry, 153–154 development of academic language, 61–62
Considerate/inconsiderate texts, 26, 46 for literacy development, 91
Content familiarity and background misconceptions about English learners,
knowledge 23–26
analogies and comparisons, 179–180, 191 planning framework, 27, 52, 53f, 71–73
basic survival topics, 43 use of nonfiction literature, 163–164
as book selection criterion, 39 See also Content learning, language
evaluation of books, 42–43 learning combined with
fiction selection, 101–109 Cycle/life cycle books, 168
nonfiction book selection considerations,
175–183
poetry selection, 143–148 D
Content learning, language learning
combined with Decodable readers, 35
alphabet books for, 166 Degrees of Reading Power, 35
book selection for, 43, 52, 109 Delacre, Lulu, 159–160
narrow reading strategy, 76 Dialect and vernacular, 112
poetry collection for, 139–140, 147 Diaries and journals, 170, 174
principles of, 25–28 fictional, 109
types of nonfiction books for, 165–175 Dramatic play, 69, 70f
use of nonfiction literature, 162–164, 165
use of poetry, 131
See also Curriculum E
Continuum of language development, 62f
Counting instruction Early production phase of language
basic books, 207 acquisition, 14–15
book selection, 95 Endpapers, 192
252 Index
English learners importance of, 137

assessment of student capabilities and intermediate, 15–16
background, 10–14 levels of language fluency, 16–22
challenges for, 10 modeling, 135–136
challenges for students, 33, 59, 79, 90 use of poetry to promote, 136–138
diversity of, 9–10, 22–23, 25 See also Academic fluency
experiences of, 199–200 Folklore and traditional literature, 97–99
levels of language fluency, 16–22 Food, books about, 108, 121, 176, 206
misconceptions among educators about,
23–26
population patterns and trends, 9 G
stages of language acquisition, 14–16
types of language proficiencies, 59–60 Geography, books about, 153
See also Outcome factors in English Gonzalez, Maya Christina, 85–88
learning Graphics, supportive, 116–117, 189–190
Expository writing, 45–46, 188 Group study and cooperative learning
textural supports, 47–48 misconceptions, 24
poetry activities, 133–135
F
H
Fairytales, 97–99
Familiar sequence books, 95 Herrera, Juan Felipe, 129
Family, books about, 206 High-success reading, 51–52
Fantasy literature, 93 Historical fiction, 93
Fiction Hmong people, 13
academic language development, 73–74, 109 Holidays and celebrations, books about,
book selection for K–6 English learners, 122
91–100, 123 Homes and houses, books about, 206
challenges for English learners, 89 How-to books, 169, 174
criteria for book selection, 101, 103–104t Humor and word-play, 55–57
cultural fit, 117–122 books for Level 4 language learners, 21
diaries and journals, 109 cultural differences, 156–157
evaluation of topic/theme familiarity and
background knowledge, 101–109
good qualities, 91–92, 100–101 I
historical, 93
immigrant experience, 105–106 Identity development, 10
language load, 45 Illustrations and photographs
level of language evaluation, 110–113 photo essay books, 168–169, 174
level of textual support, 113–117 in poetry books, 151–152
novels, 99 as textual supports, 47, 114–116, 190–
transitional books, 99–100 191
types of, 92f. See also specific type See also Picture books
First language literacy/fluency Imagability of text, 39
determinants of, 12 Immigrant experience, books about,
second language acquisition timeline, 105–106, 122, 199–200
14, 15t Informational storybooks, 171, 174, 195
significance of, in learning second Intermediate language fluency, 15–16
language, 12
stages of acquisition, 14–16
Fluent reading J
automatic word recognition for, 137
book selection to nurture, 136 Jimenez, Francisco, 161
Index 253
K Measurement, books about, 207

Memoirs, 173, 174
Korean language, 13 Mobin-Uddin, Asma, 29–31
Krishnaswami, Uma, 55–57 Modeling fluent reading, 135–138
Money, books about, 207
Mora, Pat, 81–82
L Multilayer books, 43, 180–181, 186
Muslim Americans, 29–31
Language demands of books
as book selection criterion, 39
evaluation of books, 44–46, 110–113 N
nonfiction book selection, 183–188
poetry book evaluation, 148–151 Narrow reading, 74–77
Language-mediation strategies, social book suggestions, 209–213
language instruction, 65–66 poetry collections, 138–139, 140
Layers of content and complexity, 43, National Council of Teachers of English,
180–181, 186 162–163
book suggestions, 211 Natural science, 168, 180, 181–182
Learning process Nonfiction books
academic fluency, 16 accuracy of information, 175, 182–183
content learning and language learning, awards and critical reviews, 164
25–28 cognitive load, 42
early production phase, 14–15 content familiarity or background
intermediate fluency, 15–16 knowledge considerations, 175–183
levels of language proficiency, 16–22 content learning and, 162–164, 165
linearity, 22 criteria for selecting, 175, 177–179t
misconceptions about English learners, cultural fit, 193–196
23–26 current classroom use patterns, 163–
preproduction phase, 14 164
speech-emergence phase, 15 emphasizing key facts, 185–186
TESOL PreK–12 English Language endpapers, 192
Proficiency Standards, 16 instructional applications, 161–162, 164,
timeline, 14, 15t 196
See also Teaching techniques and language load, 45, 183–188
practices layers of content and complexity, 180–181,
Levels of language proficiency, 16–22 186
book selection consideration, 39, 50–52, levels of difficulty, 173–175
110–113 narrow reading strategy, 76
nonfiction book selection, 173–175 reading aloud, 196
read-aloud books, 51 textual supports, 47–48, 188–192
TESOL guidelines for matching literature types of, 165–175. See also specific type
to, 201–204 writing styles, 187–188
text sets, 74, 181–182 Notable Books for a Global Society, 119
Lewis, J. Patrick, 197 Novels, 99
Lexiles, 35 transitional texts, 99–100
Libraries, importance of, 54
Life cycle books, 168, 173–174
O
M Oral language development, 63–64

fluent reading, 136
Manners and social behavior, books about, use of poetry for, 129–130, 132–135
107–108, 206 Orbis Pictus Award for Outstanding
Maps, 192 Nonfiction for Children, 164
254 Index
Outcome factors in English learning rationale for classroom use, 129–130, 157
age at immigration, 12 role in language learning, 130–132,
cooperative group learning, 24 136–137, 157
educational experience before shape poems, 153–154
immigration, 11–12 song picture books, 152–153
first language literacy, 12, 25, 63–64, 90 stories in rhyme, 96
quality of education, 22 supportive illustrations, 48
Outstanding International Booklist, 119 symbolism in, 149
textural supports, 151–154
in thematic instruction, 131
P topic/theme familiarity, 143–148
types of poems, 132, 142
Parental role in education types of publications, 138–142
development of first language literacy, 12, for writing instruction, 157
25, 63–64 Predictability of text
fostering recognition of print conventions, book selection considerations, 94
12 chain or circular stories, 94–95
Park, Frances and Ginger, 59 cumulative stories, 95
Pattern stories, 95–96 familiar sequence books, 95
Pérez, Amada Irma, 89 formats, 94
Phonemes, 13 graphic design, 189–190
Photo essay books, 168–169, 174, 195 pattern stories, 95–96
Physical activities for language development picture songbooks, 96
movement books, 207 purpose, 94, 113
nonfiction books for, 169–170 question-and-answer books, 96
rationale, 68 repetition of phrase throughout story, 96
social language instruction, 68–69, 70f rhyme, 130
Picture books stories in rhyme, 96
application, 38, 92–93 supportive function, 39, 46
biographies, 172, 173, 174, 194 techniques, 94
content, 93 writing instruction, 113
good qualities, 92 Preproduction phase of learning, 14
poetry in, 141–142, 152 Print conventions
songbooks, 96, 152–153 first-language literacy, 12
traditional literature, 97 supportive role, 188
wordless story books, 93–94, 115 textual supports, 114
See also Illustrations and photographs
Poetry
academic language development, 73 Q
basic survival themes, 146
bilingual books, 141, 156 Qualitative leveling, 35–36
biographies in, 147–148 Quality of education
choral reading, 133–135 challenges for English learners, 10, 22
for cognate instruction, 132 classroom libraries, 54
criteria for selecting, 142–143, 144–145t Question-and-answer books, 96
cultural fit, 154–157
cumulative texts, 150–151
group instruction, 133 R
language load, 45, 148–151
list-poem format, 140, 141 Readability formulas, 34–35
to nurture fluent reading, 135–138 Reading
for oral language development, 132–135 automatic word recognition, 137
picture books, 152 benefits of, for English learners, 33
Index 255
instructional goals for English learning, book selection for, 64–65

90–91 definition, 60
levels of language acquisition, 16–22 dramatic play to develop, 69, 70f
See also Book titles and applications; instructional progression, 61–62, 71–73
Fluent reading language-mediation strategies, 65–66
Reading aloud physical activity to develop, 68–69, 70f
benefits, 51, 66–67, 91 proficiency standards, 60–61
difficulty of text, 51 purpose, 62
incorporating physical activities, 68 read-alouds to develop, 66–68
interactivity in, 67 Tier 1 vocabulary, 63
literacy development and, 67 vocabulary instruction, 64
nonfiction texts, 196 Socioeconomic factors, educational
to nurture fluent reading, 135–138 significance, 13
quality of engagement in, 67 Spanish language, 12–13
for social language development, 66–68 Speech-emergence phase of language
strategies for promoting student learning, 15
engagement, 67 Spiritual songs, 152–153
student rereading, 136 Stages of language acquisition, 14–16
Recycling, 71–73 Stairstep of books, 77
Repetition Standards and guidelines
familiar sequence stories, 95 National Council of Teachers of English,
frequency of word exposure to achieve 162–163
comprehension, 75 social and academic language, 60–61
narrow reading strategy, 75 TESOL PreK–12 English Language
in nonfiction books, 186–187 Proficiency Standards, 16, 201–204
pattern stories, 95–96 Supportive features of texts
of phrase throughout story, 96 back-of-the-book, 191–192
picture songbooks, 96 book selection consideration, 39, 113–
purpose, 113, 186 117
question-and-answer books, 96 evaluation, 46–48
text predictability and, 46 graphic elements, 116–117, 189–190
Rhyme, 113, 130 highlighting key vocabulary, 184–185
stories in, 96 illustrations and photographs, 47,
114–116, 190–191
language development, 45–46
S nonfiction book selection, 188–192
poetry book evaluation, 151–154
School, books about, 121–122, 207–208 social language instruction, 65
Scripted instruction, 22–23 typographic design, 114
Shape poems, 153–154 Survey books, 170–171, 173–174
Shapes, books about, 208 Survival language, 43, 60, 68, 205–208
Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol, 26 in poetry, 146–147
Shopping, books about, 208
Sibert Award, 164
Silent period of language learning, 14 T
Singing
performance songs, 69 Teacher characteristics
picture songbooks, 96, 152–153 knowledge of language acquisition, 22
spirituals, 152–153 second language competency, 14
Slang and idiomatic expression, 150, 185 Teaching techniques and practices
Social language academic language instruction, 73–78
academic language and, 60, 61 cooperative group learning, 24
acquisition, 60 current conceptualization, 22–28
256 Index
Teaching techniques and practices (cont.) insider and specialized language, 185
familiarity with individual students, narrow reading to improve, 75
10–11 nonfiction book selection, 183–188
knowledge of other languages, 12–13 poetry selection considerations, 148,
language proficiency levels and, 16–22, 52 149
literacy development, 91 slang and idiomatic expression, 150,
misconceptions about English learners, 185
23–26 social language, 63, 64
to nurture fluent reading, 135–138 thematic presentation, 63
reading aloud, 51, 66–68 Tier 1, 63
scripted instruction, 22–23
social language instruction, 64–69
social language vocabulary, 63 W
See also Content learning, language
learning combined with Weather, books about, 108, 208
TESOL PreK–12 English Language Wide-angle to close-up/general-to-specific
Proficiency Standards, 16, 60, 201–204 reading, 78, 212
Text sets and collections, 73–74, 181–182 Wong, Janet S., 1
Text structures, 45–46, 188 Word density, 39
Time, books about, 208 book selection criteria, 44
Total Physical Response, 68–69, 70f Wordless story books, 93–94, 115
Traditional literature, 97–99 Work, books about, 207
Transitional books, 99–100 Writing instruction
diary and journal projects, 170
use of poetry, 157
V use of predictable texts, 113
writing formats, 212–213
Vietnamese language, 13 Writing style
Vocabulary emphasizing key facts, 185–186
academic language, 70–71 highlighting key vocabulary, 184–185
book selection criteria, 44 nonfiction books, 187–188
conceptual knowledge for acquiring, 90 support for readers, 45–46
context clues, 187 text structures, 45–46, 188
fiction book evaluation, 110–112
frequency of word exposure to achieve
comprehension, 75 Z
highlighting key vocabulary in texts,
184–185 Zone of proximal development, 34

Matching Books and Readers

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Matching Books and Readers

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Matching Books and Readers

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Matching Books and Readers

How to Plan Differentiated Reading Instruction:

Reading More, Reading Better

The Reading Specialist, Second Edition:

Teaching New Literacies in Grades K–3:

Teaching New Literacies in Grades 4–6:

Teaching Reading: Strategies and Resources for Grades K–6

Comprehension Across the Curriculum: Perspectives and Practices K–12

Best Practices in ELL Instruction

Responsive Guided Reading in Grades K–5:

Early Intervention for Reading Difficulties:

Matching Books and Readers: Helping English Learners in Grades K–6

Children’s Literature in the Classroom: Engaging Lifelong Readers

THE GUILFORD PRESS

All rights reserved

No part of this book may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval

Printed in the United States of America

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Last digit is print number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Nancy L. Hadaway, PhD, is Professor of Literacy Studies in the College of

Terrell A. Young, EdD, is Professor of Literacy Education at Washington

lish Children’s Literature Assembly from 2006 to 2008. He has been a

Jorge Argueta is the author of several children’s books. He is the winner

Maya Christina Gonzalez is an award-winning multicultural children’s

Uma Krishnaswami is the author of picture books including Chachaji’s

J. Patrick Lewis is the author of 65 children’s poetry and picture books

Asma Mobin-Uddin is a pediatrician who decided to write about the

The Beginning of a Book

Whom Is This Book For?

matching books to readers. The majority of them focus on using leveled

Organization of the Book

Part I: Getting to Know English Learners

When matching English learners with books, educators must con-

Part II: Selecting and Using Books

Appendices and Children’s Book Lists

and students to expand their understanding of English learners. This is

Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages

Type of book is indicated by P, F, NF.

Coding Scheme Example: TL1, P, F = TESOL Level 1

How to Say Thy Name 5

Writing the Muslim ­American Experience 29

C h a p t e r Two . Matching Books to English Learners 33

Only a Joke?: Humor as a Bridge between Cultures 55

Ch a pter Three. English Learners’ Academic 59

Creativity Begins at Home 81

Pa rt II. Selecti ng a n d Usi ng Books

I Know the River Loves Me 85

C h a p t e r F ou r . Selecting and Using Fiction with English 89

Fear and Joy in Leaving Your Country 125

Ch a pter Fi v e. Selecting and Using Poetry with English 129

Books as Mirrors 159

Ch a pter Si x . Selecting and Using Nonfiction Literature 161

I’m Learning to Speak English 197

App e n d i x A . Books for Learning about Immigrants 199

Children’s Books Cited 215

My grandmother came from Korea last week.

Today we are at Disneyland.

I buy a slice of pepperoni and hand it to her.

Writing the Muslim American Experience 29

ing about them (Suárez-Orozco & Suárez-Orozco, 2001; Ovando, Collier,

TABLE 1.2. Comparing First- and Second-Language Acquisition

Preproduction Birth–9 months Several hours–

The speech-emergence phase is a time of phrase and short-sentence