Current Advances in Environmental Science CAES

Mapping and Assessment of Water Erosion in the

Khmiss Watershed (North Western Rif, Morocco)
Lamiae Khali Issa*1 , Ahmed Raissouni1 , Rachid Moussadek2 , Abdelkrim El Arrim1
1
Department of Earth Sciences, Laboratory of Environ ment, Oceanology and Natural Resources
Faculty of Sciences and Technologies, Abdelmalek Essaâdi Un iversity, Tangier, M ORROCCO .
2
Unit of Environ mental Research and Conservation of Natural Resources. Laboratory of Mapping, GIS and Remote Sensing.
Regional Centre o f Agricu ltural Research, INRA, Rabat – MORROCCO
*lamiae2608@g mail.co m

Abstract- This work is inscribed in the general problem of analysis and modeling of water erosion phenomenon. Its aim is to
determine the erosion rate in the Khmiss watershed (Northern Morocco). This erosion modeling was performed using the US LE
hydrological model (Universal S oil Loss Equation) integrated into a Geographic Information S ystem (GIS ) platform and adapted to
Moroccan con ditions.
The modeling of erosion in the Khmiss watershed required the evaluation of various factors of the US LE over the entire drainage
area and their expression in the form of thematic maps. This is a multiplicative function of five factors that control water erosion:
rainfall erosivity, soil erodibility, slope gradient and length, vegetation cover and erosion control practices.
The multiplication of those factors allowed us to produce a quantitative map with an average rate of erosion of 36t/ha/year. The
description of the resulting map shows that areas with low erosion (<12t/ha/year) cover 27% of the total area of the basin, and those
with very strong erosion (>120t/ha/year) cover only 8% of the basin area. A comparative analysis was conducted to highlight
correlations between erosion rates and the various factors of this process.
Keywords- Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE); Geographic Information System (GIS); Water Erosion; Watershed; Khmiss River;
Morocco

I. INT RODUCTION
The erosion phenomenon is a one of core themes and its importance increases day by day within environmental policies of
countries. The ampleness of this environmental scourge and its direct and indirect, on site and off site, impacts allowed
classifying it in the case of natural risks [1].
The consequences of the physical degradation of soils are numerous and are taking a similar importance to that devoted to
the phenomenon itself. In addition to the loss of fertile land and its impact on agriculture, other downstream consequences can
cause important damages, in the short term, such as mudflows, or in the long term, such as dam’s siltation and the transfer of
materials leached into water courses and coastal areas, etc.
If it is possible to reduce the rate of erosion using the new techniques, then it is first necessary to target areas with high
erosion, which require a priority intervention. Fro m that it co me the need of mapping of soil vulnerability to erosion and
estimation and/or prediction values of erosion at the regional scale in order to develop appropriate measures and strategies for
conservation.
In recent decades, new technologies such as GIS and remote sensing have become increasingly used in the study of surface
phenomena such as erosion. These tools, combined with empirical and physical soil loss models to spatialize the phenomenon
over large areas.
In Morocco, such as in Mediterranean countries, soils suffer fo r decades an irreversible loss and degradation with values
that exceeding the standards as well as the capacity of soil pedogenesis, because of increasing demands from various human
activities, especially agriculture. A FAO study conducted in 1990 [2] showed that 40% of land in Morocco is affected by
erosion. Other studies showed that the Rif region is the most concerning by this loss with rates sometimes exceeding
60t/ha/year [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8].
In this context, and in a perspective of integrated risk and watershed management, this study aims to apprehend the erosion
phenomenon at watershed scale in the Rif area, the Kh miss watershed, and to achieve a mapping of water erosion by a multi-
criteria analysis. This can be accomplished by integrating the USLE model into a GIS platfo rm in order to locate areas
sensitive to erosion and to estimate annual losses per unit area. The result is a cartographic document wh ich is a tool fo r
decision support, in terms of risk management and preservation of natural resources.

II. ST UDY AREA

2
The Kh miss watershed covers an area of 293 km , is situated in the North West of Morocco in the eastern part of the
Tingitane peninsula. It’s a part of the occidental Rif chain, also called the high Rif (Fig.1). It is located between 35°45 'and

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35 °32' of North latitude and 5°37' and 5°26' of West longitude.

The study area is marked by a strong aggressiveness characterized by a sub -humid climate. The annual rain fall varies,
according altitude and slope exposure, between 730 and 1078 mm. The vegetation cover is very diverse and it takes different
forms generally d istributed in forests, Matorral and cultures.
The topography of the basin is relatively damaged and generally characterized by steep slopes. The altitude is very low at
the center of the basin, reaching 758 m toward the coastal areas (Fig. 1).
Concerning geology, the Khmiss watershed belongs to the Rif chain. To the west, are developed the Flysch domain wh ich
occupy the most part of the area and where the most important is the Ben i Ider napes unit, constituted of thick sandstone beds.
The eastern part of the basin is occupied by the dolomite-limestone formations belonging to the Limestone Ridge (internal
zones). The center is occupied by stacking flysch napes (Beni Ider, Tisirenne, Nu midian and Predorsalian) on the external unit
of Tangier, mainly represented by clay and marl. Floodplain areas and borders of the river are occupied by Quat ernary fluvial
terraces.

Fig. 1 Map showing location and elevation distribution of Khmiss watershed

III. METHODOLOGY
At present, several methods are adopted to predict or estimate erosion rates at the watershed scale. So me are physical
(ANSW ERS, CREAMS, SEMM ED ...), others are emp irical (USLE, RUSLE, MUSLE ...), while others are associated with
GIS.
Among these methods, the USLE model o f Wisch meier and Smith [9] and its modified version [10] are the most used. The
benefits that could offer the possibility to integrate these models into a GIS and the generalization of its results over large areas
has made their use easier and more efficient for studies at watershed or regional scale.
The methodology followed in our study is div ided into different pre-treat ments, field work to co llect samp les and using
mu lti sources and spatial data on the process of erosion, in order to know the different factors that influence of the

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phenomenon (geology, vegetation, climate, slope and erosion control practices).

Modeling of these factors was performed using an adapted version of the USLE to Moroccan conditions. This model allows
an easy and rapid diagnosis of potential erosion.
The integration of USLE's factors into a GIS was made by digitizat ion where each layer is associated to its database. The
intersection of these thematic maps allo wed us to assess the rate of erosion in the watershed and the development of a synthetic
map of soil loss (Fig.2).
This is a mult iplicative function of the five factors expressed as:
A = R* K* L * S* C * P
With
A = soil loss in t/ha/year
R = rainfall erosivity factor in MJ mm ha-1 H-1 year-1
K = soil erodibility factor in t ha H ha-1 MJ-1 mm-1
L = slope length in m
S = slope steepness in %
C = vegetation cover factor or land use factor
P = erosion control practices factor.

Fig. 2 Diagram of the methodology used to predict soil erosion

A. Rainfall Erosivity Factor (R)

The rainfall erosivity factor is generally calculated accord ing to the formula of Wisch meier and Smith using the kinetic
energy and the average intensity of 30 min of each downpour. However, because of the lack of these types of data, this factor
was calculated using the most suitable formu la for Moroccan conditions established by Arnoldus [11], wh ich use only the
monthly and annual rainfall. Its expression is as follows:
R = Σ 1 12 (MRI) / A R
Where MR: Average Monthly;
AR: Average annual rainfall.
To do this, we used the monthly and annual average rainfall over a period of 30 years, fro m 24 climate stations located in
the region. The R factor was calcu lated for each station separately and then interpolated the results in order to obtain a map o f
rainfall erosivity throughout the Khmiss watershed.

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B. Soil Erodibility Factor (K)

It is based on soil texture. Its original form of Wischmeier and Smith takes into account some parameters characterizing the
soil such as texture, structure and permeability. Other authors [12] also included the crusting as a parameter in their study.
In our case study, we used a formula established by Merzouk [13], wh ich is adapted to the Moroccan conditions and takes
into account three parameters. Th is formula is exp ressed as follows:
K = 311.63 - 4.48 * (SG% + S%) + 613.4 + 6.45 * EC
With SG%: percentage of coarse sand ;
S% : percentage of total sand ;
EC: electrical conductivity.
A sampling campaign was carried out throughout the watershed to collect surface sediment, wh ich will be subject of
physical and chemical analysis.
The sampling was done according to homogeneous units map, p roduced by the method of soil landscapes [14]. This map is
the result of the superposition of three thematic layers namely geology, vegetation and physiographic. The latter was obtained
by the intersection of the slope and the elevation maps.

C. Topographic Factor (LS)

The topographic factor has two co mponents: slope degree (S) and its length (L). So me authors [15, 16, 17] showed that,
beyond a slope greater than 2%, the erosion increases exponentially, this indicates the effect of slope gradient on runoff.
However, this action of the gradient is actually amp lified by the length of the slope.
With the development of computer tools and GIS, the calcu lation of LS factor is made easier using the software. In our case,
the LS factor was calculated direct ly in ArcGIS software using the Digital Terrain Model (DTM), the map of slope classes and
map of flow accumu lations according to the expression established by Mitasova [18]:

D. Vegetation Cover Factor (C)

According to Dahman [19], the action of vegetation, represented by the C factor, is the most crucial and most dynamic
parameter in Moroccan watersheds.
The vegetation cover map used was developed fro m a Landsat TM 5 satellite image acquired on 7 August 2009, which has
been processed, classified and validated. The C factor was attributed, according to the literature, for each vegetation type [20]
[21] [22].

E. Erosion Control Practices (P)

The P factor includes the erosion control and soil conservation practices that retain a proportion of land set in motion. It
varies according to the practices adopted but also to the slope.

IV. RESULT S

A. Thematic mapping of erosion factors

1) Rainfall Erosivity Factor (R)
The rainfall erosivity map shows values ranging between 87 and 113 MJ mm ha-1 H-1 year-1 , with a net increase fro m
southwest to the North and the south east of the basin (Fig. 3). This spatial distribution coincides with the distribution of
rainfall in the area that increases towards the internal lands, wh ich are areas of high altitudes and more or less distant fro m
coastal influences.
2) Soil Erodibility Factor (K)
After analyzing soil samples and calculating the K factor for each one, we assigned the value of K for each corresponding
homogenous units, and then we rasterized the map according to the pixel of the DEM.

The map obtained (Fig. 4) shows spatial distribution of the different classes of K factor in the basin. The values of
erodibility index vary between 0.37 and 0.85, with a predominance of the class 0.57 to 0.62, which represent 30% of the total
basin area (Table I).

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TABLE I DISTRIBUTION OF ERODIBILITY FACTOR CLASSES IN THE KHMISS WATERSHED

K classes Area (ha) % Area

0 (Dam) 255 1

0,37 - 0.42 185 1

0,42 - 0.47 933 3

0,47 - 0,52 4780 16

0,52 - 0,57 4611 16

0,57 - 0,62 8745 30

0,62 - 0,67 6297 21

0,67 - 0,72 1821 6

0,72 - 0,77 1351 5

0,77 - 0,81 221 1

0,81 - 0,85 92 0,3

Total 29291 100%

Fig. 3 Map showing spatial distribution of rainfall erosivity factor

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Fig. 4 Map showing spatial distribution of soil erodibility factor

3) Topographic Factor LS
The LS factor generally varies fro m 5 to 50 with an average value of 7.91. These different units were grouped into 11
classes to visualize their distribution (Fig. 5).
The Values less than 1 occupy almost half the catchment area (40%) and are distributed mainly in the center of the basin,
followed by the class 5-10 wh ich covers 18% of the area. The highest values, those greater than 55% occupy very limited areas,
only 1%, in the northeast of the watershed (Table II).
TABLE II DISTRIBUTION OF LS FACTOR CLASSES IN THE KHMISS WATERSHED

LS classes Area (ha) Area (%)

0-1 11834 40
1-3 1610 5
3-5 2148 7
5-10 5243 18
10-15 3335 11
15-20 1943 7
20-25 1142 4
25-35 1126 4
35-45 466 2
45-55 207 1
>55 237 1

Total 29291 100 %

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Fig 5 Map showing spatial distribution of topographic factor

4) Vegetation Cover Factor (C)

The map of C factor distribution was established by rasterization of vegetation map cover according to the index values
assigned to each vegetation type (Fig. 6). It reclassified into six classes (Table III).

Fig. 6 Map showing spatial destribution of vegetation cover factor

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The Factor values are between 0 and 1. The value of 0 co rresponds to the non -erodible units (water) and a value of 1
concern the most erodible units (bare soil).
TABLE III DISTRIBUTION OF C FACTOR CLASSES IN THE KHMISS WATERSHED

Ve getation unit % Area C factor

Water 1 0
Forests 9,4 0,001
Clear scrub 9,7 0,01
Dense scrub 1,4 0,05
Agricultural area 76,9 0,1
Bare soil 1,6 1

5) Erosion Control Practices P

In our case study, the P factor is considered equal to 1 over the entire watershed since no anti-erosive practice is adopted in
the area.

B. Erosion Risk Map

The multip licat ion of the five factors previously computed and rasterized according to the pixel of the DEM has produced a
quantitative map that inform about erosion rates per unit area, in t/ha/year. The erosion risk map shows areas that have the
same characteristics and that generally react with the same way to the erosion process.
In order to better visualize the results and spatially differentiate the risk degrees, the map was classified into 13 classes (Fig.
7). It shows that the erosion in the study area varies between 0 and more than 200t/ha/year, with an average loss of 36t/ha/year,
which is considered as relatively h igh.

Fig 7 Erosion risk map of Wadi Khmiss watershed

The map shows that areas with low erosion risk (<12t/ha/year) cover about 27% of the total area, concentrated mainly in
areas with very low slopes, follo wed by those representing an average risk of erosion varying between 12 and 45 t/ha/yea r, that
occupy 34% of the area. The class of high risk of erosion (fro m 45 to 120t/ha/year) covers 30% of the total area of the basin ,

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affecting main ly agricultural lands where the slope is relatively high. Finally, areas with very high risk of erosion
(>120t/ha/year) occupy only 8% of the total area of the basin (Table IV and Fig. 8).
TABLE IV DISTRIBUTION OF EROSION RISK RATES OVER THE KHMISS WATERSHED

Soil loss (t/ha/year) Area (ha) % Area

0 (dam) 255 1%
<3 4726 16%
3–6 1769 6%
6 – 12 1234 4%
12 – 20 2463 8%
20 – 30 3422 12%
30 – 45 4005 14%
45 – 60 4113 14%
60 – 90 3246 11%
90 – 120 1562 5%
120 – 150 727 2%
150 – 200 572 2%
>200 1197 4%
Total 29291 100%

Fig. 8 Distribution of erosion risk rates over the Khmiss watershed

V. DISCUSSION
The unequal distribution of potential erosion risk in the basin results fro m the variability of the different factors involved in
the process.
A general reading of the erosion hazard map shows that low erosion risk (<12 t/ha/year) occupies areas with low slopes and
very friable format ions (rich in clays, sand and silt), on which an agricu lture activ ity is developed. Areas at mediu m risk o f
erosion (fro m 12 to 45t/ha/year) are distributed main ly in the West, South and Southeast of the watershed. They are
characterized by flysch and marls format ions and average slopes.
Other sectors that represent very high erosion hazard (>120 t/ha/year) are characterized by steep slopes, which exp lains
their high sensitivity to erosion despite they consist of land least likely to be eroded throughout the basin (limestone ridge) and
are also characterized by a dense vegetation cover. This can also be explained by exposure of these areas to precipitation, to
dominant winds and a longer duration of sunshine.
The field validation and comparison with other studies confirm that the application has provided a reliable result, even
though the study was relatively limited because of some points. First, the Universal Soil Loss Equation gives only a very brute
estimate of soil loss expected over the long term. It predicts only the diffuse erosion and the rill erosion: gully erosion is not
taken into account. In addition, some important factors influencing soil erosion are not considered, as the effect of stones and
rock frag ments.
Other uncertainties propagated throughout the model cause uncertainty in the rate of estimated erosion, the case of
estimating for rainfall erosivity factor, based on an approximated relation with annual and monthly precipitation, with
extrapolation to the whole basin remain so inappropriate because of the wide variety of climates that we found it in the region,

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thus leading to a significant difference.

Despite these deficiencies and defects, the method gives valuable information on the risk of erosion and the results are
similar to other works in other Moroccan watersheds [3, 5, 7, 21, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31]. A more detailed assessment
can be accomplished using more detailed data, other erosion models and field studies.
In conclusion, the current erosion risk map in the Kh miss watershed, with the limits outlined above, is surely the better or
closest that can be achieved with the available data. The results could be improved by using a more detailed data, other erosion
models and field studies.

VI. CONCLUSIONS
The problem of soil erosion addressed through the equation of Wischmeier and Smith apply is easily applied to Geographic
Information Systems due to the compatibility between USLE and map algebra: each factor is a layer wh ich after mu ltiplication
with the other gives a general map informing about a risk of erosion or erodib ility.
The GIS can manage in a rational way a mult itude of data on various factors of land degradation, which allo wed us to
conclude that the essential factors in the Kh miss watershed are slope, erodibility soil and vegetation cover.
This study presents the first map of risk erosion in the Kh miss watershed. It shows that the basin loses 36t/ha/year in
average annual, wh ich is explained by moderately high erosion. This loss results from the interaction of other factors also
combine to accelerate erosion, h ighly soils erodibility (83% soil shows a K factor between 0.47 and 0.67) and degraded
vegetation cover (76,9% of total area are occupied by the agricultural act ivities).
The model used in this study is fairly reliable, easy to update, modify the data sources and methods. This can be used as a
tool for evaluating spatial and temporal risk of erosion aspects.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The authors thank all researchers and technicians at the National Ins titute of Agricultural Researches “INRA” (Rabat,
Morocco) for their help and support during field missions and laboratory work.
They also gratefully acknowledge the financial support of ADM, GIZ-ACCN, CNRST and INRA-Morocco.

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http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ijg.2012.33061

Lamiae Khali Issa. The author’s birth place is Tangier which is the capital of Tangier Tetouan Region on Northern M orocco. The date of
birth is 26 August 1986. He completed his Master Degree in Environnemental S ciences from the Faculty of Sciences and Technologies of
Tangier, Abdelmalek Essaadi University , M orocco in 2011 after completing a M.S c. in Environmental protection in 2009.
Currently, he is preparing a PhD thesis in Geosciences and En vironment, which the thematic is the application and comparison of different
empirical, physical and experimental methods of modeling erosion hazard.
Ahmed Raissouni. The author’s was born in Tangier, Northern M orocco on July the first 1978. He completed a M.S c. in Oceanology and
Marin En vironment from the Faculty of Sciences and Technologies of Tangier, Abdelmalek Essaadi University, M orocco in 2000 and then
a Master Degree in Natural Hazards, Planning and Environmental protection from the Faculty of Sciences, University of M ohamed V,
Rabat, M orocco in 2002. In 2012, he obtained the PhD in Geosciences and Environment from the Faculty of Sciences and Technologies of
Tangier, Abdelmalek Essaadi University, M orocco. Since the beginning of his research, the author has published 10 papers on various topics
related to environment and geology and about 20 participations on international conferences.
The Author has participated as a member on several inter-university scientific cooperation projects between 2006 and 2012, and as a co-
supervisor of several License and M .Sc. diplomas.
During 2008, he occupied the post of internal coordinator attached to the branch of Engineers in Geoinformation, accredited in the
Department of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Sciences and Technologies of Tangier, Abdelmalek Essaadi University, M orocco.
He has also worked, since 2006, as an expert in a lot of private projects, especially on t he evaluation of their environmental impacts or
feasibility.
The Author participated in the evaluation of 4 scientific papers (3 in English) from international journals.

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