Bipolar Junction Transistor Construction. NPN Physical Operation. The transistor is a three terminal device.

It is probably only the second such device youve encountered in electrical engineering, after the op amp. Roughly speaking, the transistor acts an electronic valve: the node current or voltage at one terminal controls the current entering the second terminal and exiting the third. It would be difficult to overstate the importance of the transistor to electronics. Some of its uses are: Electronic Digital Memory logic circuits Amplifiers switches.

The two basic families of transistors are bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) and field effect transistors (FETs). Well start by discussing BJTs for approximately 13 lectures followed by FETs for the remaining 12 BJT pnp. A simplified lectures. BJTs are covered Physical sketch of an npn in Chapter 5 of your text. Structure transistor is:

BJTs are formed from three doped regions on a silicon crystal. These can either be npn doped regions or

As

can

be

seen,

the

BJT

is

formed

from

two

back-to-back

pn

junctions: (EBJ) (CBJ).

Emitter-base Collector-base

junction junction

This specific way of drawing the BJT has been around from the very beginning of these transistors. This figure:

is from William Shockleys U.S. patent 2,569,347 issued in 1951. BJTs can also be fabricated from two ptype regions and one ntype. This is called a pnp transistor:

While the BJT might appear to be symmetrical by looking at Fig. 5.1, the actual devices are not. For example, the cross section below of an npn transistor clearly shows that the EBJ and CBJ, for example, have very differently sized surface contact areas, which will greatly change their relative behaviors.

There are four basic modes of operation for a BJT depending on the states of the two pn junctions of the transistor: Mode Emitter-Base Jct. Collector-Base Jct. Cutoff Active Saturation Reverse Active Reverse Forward Forward Reverse Reverse Reverse Forward Forward In digital logic applications, the transistor switches between the cutoff and saturation modes. As a linear amplifier in a communication circuit, the transistor would operate in the active mode. Because of the asymmetrical physical construction, the reverse active mode is not the same as interchanging the collector and emitter leads. The states of the two pn junctions can be altered by the external circuitry connected NPN to the Transistor transistor. in This is called the biasing Active the transistor. Mode

Well begin the discussion of the BJT physical operation by considering an npn transistor in the active mode. To bias it in the active mode, we need to forward bias the EBJ and reverse bias the CBJ (notice that the emitter and collectors have swapped positions from Fig. 5.1 shown earlier):

The overall objective of this circuit is to create a current flowing from the collector to the emitter terminals in the transistor that is controlled, so to speak, by the base voltage VBB. How does this transistor current is primarily operate electrons that in are injected this from n to circuit? p. Because of the forward bias on the EBJ, charges can flow across this junction giving rise to iE. This The electrons injected in the base diffuse across the thin base region towards the collector. Some of the e- recombine in the base, but this region is manufactured to be thin and lightly doped compared to the emitter so this recombination is kept small. Otherwise, the BJT would just operate as two back-toback diodes and no current would flow. A representative minority carrier concentration profile is shown below in Fig. 5.4. (Note that C and E are switched with reference to Fig. 1 above.)

 The e- that reach the reverse-biased CBJ encounter a large electric field. This E sweeps them into the collector injected forming holes from the the collector base to current the iC as This is shown an the in Fig. 1 above. though. Mode a: A small base current iB is present largely due to recombination in the base with the small amount of emitter. in important current, Discussion efficiency, About BJT Active

1. The proportion of electrons from the emitter that make it to the base is called the collector

Typically it has values of near 0.99. Note that a is called the common-base current gain in the text. From KCL in the circuit of Fig. 1:

We can deduce from (3) that with 1 a? , then iB will be much, much smaller than iE. 2. The ratio of collector current to base current is called the current gain, :

3.

Dividing

(1)

by

(4)

we

find

that

Equating

this

to

(4)

we

find

and

solving

this

equation

for

4. One can think of the base current in the BJT as controlling the collector current: ic= i collector 5. The the circuit output, symbol then and this would be signal for amplification! the npn

. Since is Awesome! BJT are

large, then a small change in iB produces a large change in iC. If the base were an input signal and the current conventions

The arrows indicate the assumed directions for positive current for the npn BJT. The filled arrow is always located on the emitter and helps us to remember the direction of the emitter current. 6. For biasing in the active mode as shown in Fig. 1, one biasing circuit might be

PNP Bipolar Junction Transistor

The

second

type

of

BJT

is

formed

from

pnp

doped

regions

as

Differences

between

pnp

and

npn

BJTs

are:

Biasing voltages are applied oppositely to the npn, though still forward biasing EBJ and reverse biasing the CBJ for active mode operation, for example. Current is primarily composed of holes (in the p type regions) rather than electrons from the as device.The in circuit symbol the for the npn pnp BJT BJT. is The current direction conventions are iE into the emitter while iC and iB are out

Once again, the filled arrow is always located on the emitter and helps us to remember the direction of the emitter current. Notice that the currents are pointed in opposite directions compared to the npn BJT. For biasing in the active mode, a possible circuit is

As with the npn, for the pnp BJT in the active mode and with the current convention shown above

Consequently, we need to only memorize this one set of equations for use with both npn and pnp BJTs, plus the current conventions for these two BJTs. Examples Well now consider a few examples of the DC analysis of npn and pnp BJT circuits.Examples Well now consider a few examples of the DC analysis of npn and pnp BJT circuits. Example N11.1 (text example 5.1). Design the following circuit so that Ic =2 mA and Vc5 = V. For this particular transistor, = 100 and 0.7 Vbe = V at Ic =1 mA.

The design of this circuit is to determine the RC and RE that provide the specified IC and VC. For ic=2 MA , than

Were assuming that the transistor is in the active mode with theEBJ forward biased and the CBJ reversed biased. For the forward biased EBJ junction,

Its given that at IC = 1 mA, VBE = 0.7 V. What is VBE when IC = 2 mA? Using (6) for two different iC and vBE we find that

Therefore,

For

this

particular

case,

This is not much of an increase from 0.7 V, which is what we typically observe when the BJT is in the active mode. Consequently, ve=-0.717v

We

can

use

this

emitter

current

to

select

the

proper

resistor

or

That completes the design. One last thing, though. Notice how small the base current IB is relative to IC and IE: Ib= Ic-Ie = 20A. This is typical of BJTs operating in the active mode. Example N11.2 (text exercise 5.10). Determine IE, IB, IC, and VC in the circuit below if = 50 and VE = -0.7 V.

Because VB = 0, then the given VE means the BJT may be operating in the active mode since VBE = 0.7 V. (It could also be operating in the saturation mode.) Well assume active mode operation for now, and confirm this ssumption when were finished. (i) Compute IE.

(ii)

Compute

IE.

(iii)

Compute

IB.

(iv)

Compute

VC.

Vc=10-5,000.ic=5.45v

Note that since Vcb =Vc- Vb = 4.45-0=5.45V is greater than zero (thus reverse biasing the CBJ) and the EBJ is forward biased, the npn BJT is indeed operating in the active mode, as assumed. Example N11.3 (text exercise 5.11). Given that VB = 1.0 V and VE = 1.7 V, determine a (and ) for the transistor in the circuit below. Also calculate VC.Using

Because V mode, determine

eb=

V e-V which

= 0.7 V, the pnp transistor may be operating in the active is a what we

will ia
e

assume.
c

(i) Determine a and . Well use the relationships i

= and i

= to .

and

Note that this VC means that the CBJ is reversed biased by thevoltage 1.0- (-1.75) 2.75 = V. Hence, the active mode operation for the pnp BJT is the proper assumption since weve already determined that the EBJ is forward biased.

DC Analysis of BJT Circuits

In this section we will consider a number of BJT circuits and perform the DC

circuit analysis. For those circuits with an active mode BJT, well assume that VBE = 0.7V (npn) or V 100.
EB

= 0.7V (pnp). Example N12.1 (text example 5.4).

Compute the node voltages and currents in the circuit below assuming =

If

the

BJT

is

in

the

active

mode,

Vbe =

0.7V

then

With

Ic Iae =

then

Consequently,

using

KVL

Vc=10-IeRc= 10-0.99*10-3>-4.7*103=5.3V Finally, using KCL IB+IC=IE,or IB=IEIC=1-0.99=0.01mA Now well check to see if these values mean the BJT is in the active mode (as assumed). VCB = 5.3-4 =1.3 V. This is greater than zero, which means the CBJ is reversed biased. VBE =0.7 V. This is greater than zero, which means the EBJ is forward biased. Because the CBJ is reversed biased and the EBJ is forward biased, the BJT is operating in the active mode. Note that in the text, they show a technique for analyzing such circuits right on the circuit diagram in .

Example N12.2 (text example 5.5). Repeat the previous example but with VB =6 V. Assuming the BJT is operating in the active mode:

From the last calculation 2.57 C Vc = 2.57V VCB = 3.43 V. Consequently, the BJT is not in the active mode because the CBJ is forward biased. A better assumption is the transistor is operating in the saturation mode. Well talk more about this later. For now, suffice it to say that in the saturation mode VCE|sat 0.2 V (see Section 5.3.4). Assuming this and reanalyzing the circuit:

Notice

that

This ratio is often called forced . Observe that its not equal to 100, as this ratio would be if the transistor were operating in the active mode (see Section 5.3.4). Example N12.3 (text example 5.7). Compute the node voltages and currents in the circuit below assuming = 100. To begin, well assume the pnp transistor is operating in the active mode.

Now

check

if EBJ? CBJ?

the

BJT

is

in Forward Reversed

the

active

mode: biased. biased.

So the BJT is in the active mode, as originally assumed. Example N12.4 (text exercise D5.25). Determine the largest RC that can be used in the circuit below so that the BJT remains in the active mode. (This circuit is very similar to the one in the previous example.)

Well begin by assuming the BJT is operating in the active mode. In the active mode, the CBJ needs to be reversed biased. The lowest voltage across this junction Therefore, -10+R CIc=0 or for operation in the active by mode is VCB=0 VC=VB=0V KVL

This value of RC and smaller is required for the BJT to operate in the active mode. Example N12.5 (text example 5.10). Determine the node voltages and currents in the circuit shown below. Assume the BJT is operating in the active mode with =100 .

First,

well

use

Thvenins

theorem

to

simplify

the

base

circuit

The

Thvenin

equivalent

resistance

and

voltage

are

then

Using this Thvenin equivalent for the base circuit, the overall circuit is then

To find the emitter current, well apply KVL over the loop shown giving 5=33.3*103.IB+0.7+3,000.IEThe quantity of interest is IB. With CB IC= I B=and IC =IaE for a BJT in the active mode, we find

Using With

this
3

in then solving

the this

KVL equation we

equation find

5-0.7=[33.3*10 +3,000(+1)]Ib =100

Next,

by

KCL

The

node

voltages

are

then

Lastly, forward

lets

check

if

the

BJT

is

operating

in

the

active

mode. EBJ.

BE B E VBE= VB- VE = 4.57 -3.87 =0.7 V This is 0.7 V originally assumed for a biased VBC= VB -V C=4.57 -8.6=-4.03 V. This is less than zero, which means the CBJ is reversed biased. Therefore the BJT is operating in the active mode, as originally assumed.

The BJT as a Signal Amplifier

One very useful application of the transistor is an amplifier of time varying signals. Consider the conceptual BJT amplifier circuit shown below:

The DC voltages provide the biasing. The input signal is vbe and the output signal is vc. We will assume the transistor is biased so that VC is greater than VB by an amount that llows for sufficient signal swing at the collector, but the transistor remains in the active mode at all times. That is, the transistor does not become saturated or cutoff during the cycle. From the circuit above, the total base-to-emitter voltage is

Correspondingly,

the

collector

current

is

or (3) can

using be

(5.53) approximated

ic=Ice by

For small vbe such that Vbe<<2VVr (i.e., the small-signal approximation), then

This is a familiar result: We saw something very similar with small signals and diodes back in Lecture 4.The time varying current in (4)

Can

be

written

as

ic=gwV be

is defined as the transistor small-signal transconductance. Its units are Siemens. Significance characteristic of the curve Note BJT at that Small-Signal the gmIc. Transconductance Q point:

What is the physical significance of gm? First, gm is the slope of the iC-vBE

Consider

the

plot

shown

in

Fig.

with

ic=

Ise from

(2),

the

right-hand

side

of

(8)

becomes

therefore as linear signals: we portions The defined of the be v in (6). iC-vBE controls Observe characteristic the that: curve. ic The small-signal vbe assumption restricts the operation of the BJT to nearly From (6), the BJT behaves as a voltage controlled current source for small small-signal small-signal

Signal circuit. Using KVL in Fig.

Voltage 5.48a, the total collector

Gain voltage is

Second, gm has an important relationship to the signal voltage gain in this

where VC is the DC voltage at the collector. So from (11), the AC signal at the collector is Vc=-IcRcThis result is negative, which means this circuit operates as an inverting amplifier for small, time varying signals. From (6), c mbe ic= gm vbe = . Using the this result in (12) AC gives Vc=-gmVbeRc=-(g mRc)vbe gain Av is Consequently, small-signal voltage

In a broad sense, we can see that this transistor circuit can act an amplifier of the time varying input signal, provided this input voltage remains small enough.

gm is a very important amplifier parameter since the voltage gain in (14) is directly proportional to gm. BJTs have a relatively large gm compared to field effect transistors, which we will consider in the next chapter. Consequently, BJTs have better voltage gain in such circuits.

BJT Small-Signal Equivalent Circuit Models

Our next objective is to develop small-signal circuit models for the BJT. Well focus on the

npn variant in this lecture. Recall that we did this for the diode back in

In order to develop theseBJT_Small-signal models, there are two small-signal resistances that we must first determine. These are:

1. r p: the small-signal, active mode input resistance between the base and emitter, as seen looking into the base. 2. re: the small-signal, active mode output resistance between the base and emitter, as seen looking into the emitter. These resistances are NOT the same. Why? Because the transistor is not a reciprocal device. Like a diode, the behavior of the BJT in the circuit changes if we interchange the terminals. Determine r p Assuming the transistor in this circuit

is

operating

in

the

active

mode,

then

The AC small-signal equivalent circuit from

Notice the AC ground in the circuit. This is an extremely important concept. Since the voltage at this terminal is held constant at VCC, there is no time variation of the voltage. Consequently, we can set this terminal to be an AC ground in the small-signal circuit. For AC grounds, we kill the DC sources at that terminal: short circuit voltage sources and open circuit current sources. So, from the small-signal equivalent circuit above:

we

see

that

Hence,

using

(2)

in

(3)

This r p is the BJT active mode small-signal input resistance of the BJT between the base and the emitter as seen looking into the base terminal. (Similar to a Thvenin resistance, this statement means we are fictitiously separating the source from the base of the BJT and observing the input resistance, as indicated by the dashed line in

Fig. 2.) Determine re Well determine re following a similar procedure as for r p, but beginning with

The

AC

component

of

iE in

(5)

is

or

with

IE =I c|c

As indicated in Fig. 1 above, re is theBJT_Small-signal resistance between the emitter and base seen looking into the emitter:

Mathematically,

this

is

stated

as

Assuming an ideal signal voltage source, then e be ve=-vbe and Using (7) in this equation we find

But

from

(5.87)

Therefore, using this last result in (10) gives

This is the BJT active mode small-signal resistance between the base and emitter seen looking into the emitter. It can be shown that Rz=(b+1)re[ed] It is quite apparent from this equation that e r r p . . This
result is not unexpected because the active mode BJT is a non-reciprocal device, BJT as mentioned Small-Signal on page 1 of these notes. Circuits

Equivalent

We are now in a position to construct the equivalent active mode, smallsignal circuit models for the BJT. There are two families of such circuits: 1. 2. HybridT p model model.

Both are equally valid models, but choosing one over the other sometimes leads HybridVersion to simpler analysis p of certain circuits. Model A.

Lets verify that this circuit incorporates all of the necessarysmall-signal characteristics of the BJT: ib= vbe |rp as required by (3). ic= gm vbe as required by (5.86), which we saw in the last lecture. ib+ ic= ie as required by We can also show from these relationships that ie= KCL. vbe| re.

Version B. We can construct a second equivalent circuit by using

Hence,

using

this

result

the

second

hybrid-

model

is

Model

The hybrid- p model is definitely the most popular small-signal model for the BJT. The alternative is the T model, which is useful in certain situations. Version The T model also has two versions: A.

Version

B.

The small-signal models for pnp BJTs are identically the same as those shown here for the npn transistors. It is important to note that there is no change in any polarities (voltage or current) for the pnp models relative to the npn models. Again, these small-signal models are identically the same.

BJT Small-Signal Amplifier Examples

We will now consider three examples in this lecture of BJTs used as linear amplifiers. Here are the steps to follow when solving small-signal transistor amplifier 2. Calculate the small-signal model parameters for problems: the BJT: 1. Determine the Q point of the BJT using DC analysis. Compute IC.

3. Rewrite the small-signal circuit: short out DC sources and open DC current sources. small-signal Use the small-signal voltage model gain, for the BJT. etc. 4. Analyze the small-signal circuit for the desired quantities such as voltage, Example N15.1 (text example 5.14). Determine the small-signal AC voltage gain for the circuit below, assuming = 100 and the output voltage taken at the collector terminal.

The first step in the solution is to determine the Q point through DC analysis. By superposition, well force 0 i v = for this analysis. Assuming the BJT is in the active mode, the results of the DC analysis are:

We see that the CBJ is reversed biased so this npn BJT is in the active mode because of this and the EBJ is forward biased. Next, we determine the BJT small-signal model parameters for the hybridp model:

Now, we insert a small-signal equivalent model of the BJT into the circuit of Fig. 5.53(a) after shorting the DC voltage sources (VBB and VCC). This gives the small-signal equivalent circuit:

Notice the AC ground at RC. This is an AC ground because the voltage at this node does not vary with time. For the purposes of the AC signal analysis, we can set this node to an AC ground. (As a side note, in the lab power supplies have a finite internal resistance. This Thvenin equivalent resistance must be included in the AC circuit for analysis purposes.) Next, we perform the small-

signal

analysis

referring

to

Fig.

5.53c.

At

the

input

while vo=-Rcie=-RcgmVbe Substituting for

at vbe

the from (4)

output gives

Therefore,

the

small-signal

AC

voltage

gain,

Av,

is

For

this

particular

problem

The negative sign indicates this is an inverting amplifier: the AC output signal is inverted but with with a respect triangular to input the waveform input of AC small signal. amplitude. Example N15.2 (text example 5.15). Repeat the analysis of the previous example In the text, vip =0.8 V, is the peak amplitude of the triangularinput voltage (= Vi in the text). Then from (4) above (and the fact that there are only resistors in the circuit)

which is less that 10 mV. This is fairly small with respect to 2 VT = 50mV so well go ahead and use the small-signal analysis and models. Sketches of the total voltages and currents from this circuit are shown

A on We gain the In

few former. Fig. can for

things Notice the ic is how BJT

to enlarged in-phase the

take vertical with

special scale the in input works shown Fig.

notice: 5.54c

In Fig. 5.54c, vBE has a DC part and an AC part (see Fig.5.54a) that is riding 5.54d, see the voltage. here. in

In Fig. 5.54e, vc= Vc -icRc is 180 out-of-phase with the input. As vi ,Ic . vc. AC amplifier ground circuit Example N15.3 (text example 5.16). Determine the small-signal AC voltage

The two capacitors in this circuit serve as DC blocks. They have a large enough C so that Xc=0 . at the operating frequency. With these capacitors, the DC bias

is unchanged by the source or load attachments. We call this capacitively coupled input and output. As always, we first determine the DC bias. Well assume the BJT is in the active mode and that = 100: From this result

From Ic=0.92mAvc=-10+Icrc=-5.4V

this

result

Next, we construct the small-signal equivalent circuit and analyze the circuit to determine the voltage gain. Well use the T model, though the hybrid- p model would work as well.

Notice the two AC grounds in this circuit: one at RE and the other at RC. Also notice this is the first small-signal model of the pnp transistor we have used. The small-signal model of the pnp transistor is exactly the same as that for the npn with no change in the polarities of the currents or voltages. This can be a little confusing. Here, for example, ie is a negative quantity. Using (3) for the small-signal equivalent model of the BJT

From Because

the the base

small-signal v0=-a is grounded,

AC

circuit: ieRc Ie=-Vi|reTherefore,

Notice that this small-signal voltage gain is a positive quantity. The reason for this is the input is tied to the emitter. (Note that this positive gain did not occur just because this is a pnp BJT.) Now, with a = 0.99 then from (10)

Lastly, for linear operation of this amplifier, veb mV. With Veb=-V ithen Vi@10

mV for linear operation of the amplifier, which implies that [email protected] A sketch of the output from this small-signal amplifier is shown in Fig. 5.57 for a sinusoidal input voltage:

Were assuming the output remains linear and the BJT in the active mode at all times for the entire voltage swing in vC. If this input voltage were set to a larger value, this would no longer be the case and the BJT would first encounter nonlinear behavior and eventually saturate. Both of these effects would distort the output voltage and it would no longer be an amplified copy of the input voltage.

Graphical Analysis of a BJT We can use graphical analysis to approximately analyze the response of simple transistor amplifier circuits. This technique is primarily useful to develop physical insight. Consider once again the conceptual BJT amplifier circuit:

Similar to the analytical solution, there are two primary steps to the graphical solution of such small-signal amplifiers: 1. DC basis analysis 2. AC small-signal analysis. DC Bias The first step in the bias calculations is to determine IB. This is done with the iB-vBE characteristic curve and the load line:

Once IB has been determined we can compute IC knowing that Ic=b IB for a BJT in the active mode. With this IC value and the iC-vCE characteristic curve of the transistor, we can

determine VWe havent yet seen the iC-vCE characteristic curve of the BJT. This can be measured using the circuit in Fig. 5.19(a) below. vBEis fixed at some value, then vCE is swept while measuring iC. The results are shown below for different values of vBE.

When vCE is very small, iC is nearly zero. This is the cutoff mode of the BJT. As vCE increases, the CBJ is forward biased and the BJT is in the saturation mode. When vCE becomes large enough, the CBJ becomes reversed biased and the BJT enters the active mode. The slopes of the lines in Fig. 5.19 in the active mode are quite exaggerated in this figure. So, back to the graphical solution. With the IC=bIB value from Fig. 5.28 and the iC-vCE characteristic curve of the transistor from Fig. 5.19, we can determine VCE:

Curve tracers are pieces of equipment that will measure and display families of iC-vCE characteristic curves for transistors. AC Small-Signal Analysis The first step in the AC small-signal analysis is to determine ib. This is performed using a slightly complicated interaction of the input waveform vi, the subsequent time variation of the load line, and the iB-vBE characteristic curve of the BJT:

From this comes the small-signal quantities vbe and ib. With ib known and ic=biB , then we use these values on the vic characteristic curve to determine vce:

Cutoff and Saturation Notice that there are limits on vCE in which the BJT remains in the active mode: Too large ( CC V = ) and the BJT cuts off Too small (few tenths of a volt) and the transistor saturates. These limits are readily apparent if we reexamine the previous figure of the smallsignal variation:

Because of these limits on vCE, it is important to choose the Q point properly to all for the desired swing in the signal voltage (vce).

JT Biasing - Current Mirror It is important for the biasing of a transistor amplifier that it remains largely invariant to fairly large changes in and temperature. Proper biasing doesnt happen by chance. For example, the npn and pnp inverter circuits in Laboratory #3 are highly sensitive to variations in . That is usually a poor design (but was done on purpose for the lab, of course). In this lecture, we will study four BJT biasing methods: 1. Single power supply 2. Dual power supply 3. Alternate method for common emitter amplifiers 4. Current source. Single Power Supply Biasing Method Perhaps the most common method for biasing BJT amplifier circuits with a single power supply is shown in

RE is part of this biasing method as well. When used as an amplifier, the input signal would be capacitively coupled to the base of the BJT while the output would be taken (through capacitive coupling) at the collector or emitter of the transistor, depending on the specific requirements for the amplifier. We analyzed a specific example of this type of circuit in Lecture 12 employing Thvenins theorem to simplify the analysis:

where VBB and RB are given in (5.68) and (5.69) in the text. Using KVL in the loop shown above VBB=IBRB +VBE +IE RE With IB= IE|(b+1) then (1) becomes

Consequently,

We can use (3) to design the biasing circuit so that it is largely insensitive to variations in b. The question is then how do we make IE (and hence IC) largely insensitive to b variations? Examining (3), we deduce that the answer is to choose

Furthermore, we can design this biasing circuit so that it is largely insensitive to variations in temperature. The effects of temperature enter this circuit because VBE is a relatively strong function of temperature having a temperature coefficient of -2 mV/C. (We saw this same behavior with diodes.) From (3) we can see that if we choose VBB >>VBE then well have a biasing circuit design that is largely insensitive to variations in temperature. So physically how do these conditions (4) and (5) make a good biasing circuit? Eqn. (4) makes the base voltage largely independent of and determined almost solely by R1 and R2. How? Because the current in the divider is much greater than the base current. The rule of thumb for much greater is that the divider current should be on the order of IE to IE/10.

 Eqn. (5) ensures that small variations in VBE (from its nominal 0.7 V) due to temperature changes are much smaller than VBB. Additionally, there is an upper limit to VBB because a higher VBB lowers VCB and affects the small values of the positive signal swing. The rule of thumb here is that VBB VCC|3 and VCB (or VCE) VCC|3 and .IC RC VCC|3 Example N17.1. Design the bias circuit below for VCC = 9 V to provide VCC/3 V across RE and RC, IE = 0.5 mA, and the voltage divider current of 0.2IE, as shown. Design the circuit for a large b, then find the actual value obtained for IE with a BJT having b=100.

For the resistors Reand Rc,Ic RE =VCC /3=3V For I E =0.5 mA , then RE =6Kb For the voltage divider , if this BJT is in the active mode then VBE 0.7V Hence VB =VBE+VE =0.7+3=3.7V Such that

A large b for a BJT in the active mode implies Ib0. By Ohms law

Hence, RI =90kb-R2 =53K b For the design with b = 100 it can be shown that IE =0.48 mA. (This is only a -4% change from 0.5 mA with b= ;) Dual Power Supply Biasing Method When two power supplies are available, a possible biasing method is

Using KVL around the loop L gives

This is the same result as (3), but with VBB replaced by VEE. Consequently, the b- and temperature-invariant design equations for this circuit are the same as those given earlier in (4) and (5) with VBB replaced by VEE. Alternative Biasing for Common Emitter Amplifiers This biasing method has a resistor tied from the collector to the base as

As shown in the text, for IE to be insensitive to b variations, choose

and for VBE to be insensitive to temperature variations, choose VCC VBE This latter requirement is most often very easy to meet! Biasing with a Current Source The last BJT amplifier biasing method well consider is one using a current source.

In this circuit, E I I = . If we are using a good current source, then IE will not depend on . Very nice. However, what weve done in this approach is to push the technical problem to the design of a good current source. Current Mirror Simple biasing methods often fail to provide constant collector currents if the supply voltage or ambient temperature change.This is a problem with mobile telephones, for example, where the battery voltage changes with use and the device operates in a range of temperatures. There are sophisticated circuits consisting of tens of evices that can produce golden currents that are supply voltage and temperature independent. These golden currents are replicated throughout a device using a current mirror:

There are better and more sophisticated approaches than this, of course. This is just a simple

example. In this current mirror, Q1 is called a diode-connected BJT because the collector and base terminals are connected together. For proper operation of this circuit, it is very important that the BJTs be matched, meaning they having the same b characteristic curves, etc. Usually this means that the BJTs must be fabricated at the same time on the same substrate. For the analysis of this circuit, we assume that is very large and that Q1 and Q2 operate in the active mode. Because of this, we ignore the base currents in Q1 and Q2. Therefore, the collector (and emitter) current through Q1 is approximately equal to IREF. By KVL,

Now, since Q1 and Q2 are matched and they have the same VBE, then the collector currents must be the same. This implies that

This current mirror circuit will supply this current I as long as Q2 operates in the active region: V > VBE- VEE Notice that the diode-connected Q1 cannot saturate since thebase and collector terminals are shorted together. Hence, Q1operates in the active mode or is simply cutoff.

Common Emitter Amplifier

We will now begin the analysis of the three basic types of linear BJT small-signal amplifiers: 1. 2. 3. Common Common Common emitter base collector (CE) (CB) (CC),

which is oftentimes called the emitter follower amplifier. Well study the CE amplifier in this lecture and the next, followed by the CB and CC amplifiers. The CE amplifier is excited at the base of the BJT with the output taken at the emitter:

The capacitor CE is called a bypass capacitor. At the operating frequency, its purpose is to shunt out the effects of the DC current source from the time varying signal. In other words, CE sets an AC ground at this node at the frequency of operation. There are a number of ways to bias this amplifier, other than that shown above. What were primarily interested in here is the small-signal characteristics. Common Emitter Small-Signal Amplifier Analysis The small-signal equivalent circuit for the CE amplifier above is shown below. Because the emitter is located at an AC ground is the reason this type of amplifier is called a common emitter amplifier.

Notice that weve included ro in this small-signal model. This is the finite output resistance of the BJT. This accounts for thefinite slope of the characteristic curves of iC versus vCE mentioned briefly in

where VA is called the Early voltage. Usually ro is fairly large, on the order of many tens of kb Our quest in the small-signal analysis of this amplifier is to determine these quantities: input resistance Rin, the overall small-signal voltage gain GV = vo/ vsig , the partial small-signal voltage gain v o i Av= vo v i , the overall small-signal current gain Gi= i0/ I i , the short circuit small-signal current gain is os i Ais= ias ii ,and the output resistance Rout. Input resistance, Rin. Directly from the small-signal equivalent circuit, we see that Rin= RB || r p Oftentimes we select RB rp so that i Rin rp Oftentimes we select RB rp so that r p will often be a few kb, which means this CE amplifier voltage presents gain, a moderately By large value of input gain impedance. we mean Overall small-signal Gv. overall voltage

which is the actual small-signal voltage gain that would be realized in the circuit above. At the output of this Vo=-gmVp(ro||Rc ||Rl) while at the input circuit

Substituting (4) into (3) gives an expression for the overall (i.e., realized) gain of this CE amplifier

In

the

usual

case

that

RB>>

rp

then

Recall that rp = /g m If it also turned out Rsig>> r p , then we see from (6) that Gv would be directly dependent on b. This is not a favorable condition since, as we learned when discussing biasing of such BJT circuits, bita can vary considerably between transistors. Partial small-signal voltage gain, Av. This is only a partial voltage gain since we are calculating

At Therefore,

the the

input, partial

vi =

Vp while small-signal

at voltage

the gain

output, is

V0=-gmVp(ro||Rc ||RL)

Av=-gm(ro||Rc||RL Overall small-signal current gain, Gi. By definition Referring to the small-signal equivalent circuit shown above, we see that

Forming

the

ratio

of

these

two

currents,

we

find

that

the

current

gain

is

or,

using

(9)

 Short circuit small-signal current gain, Ais. This is the smallsignal current gain of the amplifier but with a short circuitedload ( R L = 0):

Equivalently, A is=G i| A is=-g the

Using r

(11) then A gain

in

(13)

with

R l=0

gives

m(r p||R

In the usual case that R short circuit

is

-bita This result is not unexpected because bita is by definition for the BJT when operating in the active mode.

current

Output resistance Rout. Using the small-signal equivalent circuit above, we short out the source vsig =0 which means that vp =0 as well. Therefore, gm v p = 0, which is an open circuit for a current source. Consequently, Rout= Summary Rc|| of r
o

which CE

is

generally Amplifier

fairly

large. Characteristics

Summary for theCommon_Emitter_Amplifier: Big voltage and current gains are possible. Input resistance is moderately large. Output resistance is fairly large. This last characteristic is often not desirable. Why? Consider this simple Thvenin equivalent for the output of a small-signal amplifier:

The

output

signal

voltage

provided

to

this

resistive

load

is

Now,

if

Rout<<

RL then

This is not a favorable result if this Thvenin equivalent circuit is for an amplifier because the output voltage is beingattenuated. Con versely, if there were a small output resistance such that Rout<< RLthen then vout vo which is much more favorable for an amplifier. (17) becomes

ommon Base Amplifier

We will cover the second of the three families of BJT amplifiers in this lecture by discussing theCommon_Base_Amplifier shown in Fig. 5.62a:

The

small-signal

equivalent

circuit

for

this

amplifier

is

shown

in Fig.

5.62b

(ignoring

ro):

As before, lets determine the small-signal AC characteristics of this amplifier by solving or Rin, Gv, Gi, Ais, Rin=re Since re is often small (on the order of 20 to 30bita), then Rin of the CB amplifier is very small. Generally this is not desirable, though in the case of certain high frequency amplifiers input impedances near 50 bita is very voltage useful gain, (to reduce Gv. so-called first mismatch calculate reflections the partial at the voltage input). gain Small-signal Well and Rout. Input resistance, Rin. From direct inspection of the smallsignal equivalent circuit, we see that

At vo=-aie(Rc||RL The small-signal

the emitter current

output, is

Substituting

(3)

and

(4)

into

(2)

gives

the

partial

voltage

gain

to

be

This is the same gain as for the CE amplifier (without ro), except the gain here for the CB amplifier is positive. The overall (from the input to the output) small-signal voltage gain Gv is defined as

We

can

equivalently

write

this

voltage

gain

as

with Av given in (5). By simple voltage division at the input to the small-signal equivalent circuit

Substituting this result and (5) into (7) yields the final expression for the overall small-signal voltage gain

Since

from

(1)

Rin=

r e then

Gv

simplifies

to

If 1 we can interpret this small-signal overall voltage expression in (10) as the ratio of the total resistance in the collector lead to the total resistance in the emitter lead. This gain can be fairly large, though if Rsig is nearly the same size as the total emitter resistance the gain will be small. In other words, if this amplifier is connected to a high output impedance stage, it will be difficult to realize high gain. Overall small-signal current gain, Gi. By definition

Using

current

division

at

the

output

of

the

small-signal

equivalent

circuit

above

Because

ii =

-ie this

expression

gives

Short circuit current gain, Ais. In the case of a short circuit load (RL = 0), Gi in (13) reduces to the short circuit current gain:

Output resistance, Rout. Referring to the small-signal equivalent circuit above and shorting out the input vsig = 0 Rout= Rc which is the same as the CE amplifier (when ignoring ro). Summary Summary 1. 2. 3. Gv can be of Low very large, though Ais= the CB input critically dependent small-signal on amplifier: resistance. Rsig.

4. Potentially large output resistance (dependent on RC). One very important use of the CB amplifier is as a unity-gain current amplifier, which is also called a current buffer amplifier. This type of amplifier accepts an input signal current at a low impedance level and outputs nearly the same current amplitude, but at a high output impedance level. Even though this is a buffer amplifier, there is still power gain.

Common Collector Emitter Follower Amplifier

The third, and final, small-signal BJT amplifier we will consider is the common collector amplifier shown below:

The

small-signal

equivalent

circuit

is

shown

in

Weve included ro in this model since it can have an appreciable effect on the operation of this amplifier. Notice that ro is connected from the emitter to an AC ground. We can simplify the AC small-signal analysis of this circuit by moving the collector-side lead of ro to the DC ground, as shown in

Similar to the previous BJT amplifiers, well determine the characteristics of this one by Input solving resistance, for Rin. Rin, Looking Gv, into Gi, the Ais, base of and the Rout. BJT,

From

the

circuit

above,

we

see

that

Vb=ie(re+r0||RL

Substituting Rib=(

this

and

1b=i e/(

+1)

into

(1)

yields

+1)(r e+r 0||R L)

This expression for Rib follows the so-called resistance reflection rule: the input resistance is ( +1) times the total resistance in the emitter lead of the amplifier. (We saw a similar result in Lecture 19 for the CE amplifier with emitter degeneration.) R
ab

In

the

special

case

when

r e<<

R L<<

then

} ( to the amplifier

+1)RL is

which can potentially be a large value. Referring to circuit above, the input resistance

Small-signal voltage gain, Gv. Well first calculate the partial voltage gain

Beginning

at

the

output,

from

which

we

can

directly

determine

that

The overall (from the input to the output) small-signal voltage gain Gv is defined as

We

can

equivalently

write

this

voltage

gain

as

with Av given in (8). By simple voltage division at the input to the small-signal equivalent circuit

Substituting this result into (10) yields an expression for the overall small-signal voltage gain

We can observe directly that each of the two factors in this expression are less than one, so this overall small-signal voltage gain is less than unity. In the special instance that r0<< RL then (12) simplifies to

and

if

RB >>(

+1)(

re+RL)

then

this

further

simplifies

to

We see from this expression that under the above two assumptions and a third RL>>re+ Rsig ( + 1) , the smallsignal voltage gain is less than but approximately equal to one. This means that

Because of this result, the common collector amplifier is also called an emitter follower Overall small-signal current gain, Gi. By amplifier. definition

Using current division at the output of the small-signal equivalent circuit above

while

using

current

division

at

the

input

Substituting

this

into

(17)

gives

from

which

we

find

that

 Short circuit current gain, Ais. In the case of a short circuit load (RL = 0), Gi in (21) reduces to the short circuit current gain:

In the case that RB >>( + 1)(re+RL)=( + 1)re, as was used earlier, then Ais} + 1 which can be very large. So even though the amplifier has a voltage gain less than one (and approaching one in certain circumstances), it has a very large smallsignal current gain. Overall, the amplifier does provide power gain to the AC signal. Output resistance, Rout. With vsig = 0 in the small-signal equivalent circuit, were left with

It is a bit difficult to determine Rout directly from this circuit because of the dependent current source. The trick here is to apply a signal source vx and then determine ix. The output resistance is computed from the ratio of these quantities as

Applying

KVL

from

the

output

through

the

input

of

this

circuit

gives

Using

KCL

at

the

output

Substituting

(26)

into

(25)

Forming

the

ratio

of

vx

and

ix

in

(27)

gives

Summary Summary 1. 2. 3. Gv less Ais of the than CC (emitter one, and can follower) input can be be close small-signal amplifier: resistance. to one. large. High

4. Low output resistance.These characteristics mean that the emitter follower amplifier is highly suited as a voltage buffer amplifier.

BJT Internal Capacitances High Frequency Circuit Model The BJT amplifiers we have examined so far are all low frequency amplifiers. For large valued DC blocking capacitors and for frequencies of tens to hundreds of kHz, the simple smallsignal models we used will work well. As the frequency increases, though, there are multiple sources of effects that will limit the performance of these amplifiers including: 1. Internal capacitances of th BJT. These are due to charge storage effects at and near the two pn junctions. 2. Parasitic effects. These are due to packaging and transistor construction that create additional capacitances, lead inductances, and resistances. Additionally, the performance of many BJT amplifiers weve already examined will be sharply curtailed by DC blocking capacitors that have finite value (i.e., less than infinity). For these reasons, all real transistor amplifiers operate effectively only over a limited (but hopefully large) range of signal frequencies. Referring to

Fig. 5.71(b), our analysis of small-signal BJT amplifiers up to this point has focused on the Midband frequency region. This frequency band is bounded by the frequencies fL and fH, which are the -3-dB gain frequencies, or half-power frequencies.

The roll off in gain near fL and lower is due to effects of the DC blocking capacitors CC1 and CC2, and the bypass capacitor CE. Its not possible to eliminate this effect, though fL can be moved about by choosing different values for these capacitors. Butlarge capacitors take up lots of space and can be expensive. The primary focus of this lecture, however, is the origin of the roll off in gain xperienced at higher frequencies near fH and higher. Capacitance of pn Junctions There are basically two types of capacitances associated with pn junctions: 1. Junction capacitance. This is related to the space charge that exists in the depletion region of the pn junction. 2. Diffusion capacitance, or charge storage capacitance. This is a new phenomenon we havent yet considered in this course. The junction capacitance effect was briefly mentioned earlier in this course in Lecture 4. The width of the depletion region will change depending on the applied voltage and whether the junction is reversed or forward biased:

The time-varying E due to the space charge in the depletion region is a so-called displacement current that can be modeled by a junction capacitance. The second basic type of capacitance, diffusion capacitance, is associated with pn junctions that are forward biased.

In this state, current will flow across the junction, of course. Because of the current source in Fig. 3.49 and the voltage dropV, holes are injected a cross the junction into the n region while electrons are injected across the junction into the p region.

The concentrations of these electrons and holes decrease in value away from the junction, as shown in Fig. 3.50, due to recombination effects. The important point here is that these concentrations of charges create an electric field across the pn junction that will vary with time when a signal source is connected to this device. This electric field is directed from the n to p region, and the overall effect can be modeled by what is called the charge storage capacitance, or diffusion capacitance. To summarize, the capacitive effects of a reversed biased pn junction are described by the junction capacitance while those of a forward biased pn junction are described by both a junction and a diffusion capacitance. In the latter case, though, the diffusion capacitance usually dominates. BJT High Frequency Small-Signal Model The active mode BJT has one forward biased pn junction (the EBJ) and one reversed biased pn junction (the CBJ). In the case of an npn BJT the capacitances associated with the pn junctions in the device are labe ed as:

As we just discussed, there is a junction capacitance associated with the reversed biased CBJ, which is labeled C as shown above. There will be a junction capacitance, Cje, associated with the forward biased EBJ as well as a diffusion capacitance abeled Cde. These latter tw o capacitances appear in parallel and so can be combined as Typically C ranges from a fraction of pF to a few pF while C ranges from a few pF to tens of pF, which is dominated by Cde. With these capacitances, the high frequency small-signal model of the BJT becomes

Note the use of the V notation in this small-signal model. Your textbook has switched to sinusoidal steady state notation for this high frequency discussion. The high frequency smallsignal model in Fig. 5.67 also includes the resistance rx, which is mostly important at high frequencies. Its there to approximately model the resistance of the base region from the terminal to a point somewhere directly below the emitter:

C is sometimes referred to as Cob (or Cobo) in datasheets. This designation reflects the fact that C can be the output resistance when the BJT is used as a common base amplifier. The values of these small-signal circuit model elements may or may not be available in a datasheet for your transistor. For example, from the Motorola P2N2222A datasheet:

Actually, we would expect these capacitances to vary with the voltage across the respective pn junction. In the following figure from the Motorola P2N2222A datasheet, we see the dependence of Ceb (= C ?) and Ccb (= C ) for a range of junction voltages. (Perhaps t he labeled voltage for Ceb should be forward voltage?)

Unity-Gain Bandwidth An important high frequency characteristic of transistors that is usually specified is the unitygain bandwidth, fT. This is defined as the frequency at which the short-circuit current gain

has decreased to a value of one. A test circuit for this measurement would look something like:

The small-signal high frequency model of this test circuit is:

Applying KCL at the collector terminal provides an equation for the short-circuit collector current

At the input terminal B

Substituting (4) into (3) gives

Using the definition of hfe from (2) we find from this last equation that

It turns out that C is typically quite small and for the purposes of determining the unity-gain bandwidth, gm is | | j C . for the frequencies of interest here. In other words, the frequency at which C is important relative to gm is much higher than what is of interest here. Consequently, from (5)

We can recognize this frequency response of hfe in (6) as that for a single pole low pass circuit:

b0=gmrp in this plot is the low frequency value of | hfe|, as weve used in the past [see eqn. (5.93)], while the 3-dB frequency of | hfe| is given by

The frequency at which hfe in (6) declines to a value of 1 is denoted by T, which we can determine from (6) to be

such that

Therefore

This unity-gain frequency fT (or bandwidth) is often specified on transistor datasheets. On page 8, for example, f r =300 MHz for the Motorola P2N2222A. Using (9), this fT can be used to determine Cp+ C p for a particular DC bias current. Lastly, the high frequency, hybrid-, small-signal model of Fig.5.67 is fairly accurate up to frequencies of about 0.2 fT. Furthermore, at frequencies above 5f b to 10 f b, the effects of r are small compared to the impedance effects of C . Above that, rx becomes the only resistive part of the input impedance at high frequencies. Consequently, rx is a very important element of the small-signal model at these high frequencies, but much less so atlow frequencies.