Beee Unit I-6-12

CMRIT
Let us see the difference between ideal and practical sources.

1.3.1 Voltage Source
Ideal voltage source is defined as the energy source which gives constant voltage across its
terminals irrespective of the current drawn through its terminals. The symbol for ideal voltage
source is shown in the Fig. 1.5(a). This is connected to the load as shown in Fig. 1.5(b). At any
time the value of voltage at load terminas remains same. This is indicated by V- I characteristics
shown in the Fig. 1.5 (c).
But practically, every voltage source has small internal resistance shown in series with voltage
source and is represented by Rse as shown in the Fig.1.6.
Because of the Rse voltage across terminals decreases slightly with increase in current and it is
given by expression,
For ideal voltage source, Rse = 0

Voltage sources are further classified as follows,
1)Time Invariant Sources :
The sources in which voltage is not varying with time are known as time invariant
voltage sources or D.C. sources. These are denoted by capital letters. Such a source is
represented in the Fig. 1.7.
BEEE Page 6
CMRIT
2) Time Variant Sources :
The sources in which voltage is varying with time are known as time variant voltage sources or
A.C. sources. These are denoted by small letters. This is shown in the Fig. 1.8.
1.3.2 Current Source
Ideal current source is the source which gives constant current at its terminals irrespective of the
voltage appearing across its terminals. The symbol for ideal current source is shown in the Fig.
1.9 (a). This is connected to the load as shown in the Fig. 1.9 (b). At any time, the value of the
current flowing through load IL is same i.e. is irrespective of voltage appearing across its
terminals. This is explained by V-I characteristics shown in the Fig. 1.9 (c).
But practically, every current source has high internal resistance, shown in parallel with current
source and it is represented by Rsh. This is shown in the Fig. 1.10.
Because of Rsh, current through its terminals decreases slightly with increase in voltage at its
terminals.
For ideal current source, Rsh = ∞ and generally not shown.
Similar to voltage sources, current sources are classified as follows :
1)Time Invariant Sources :
The sources in which current is not varying with time are known as time invarient current
sources or D.C. sources. These are denoted by capital letters.
BEEE Page 7
CMRIT
2)Time Variant Sources :

The sources in which current is varying with time are known as time variant current sources or
A.C. sources. These are denoted by small letters.
Such a source is represented in the Fig. 1.12.

The sources which are discussed above are independent sources because these sources does not
depend on other voltages or currents in the network for their value. These are represented by a
circle with a polarity of voltage or direction of current indicated inside.
1.4 Dependent sources

Dependent sources are those whose value of source depends on voltage or current in the circuit.
Such sources are indicated by diamond as shown in the Fig. 1.13 and further classified as,
1)Voltage Dependent Voltage Source :
It produces a voltage as a function of voltages elsewhere in the given circuit. This is called
VDVS. It is shown in the Fig. 1.13 (a).
2)Current Dependent Current Source :
It produces a current as a function of currents elsewhere in the given circuit. This is called
CDCS. It is shown in the Fig. 1.13 (b).
3)Current Dependent Voltage Source :
It produces a voltage as a function of current elsewhere in the given circuit. This is called CDVS.
It is shown in the Fig. 1.13 (c).
4)Voltage Dependent Current Source :
It produces a current as a function of voltage elsewhere in the given circuit. This is called VDCS.
It is shown in the Fig. 1.13 (d).
K is constant and V1 and I1 are the voltage and current respectively, present elsewhere in the
given circuit. The dependent sources are also known as controlled sources.
1.5 Ohm’s Law:

The current flowing through the electric circuit is directly proportional to the potential difference
across the circuit and inversely proportional to the resistance of the circuit, provided the
temperature remains constant. I α V/R.
BEEE Page 8
CMRIT
Limitation of Ohm's Law

The limitations of Ohm's law are explained as follows:
1. This law cannot be applied to unilateral networks. A unilateral network has unilateral
elements like diode, transistors, etc., which do not have same voltage current relation for
both directions of current.
2. Ohm's law is also not applicable for non – linear elements. Non-linear elements are those
which do not have current exactly proportional to the applied voltage, that means the
resistance value of those elements changes for different values of voltage and current.
Examples of non – linear elements are thyristor, electric arc, etc.
1.6 Current Division:

In a parallel circuit, the Current Division in all branches. Thus, a parallel circuit acts as a current
divider. The total current entering into the parallel branches is divided into the branches currents
according to the resistance values. The branch having higher resistance allows lesser current, and
the branch with lower resistance allows more current. Let us find the current division in the
parallel circuit shown in Fig. 1.32.
The voltage applied across each resistor is Vs. The current passing through each resistor is given
by
If RT is the total resistance, which is given by R1R2/(R1+R2),
Total current
Similarly,
From the above equations, we can conclude that the current in any branch is equal to the ratio of
the opposite branch resistance to the total resistance value, multiplied by the total current in the
circuit.
BEEE Page 9
CMRIT
1.7 Voltage Divider:

The series circuit acts as a voltage divider. Since the same current flows through each resistor,
the voltage drops are proportional to the values of resistors. Using this principle, different
voltages can be obtained from a single source, called a voltage divider. For example, the voltage
across a 40 Ω resistor is twice that of 20 Ω in a series circuit shown in Fig. 1.19.
In general, if the circuit consists of a number of series resistors, , the total current is given by the
total voltage divided by equivalent resistance. This is shown in Fig. 1.20.
The current in the circuit is given by I=Vs/(R1+R2+…+Rm). The voltage across any resistor is
nothing but the current passing through it, multiplied by that particular resistor.
Therefore,
where Vm is the voltage across mth resistor, Rm is the resistance across which the voltage is to be
determined and RT is the total series resistance.
1.8 Source Transformation Technique:

In solving networks to find solutions one may have to deal with energy sources. It has already
been discussed before that basically, energy sources are either voltage sources or current sources.
Sometimes it is necessary to convert a voltage source to a current source and vice-versa.
BEEE Page 10
CMRIT
1.9 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law :

Kirchhoff’s voltage law states that the algebraic sum of all branch voltages around any closed
path in a circuit is always zero at all instants of time. When the current passes through a resistor,
there is a loss of energy and, therefore, a voltage drop. In any element, the current always flows
from higher potential to lower potential. Consider the circuit in Fig. 1.11. It is customary to take
the direction of current I as indicated in the figure, i.e. it leaves the positive terminal of the vol-
tage source and enters into the negative terminal.
As the current passes through the circuit, the sum of the voltage drop around the loop is equal to
the total voltage in that loop. Here the polarities are attributed to the resistors to indicate that the
voltages at points a, c and e are more than the voltages at b. d and f respectively. as the current
passes from a to f
Consider the problem of finding out the current supplied by the source V in the circuit shown in
Fig. 1.12. Our first step is to assume the reference current direction and to indicate the
polarities for different elements. (See Fig. 1.13).
BEEE Page 11
CMRIT
By using Ohm’s law, we find the voltage across each resistor as follows.
where VR1,VR2 and VR3 are the voltages across R1,R2 and R3, respectively. Finally, by applying
Kirchhoff’s law, we can form the equation

From the above equation the current delivered by the source is given by
1.10 Kirchhoff’s Current Law:

Kirchhoff’s Current Law states that the sum of the currents entering into any node is equal to the
sum of the currents leaving that node. The node may be an interconnection of two or more
branches. In any parallel circuit, the node is a junction point of two or more branches.
The total current entering into a node is equal to the current leaving that node. For example,
consider the circuit shown in Fig. 1.24, which contains two nodes A and B. The total current
IT entering node A is divided into I1, I2, and I3.. These currents flow out of node A. According to
Kirchhoff’s current law, the current into node A is equal to the total current out of node A: that
is, IT=I1+I2+I3.. If we consider node B, all three currents I1, I2, and I3 are entering B, and the total
current IT is leaving node B, Kirchhoff s current law formula at this node is therefore the same as
at node A.
BEEE Page 12

Beee Unit I-6-12

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Beee Unit I-6-12

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Beee Unit I-6-12

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CMRIT

Let us see the difference between ideal and practical sources.

For ideal voltage source, Rse = 0

2) Time Variant Sources :

2)Time Variant Sources :

Such a source is represented in the Fig. 1.12.

1.4 Dependent sources

1.5 Ohm’s Law:

Limitation of Ohm's Law

1.6 Current Division:

If RT is the total resistance, which is given by R1R2/(R1+R2),

1.7 Voltage Divider:

1.8 Source Transformation Technique:

1.9 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law :

Kirchhoff’s law, we can form the equation

1.10 Kirchhoff’s Current Law:

You might also like