DC Circuits

Electrical Network: A combination of various electric elements

(Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor, Voltage source, Current source)

connected in any manner what so ever is called an electrical

network.

A network or circuit that can be AC or DC is the combination of

active elements (power supply sources) and passive elements

(resistors, capacitors and inductors). The electricity is of two types,

Alternating Current (AC) and Direct Current (DC). A circuit that

deals with AC is referred to as AC circuit and a circuit with DC

source is termed as DC circuit.

In direct current (DC), the electric charge (current) only flows in

one direction with respect to time. Electric charge in alternating

current (AC), on the other hand, changes direction periodically.

The voltage in AC circuits also periodically reverses because the

current changes direction.

Types of Electric Circuit Elements

Linear elements:

Linearity is the property of an element describing a linear

relationship between cause and effect.

In an electric circuit, a linear element is an electrical element with a

linear relationship between current and voltage. Resistors are the

most common example of a linear element; other examples include

capacitors, inductors.

Non-linear elements:

A nonlinear element is one which does not have a linear

input/output relation. In a diode, for example, the current is a non-

linear function of the voltage.

Passive element
The element which consumes energy (or absorbs energy) rather

than produce energy and then either converts it into heat or stored

it in an electric or magnetic field called passive element. Example:

Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor etc.

Passive network contains circuit elements without any energy

sources.

Active element

The elements which supply or generate energy is called Active

element. Examples: Voltage and Current sources, Generators,

Batteries etc.

Active network containing energy sources together with the other

circuit elements.

Bilateral element

Conduction of current in both directions in an element with same

magnitude is termed as Bilateral Element. Example: Resistor,

Inductor, Capacitor etc.

The element in which the voltage current relationship is same for

current flowing in either direction is known as bilateral element.

Example- Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor etc.

The above figure shows a bilateral element can conduct from both

sides and offers same resistance for current from either side.

Unilateral element
The element in which the voltage current relationship is not same

for current flowing in either direction is known as unilateral

element. Example- vacuum tubes, diodes, transistors etc.

Unilateral element

Linear and Nonlinear Circuits

Linear Circuit: Roughly speaking, a linear circuit is one whose

parameters do not change its values with voltage or current.

The property is a combination of both the homogeneity (scaling)

property and the additivity property.

The homogeneity property requires that if the input (also called the

excitation) is multiplied by a constant, then the output (also called

the response) is multiplied by the same constant.

If v = iR this leads ⇒ kv = kiR

The additivity property requires that the response to a sum of

inputs is the sum of the responses to each input applied separately.

v1 = i1R, v2 = i2R this leads to ⇒ v = (i1 + i2) R = v1 + v2

A resistor is a linear element because the voltage-current

relationship satisfies both the homogeneity and the additivity

properties
Non-Linear Circuit: Roughly speaking, a non-linear circuit is that

whose parameters change with voltage or current. More specifically,

non-linear circuit does not obey the homogeneity and additive

properties.

NOTE:
[ Linearity in words

 Scaling the input by a scale the output by a.

 Adding two inputs produces the same output as applying each

input individually and adding the two separate outputs.]

Sources of Electrical Energy

There are two types of sources of electrical energy: voltage source

and current source.

An ideal voltage source is two-terminal element which maintains a

constant terminal voltage regardless of the value of the current

through its terminals. The terminal voltage of ideal voltage source is

independent of the current flowing through it. It has zero resistance.

An ideal voltage source and its V-I characteristic

An ideal voltage source has following features: -

1) The output voltage remains absolutely constant whatever be the

value of the output current.

2) It has zero internal resistance so that voltage drop in the source is

zero.

3) The power drawn by the source is zero.

In a practical voltage source, voltage across the terminals of the

source keeps falling as the current through it increases. This

behavior can be explained by putting a resistance in series with an

ideal voltage source. Then we have the terminal voltage VOUT as

VOUT = VS – iRS
where i is the current flowing and RS the internal resistance of the

ideal voltage source of voltage VS. The practical voltage source

approaches the ideal voltage source in the limit R S becoming zero.

A practical voltage source and V-I characteristic

Symbol of Ideal Voltage Source

Example Problem on Voltage Source

A certain voltage source has a terminal voltage of 50 V when I= 400

mA; when I rises current value 800 mA the output voltage is

recorded as 40 V. Calculate (i) Internal resistance of the voltage

source (Rs). (ii) No-load voltage (open circuit voltage Vs).

Solution

From equation VL = Vs – ILRs one can write the following

expressions under different loading conditions:

50 = VS - 0.4RS …. (1) and 40 = VS - 0.8RS…..(2)

solving these equations, we get, VS = 60V& RS= 25 ohm.

Example 2
A practical voltage source whose short-circuit current is 1.0A and

open-circuit voltage is 24 Volts. What is the voltage across, and the

value of power dissipated in the load resistance when this source is

delivering current 0.25A?

Solution

From figure: Isc = Vsc / Rs = 1.0A

Voc = Vs = 24volts. Therefore, the value of internal source resistance

is obtained as Rs = Voc (Vs) / Isc = 24 /1.0 = 24Ω.

The source is delivering current IL= 0.25A when the load resistance

is connected across the source terminals. Mathematically, we can

write the following expression to obtain the load resistance R L

IL = Vs / Rs + RL

Where IL = 24 / 24+RL= 0.25, RL = 72Ω.

Now, the voltage across the load VL = IL x RL = 0.25 x 72 = 18 volts.

The power consumed by the load, PL = IL2 x RL= 0.0625 x 72 = 4.5

watts.

An Ideal current source is a two-terminal circuit element which

supplies the same current to any load resistance connected across its

terminals regardless of the value of the terminal voltage. It is

important to keep in mind that the current supplied by the current

source is independent of the voltage of source terminals. It has

infinite resistance.

An ideal current source and its V-I characteristic

It can be noted from model of the current source that the current

flowing from the source to the load is always constant for any load
resistance i.e., whether RL is small (VL is small) or RL is large (VL is

large).

An ideal current source has following features: -

1) It produces a constant current irrespective of the value of the

voltage across it.

2) It has infinite resistance.

3) It is capable of supplying infinite power.

In a practical current source, the current through the source

decreases as the voltage across it increases. This behavior can be

explained by putting a resistance across the terminals of the source.

Then the terminal current is given by

I1= I- (V1/R)
 A practical current source and its V-I characteristic

A practical current source is represented as an ideal current source

connected with the resistance in parallel. The symbolic

representation is shown below:

Symbol of Independent Current Source

When a load is connected across a practical current source, one can

observe that the current flowing in load resistance RL is reduced as

the voltage across the current source’s terminal is increased, by

increasing the load resistance.

Source Transformation
An ideal voltage source is one which gives a constant voltage vs

irrespective of the current drawn from it (source resistance is zero

i.e., slope is zero).

An ideal current source is one which gives a constant current

irrespective of the voltage across it (source resistance is infinite i.e.,

slope is infinity).

Referring to the first Fig., output voltage at the terminal a, b is

v 1= v s – i 1R
Referring to the second figure, the current flowing in the resistance

R will be (is- i1), so that voltage at the terminal a, b is

v1= isR – i1R

In order that the circuit in first and second figure are equivalent,

vs = isR

Hence, if it is required to convert voltage source vs in series with an

internal resistance R into an equivalent current source, it is done by

replacing the voltage source with a current source of value (vs/R),

placed in parallel with a resistance R.

For practical current source as in the figure above, the current

flowing through a resistor is (is- i1). Therefore

v1 = (is- i1) R or v1 = is R -i1R

From second figure, v1 = vs -i1R where vs = is R

Some basic definitions of electric circuit

Elements that generally encounter in an electric circuit can be

interconnected in various possible ways. Before discussing the basic

analytical tools that determine the currents and voltages at different

parts of the circuit, some basic definition of the following terms is

considered.

Node is a point in an electric circuit where, terminal of two or more

circuit elements are connected together. Node is a junction point in

the circuit.
A branch is the conducting path between two nodes without crossing

other nodes. The short circuit between two nodes is not referred as

branch of electric circuit.

Loop- A loop is any closed path in an electric circuit.

Fig. below shows three loops or closed paths namely, a-b-g-a; b-c-g-

b; and a-b-c-a. Further, it may be noted that the outside closed

paths a-c-g-a and a-b-c-g-a are also form two loops.

Mesh- a mesh is a special case of loop that does not have any other

loops within it or in its interior.

Fig. above indicates that the first three loops (a-b-g-a; b-c-g-b; and

a-b-c-a) just identified are also ‘meshes’ but other two loops (a-c-g-a

and a-b-c-g-a) are not.

Solution of Electric Circuit Based on Mesh (Loop) Current

Method

The Series-parallel reduction technique for analyzing DC circuit

simplifies every step logically from the preceding step and leads on

logically to the next step.

DC Series Parallel Circuit

Unfortunately, if the circuit is complicated, this method (the

simplification and reconstruct) becomes mathematically laborious,

time consuming and likely to produce mistake in calculations.

One most popular technique is known as ‘mesh or loop’ analysis

method that based on the fundamental principles of circuits laws,

namely, Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s voltage law.

MESH ANALYSIS (LOOP ANALYSIS)

 ‘Mesh or loop’ analysis method is based on the fundamental

principles of circuits laws, namely, Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s

voltage law.

 Mesh analysis, is a method to calculate voltage drops and mesh

currents that flow around loops in a circuit.

  Mesh (Loop) analysis results in a system of linear equations

which must be solved for unknown currents.

 It reduces the number of required equations to the number of

meshes.

 It is applicable to a circuit with no branches crossing each

other or planar circuit.

Figure (a) is a planar circuit. Figure (b) is a non-planar circuit and

Fig. 5 (c) is a planar circuit which looks like a non-planar circuit.

Steps in Mesh Analysis

1. Identify all of the meshes in the circuit.

2. Label the currents flowing in each mesh. Current direction needs

to be same in all meshes either clockwise or anticlockwise.

3. Label the voltage across each component in the circuit.

4. Write the voltage loop equations using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law.

5. Use Ohm’s Law to relate the voltage drops across each

component to the sum of the currents flowing through them.

6. Solve for the mesh currents.

7. Once the mesh currents are known, calculate the voltage across

all of the components.

Solution of Electric Circuit Based on Mesh (Loop) Current

Method

Consider a simple dc network as shown in Figure to find the

currents through different branches using Mesh (Loop) current

method.
No. of independent mesh (loop) equations = (no. of branches (b) - no.

of principle nodes (n) + 1).

In the above example, b=7, n=5 and no. of independent equations: 7-

5+1=3.

Applying KVL in mesh (loop)-1 (in mesh-1, current I1 is local

current and I2 and I3 are foreign currents)

or

Applying KVL in mesh (loop)-2 (in mesh-2, current I2 is local

current and I1 and I3 are foreign currents)

Or

Applying KVL in mesh (loop)-3 (in mesh-3, current I3 is local

current and I1 and I2 are foreign currents)

Or

Example 1 Solve the circuit using mesh analysis.

Loop 1 Equation

−15+5i1+10+10(i1−i2) = 0

−2i2+3i1=1 ⋯ (1)

Loop 2 equation

−10+4i2+6i2+10(i2−i1) = 0

2i2− i1=1 ⋯ (2)

By solving equation (1) and (2), we have

i1 = 1A

i2 = 1A
Example: To apply Mesh Analysis Method in Super Mesh.

A super mesh occurs when a current source is contained between

two essential meshes. The circuit is first treated as if the current

source is not there. This leads to one equation that incorporates two

mesh currents. Once this equation is formed, an equation is needed

that relates the two mesh currents with the current source. This will

be an equation where the current source is equal to one of the mesh

currents minus the other.

The following is a simple example of dealing with a super mesh.

Solve the following circuit using Mesh Analysis or Loop Current

Method:
Here,

Equations for Mesh with mesh current I2:

2I2 + 6(I2 - I3) + 4(I2 – I1) = 2

Or, -4I1 +12I2 -6I3 = 2
Equation for the combined I1, I3 mesh (Because it is a super mesh)

is:

4(I1 – I2) +6(I3 - I2) = 12 -10

Or, 4I1 – 10I2 + 6I3 = 2

And
Thus, solving these equations:

Superposition Theorem

The superposition theorem for electrical circuits states that

In a linear network with several sources, the overall response at any

point in the network is equal to the algebraic sum of individual

response of each source, acting independently, the other sources

being made inoperative.

To ascertain the contribution of each individual source, all of the

other sources first must be "turned off" (set to zero) by:

 Replacing all other independent voltage sources with a short

circuit (thereby eliminating difference of potential i.e., V=0;

internal impedance of ideal voltage source is zero).

 Replacing all other independent current sources with an open

circuit (thereby eliminating current i.e. I=0; internal

impedance of ideal current source is infinite).

Note:

1. The principle of superposition is useful for linearity test of the

system or network.

2. A linear network comprises independent sources, linear

dependent sources and linear passive elements.

Example: Determine the current I through the 4-ohm resistor using

superposition theorem.
Consider I1, I2 and I3 are the currents due to sources 12v, 20V and

4A sources respectively. Then, based on superposition theorem I =

I1+I2+I3. So, let’s determine these currents with each individual

sources acting alone.

Only with 12V Voltage source:

Consider the below circuit where only 12V source is retained in the

circuit and other sources are replaced by their internal resistances.

By combining the resistance 6 ohm with 10 ohm we get 16-ohm

resistance which is parallel with 6-ohm resistance. Then this

combination produces, 16 × 6 / (16 + 6) = 4.36 ohms. Therefore, the

equivalent circuit will be as shown in figure.

Then the current through 4 ohms resistance,

I1 = 12 / 8.36

= 1.43 A

Only with 20 V Voltage Source:

Retain only the 20V voltage source and replace other sources with

their internal resistance, then the circuit becomes as shown below.

Apply the mesh analysis to the Loop a, we get

22Ia – 6Ib + 20 = -20

22Ia – 6Ib = -20 ……………….(1)

For Loop b, we get

10Ib – 6Ia = 0

Ia = 10Ib / 6

Substituting Ib in equation (1)

22 (10Ib/6) – 6Ib = -20

Ib = – 0.65

Therefore, I2 = Ib = -0.65A

Only with 4A Current Source

Consider the below circuit where only current source is retained

and other sources are replaced with their internal resistances.

At node 2 we get,

4 = (V2/10) + (V2 – V1)/6 ………………..(2)

At node1,

(V1/6) + (V1/4) = (V2 – V1)/ 6

V2 = 3.496 V1

Substituting V2 in equation 2, we get

V1 = 0.766 Volts.
Therefore I3 = V1/4

= 0.766/4

= 0.19 Amps.

Thus, as per the superposition theorem, I = I1 + I2 + I3

= 1.43 – 0.65 + 0.19

= 0.97 Amps.

Limitations of Superposition Theorem

Superposition theorem cannot be applied for non linear circuit

(consists of Diode, Transistor).

This method has weaknesses: -

In order to calculate load current, I or the load voltage V for the

several choices of load resistance R of the resistive network, one

needs to solve for every source voltage and current, perhaps several

times. With the simple circuit, this is fairly easy but in a large circuit

this method becomes a painful experience.

Keep in mind that superposition is based on linearity. For this

reason, it is not applicable to the effect on power due to each source.

We can’t apply superposition theorem directly in order to find the

amount of power delivered to any resistor that is present in a linear

circuit, just by doing the addition of powers delivered to that

resistor due to each independent source. Rather, we can calculate

either total current flowing through or voltage across that resistor

by using superposition theorem and from that, we can calculate the

amount of power delivered to that resistor using I2R or V2/ R. Dr. MSA Summer

Course: Electric Circuit Analysis I

Thevenin’s Theorem

 Mesh current method needs 3 equations to be solved

  Superposition method requires a complete solution through

load resistance (RL) by considering each independent source

at a time and replacing other sources by their internal

source resistances.

If the value of RL is changed then the three (mesh current method)

equations need to be solved again to find the new current in RL.

Similarly, in case of superposition theorem each time the load

resistance RL is changed, the entire circuit has to be analyzed all

over again. Much of the tedious mathematical work can be avoided

if the fixed part of circuit or in other words, the circuit contained

inside the imaginary fence or black box with two terminals A&B, is

replaced by the simple equivalent voltage source (as shown in fig.

below) or current source (as shown in fig. below).

Thevenin’s theorem tells that:

A linear two terminal network consists of active and passive

components can be replaced with an equivalent circuit consisting of

a voltage source E and in series with a resistance r. The value of E is

the open circuit voltage between the terminals of the network and r
is the resistance of the network measured between the terminals of

the network the energy sources replaced by their internal

resistances.

OR

The current through a resistor RL connected across any two points

A and B of an active network [i.e., a network containing one or more

sources of e.m.f.] is obtained by dividing the p.d. between A and B,

with RL disconnected, by (RL + r), where r is the resistance of the

network measured between points A and B with RL disconnected

and the sources replaced by their internal resistances.

Thevenin’s theorem:

 It provides replacing a given network by a single voltage

source with a series resistance.

 It makes the solution of complicated networks quick and easy.

In the Figure above E = VTH and r = RTH.

The basic steps for Thevenin’s Equivalent:

1. Remove the load resistor RL or component concerned.

2. Find RTh by shorting all voltage sources or by open circuiting all

the current sources. The Thevenin equivalent resistance (RTh) is the

total resistance of the circuit appearing between two terminals in a

given network with all voltage sources and current sources replaced

by their internal resistance.

3. Find VTh by the usual circuit analysis methods. The Thevenin

equivalent voltage (VTh) is the open circuit voltage (no-load) voltage

between two terminals in a circuit. When a particular branch is

removed from a circuit, the open circuit voltage appears across the

terminals of the circuit, is Thevenin equivalent voltage (VTh).

4. Find the current flowing through the load resistor R L.

5. The load current IL through RL is given by VTH / (RL + RTH)

Proof: Verify Thevenin’s Theorem

Fig. Network illustrates the Thevenin’s Theorem

It is required to determine the current through a load of resistance

R connected across AB.

Step1. Remove load resistor R

With the load disconnected as in Fig. (b)

Step2. Determine r or RTh

Figure(c) shows the network with the load disconnected and the

battery replaced by its internal resistance R1. Resistance of network

between A and B is

Step3. Determine VTh or E.

Since there is no current through R2, potential difference across AB

is

Here V = VTh

Step4. Determine the load current

Thevenin’s theorem merely states that the active network enclosed

by the dotted line in Fig.(a) can be replaced by the very simple

circuit enclosed by the dotted line in Fig.(d) and consisting of a

source having an e.m.f. E equal to the open-circuit potential

difference V between A and B, and an internal resistance r, where V

and r have the values determined above. Hence

Example:
Consider the circuit below:

Steps:
 Remove the centre 40Ω resistor and short out all the emf´s

connected to the circuit.

 The value of resistor RTh is found by calculating the total

resistance at the terminals A and B with all the emf´s removed.

 The value of the voltage required VTh is the total voltage across

terminals A and B with an open circuit and no-load resistor

RTh connected.

Find the Equivalent Resistance (RTh)

1. Remove the load resistor RL or component concerned.

 2. Find RTh by shorting all voltage sources or by open circuiting

all the current sources.

RTh = 10x20 / (10+20) Ω = 6.67Ω.

3. Find VTh by the usual circuit analysis methods.

So the voltage drop across the 20Ω resistor can be calculated as:

VAB = VTh = 20 - (20 x 0.33) = 13.33 volts.

Then the Thevenin’s Equivalent circuit is shown below with the 40Ω

resistor connected.

Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

The current flowing through the load resistor RL

Limitations of Thevenin’s Theorem

• If the circuit consists of nonlinear elements, this theorem is not

applicable.

• Also, to the unilateral networks it is not applicable.

• There should not be magnetic coupling between the load and the

circuit to be replaced with the Thevenin’s equivalent.

Remarks:
(i) One great advantage of Thevenin’s theorem over the normal

circuit reduction technique or any other technique is this: once the

Thevenin equivalent circuit has been formed, it can be reused in

calculating load current (IL), load voltage (VL) and load power (PL)

for different loads.

(ii) Fortunately, with help of this theorem one can find the choice of

load resistance RL that results in the maximum power transfer to

the load. On the other hand, the effort necessary to solve this

problem-using node or mesh analysis methods can be quite complex

and tedious from computational point of view.

Norton’s Theorem

A linear two terminal network consists of active and passive

components can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a

current source IN in parallel with a resistance RN. The value of IN is

the short –circuit current between the terminals of the network and
RN is the resistance measured between terminals with energy

sources eliminated by their respective internal resistances.

Figure (a) circuit is a linear two terminal circuit. According to

Norton’s theorem we replace this circuit by a current source and an

equivalent resistance that is shown in figure (b).

(a) Original circuit (b) Norton’s Equivalent Circuit

Norton’s equivalent circuit resembles a practical current source.

Hence, it is having a current source in parallel with a resistor.

 The current source present in the Norton’s equivalent circuit

is called as Norton’s equivalent current or simply Norton’s

current IN.
  The resistor present in the Norton’s equivalent circuit is called

as Norton’s equivalent resistor or simply Norton’s resistor RN.

Norton’s Theorem Summary:

The basic procedure for solving a circuit using Norton’s Theorem is

as follows:

1. Remove the load.

2. Find RN by shorting all voltage sources or by open circuiting all

the current sources.

3. Find IN by placing a shorting link on the output

terminals A and B.

4. Find the current flowing through the load.

Proof of the Norton’s Theorem

Find out the current through RL by applying Norton theorem.

Step1: Remove the resistor RL from terminals A and B and make

the terminals A and B short circuited by zero resistance.

Step2: Determine internal resistance or Norton equivalent

resistance RN of the network under consideration, remove the

branch between A and B and also replace the voltage source by its
internal resistance. Now the equivalent resistance as viewed from

open terminals A and B is RN,

As per Norton theorem, when resistance RL is reconnected across

terminals A and B, the network behaves as a source of constant

current IN with shunt connected internal resistance RN and this is

Norton equivalent circuit.

Step 3: Calculate the short circuit current or Norton equivalent

current IN through the points A and B.

The equivalent resistance of the network,

Norton Equivalent Circuit

Example: Find the current flowing through and Load Voltage

across the load resistor RL in figure below by using Norton’s

Theorem.
Solution: -
Step1.

Short the 1.5Ω load resistor as shown in Figure.

Step2.
Calculate / measure the Short Circuit Current. This is the Norton

Current (IN).

Step3.

Short Voltage Sources and Open Load Resistor. Figure below

Step4.

Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the Norton

Resistance (RN).
Step5.

Connect the RN in Parallel with Current Source IN and re-connect

the load resistor. This is shown in fig (6) i.e., Norton Equivalent

circuit with load resistor.

Step6.

Now apply the last step i.e., calculate the load current through and

Load voltage across load resistor by Ohm’s law as shown in figure

below.
Example:2

Using Norton’s theorem, calculate the current flowing through the

15 Ω load resistor in the circuit of Fig. (a). All resistance values are

in ohm.
Solution:
Find out Short-Circuit Current ISC

Step1: As shown in Fig. (b), terminals A and B have been shorted

after removing 15 Ω resistor.

Step 2: Superposition theorem is used to find ISC.

(i) When Only Current Source is Present

In this case, 30-V battery is replaced by a short-circuit. The 4 A

current divides at point D between parallel combination of 4 Ω and

6 Ω. Current through 6 Ω resistor is

ISC′ = 4 × 4/(4 + 6) = 1.6 A flowing from B to A

(ii) When Only Battery is Present

In this case, current source is replaced by an open-circuit so that no

current flows in the branch CD. The current supplied by the battery

constitutes the short-circuit current

ISC″ = 30/(4 + 6) = 3 A flowing from A to B

ISC = ISC″ − ISC′ = 3 − 1.6 = 1.4 A – flowing from A to B

Find out Norton’s Resistance

Step:3 As seen from Fig. (c) Ri = 4 + 6 = 10 Ω. The 8 Ω resistance

does not come into the picture because of an open in the branch CD.

Fig. (d) shows the Norton’s equivalent circuit along with the load

resistor.

Step:4 The current flowing through the 15 resistor is

IL = 1.4 × 10 (10 + 15) = 0.56 A

Remarks:

(i) Similar to the Thevenin’s theorem, Norton’s theorem has also a

similar advantage over the normal circuit reduction technique or

any other technique when it is used to calculate load current (IL),

load voltage (VL) and load power (PL) for different loads.
(ii)Fortunately, with help of either Norton’s theorem or Thevenin’s

theorem one can find the choice of load resistance RL that result in

the maximum power transfer to the load.

(iii) Norton’s current source may be replaced by an equivalent

Thevenin’s voltage source. The magnitude of voltage source (V Th)

and its internal resistances (RTh) are expressed by the following

relations

VTh =IN x RN; RTh = RN (with proper polarities at the terminals)

In other words, a source transformation converts a Thevenin

equivalent circuit into a Norton equivalent circuit or vice-verse.

Relation between Norton’s and Thevenin’s Theorems

Norton’s equivalent circuit of a linear network constitutes a Norton

current source IN in parallel with a resistance RN. Therefore, it is

possible to perform a source transformation of Norton’s equivalent

circuit to get the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit or vice-versa.

The magnitude of the voltage source (Vth) and a series resistance

(Rth) from Norton’s equivalent circuit using source transformation

are determined as

Vth = RN × IN and Rth = RN

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

 In any electric circuit, the electrical energy from the supply is

delivered to the load where it is used to some useful work.

 Practically, the entire supplid power will not present at load

due to the heating effect and other constraints in the nework.

 Electric network delivering electrical energy from source to load

 Therefore, here exist a certain difference between drawing

power and delivering powers.

 The load always affects the amount of power transferred from

the supply source, i.e. any change in the load resistance results

to change in power transfer to the load. Thus , the maximum

power transfer theorem ensures the condition to transfer the

maximum power to the load.

The maximum power transfer theorem states that in a linear,

bilateral electrical network, maximum power is delivered to the load

when the load resistance is equal to the internal resistance of a

source.

If it is an independent voltage source, then its series resistance

(internal resistance Rs) or if it is independent current source, then

its parallel resistance (internal resistance Rs) must equal to the load

resistance RL to deliver maximum power to the load.

Proof of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

The maximum power transfer theorem ensures the value of the load

resistance, at which the maximum power is transferred to the load.

Consider the below DC two terminal network (left side circuit), to

which the condition for maximum power is determined, by

obtaining the expression of power absorbed by load with use of

mesh or nodal current methods and then deriving the resulting

expression with respect to load resistance RL. But this is quite a

complex procedure. But in previous articles we have seen that the

complex part of the network can be replaced with a Thevenin’s

equivalent as shown below.

The original two terminal circuit is replaced with a Thevenin’s

equivalent circuit across the variable load resistance. The current

through the load for any value of load resistance is

Form the above expression the power delivered depends on the

values of RTH and RL. However, the Thevenin’s equivalent is

constant, the power delivered from this equivalent source to the load

entirely depends on the load resistance RL. To find the exact value of

RL, we apply differentiation to PL with respect to RL and equating it

to zero as
Therefore, this is the condition of matching the load where the

maximum power transfer occurs when the load resistance is equal to

the Thevenin’s resistance of the circuit. By substituting the R Th = RL

in equation 1 we get

The maximum power delivered to the load is,

At this condition the input power = VTh x IL = VTh x (VTh / 2RTh) =

VTh2 / 2RTh

Efficiency = η = output power / input power

= (VTh2 /4RTh) / (VTh2 / 2RTh) = 50%

The graph shows Power transfer to Load resistance R L

Condition for maximum current, maximum voltage and

maximum power in load

Example
 Where:
RS = 25Ω
RL is variable between 0 – 100Ω
VS = 100v

Table of Current and Output Power

RL (Ω) I (amps) P (watts) RL (Ω) I (amps) P (watts)

0 4.0 0 25 2.0 100

5 3.33 55.44 30 1.81 98.28

10 2.85 81.22 40 1.53 93.63

15 2.5 93.75 60 1.17 82.13

20 2.22 98.56 100 0.8 64

Graph of Power vs. Load Resistance

Power is in watt.

Table of Current, Input Power and Efficiency for different values of

RL
RL in ohms Current in Input power Output power Efficiency =

Amps in Watts in Watts

Output power
/ Input power
0 4.0 400 0 0

5 3.33 333 55.44 0.166

10 2.85 285 81.22 0.284

15 2.5 250 93.75 0.375

20 2.22 222 98.56 0.443

25 2.0 200 100 0.5

 30 1.81 181 98.28 0.54

40 1.53 153 93.63 0.611

60 1.17 117 82.13 0.70

100 0.8 80 64 0.8

Power Transfer Efficiency

This theorem results in maximum power transfer but not a

maximum efficiency.

The graph concludes the followings:

  If the load resistance is smaller than source resistance, power

dissipated at the load is reduced than the power generated at

the source then the efficiency becomes lower.

 when the load resistance is equal to the internal resistance of

the circuit or source (or Thevenin’s equivalent resistance) i.e.

at the condition of maximum power transfer, half percentage

of generated power is delivered ( or dissipated) to the load then

the efficiency is 50%.

 when the load resistance is much larger value than internal

source resistance, the power delivered will be less though the

efficiency is high.

Problem 1: Determine the value of the load resistance that receives

the maximum power from the supply and the maximum power

under the maximum power transfer condition.

Step1.

Disconnect the load resistance connected across the load terminals a

and b. To represent the given circuit as Thevenin’s equivalent,

determine the Thevenin’s voltage VTH and Thevenin’s equivalent

resistance RTH.
The Thevenin’s voltage or voltage across the terminal’s ab is V ab =

Va – V b

Va = V × R2 / (R1 + R2)

= 30 × 20 /(20 + 15)

= 17.14 V

Vb = V × R4/ (R3 + R4)

= 30 × 5 /(10 + 5)

= 10 V

Vab = 17.14 – 10

= 7.14 V
VTH = Vab = 7.14 Volts

Step2.

Calculate the Thevenin’s equivalent resistance RTH by replacing

sources with their internal resistances (here voltage source has zero

internal resistance so it becomes a short circuited).

Thevenin’s equivalent resistance or resistance across the terminal’s

ab is

RTH = Rab = [R1R2 / (R1 + R2)] + [R3R4 /(R3 + R4)]

= [(15 × 20) / (15 + 20)] + [(10 × 5) / (10+ 5)]

= 8.57 + 3.33
RTH = 11.90 Ohms

Step3.

The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit with above calculated values by

reconnecting the load resistance is shown below.

From the maximum power transfer theorem, RL value must equal to

the RTH to deliver the maximum power to the load.

Therefore, RL = RTH= 11.90 Ohms

And the maximum power transferred under this condition is,

Pmax = V2TH / 4 RTH

= (7.14)2 / (4 × 11.90)

= 50.97 / 47.6 = 1.07 Watts.

Problem 2: Determine the value of load resistance, RL for which

maximum power will transfer from source to load.

Solution: The given circuit can be further simplified by converting

the current source into equivalent voltage source.

Find the Thevenin’s equivalent voltage Vth and Thevenin’s

equivalent resistance Rth across the load terminals in order to get

the condition for maximum power transfer.

By disconnecting the load resistance, the open-circuit voltage across

the load terminals can be calculated as;

By applying, Kirchhoff’s voltage law we get

6I + 2I = -16+12

8I = -4

I = –0.5 A

The open-circuit voltage across the terminals A and B, VAB = 16 – 2

×0.5 = 15 V

Thevenin’s equivalent resistance across the terminals A and B is

obtained by short circuiting the voltage sources

Rth = (6 × 2) / (6 + 2) = 1.5 Ω

So, the maximum power will be transferred to the load when R L =

1.5 ohm.

Current through the circuit, I = 15 / (1.5 + 1.5) = 5 A

Therefore, the maximum power = 52 × 1.5 = 37.5 W

Applications of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

1. Practical applications of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

include an audio system i.e., an audio amplifier with audio

speaker arrangement in public addressing systems. Here in

these systems the resistance of the speaker is the load. The

circuit that drives the speaker is audio amplifier. The speaker

 resistance must be equal to the amplifier resistance in order to

transfer maximum power from amplifier to the speaker.

2. In case of a car engine starting system, starter motor resistance

must be matched with internal resistance of the battery. If the

battery is full and these resistances are matched, maximum

power will be transferred to the motor to turn ON the engine.

Problem 3: Determine the value of load resistance, RL for which

maximum power will transfer from source to load.

Solution: Simplify by source transformations, as done in Figs (b),

(c), (d)

(a)

(b) (c)

For maximum power, RL = 7 + (10/7) = 8.43 Ω

Maximum power = [(80/7)/16.68]2 × 8.43 = 3.87 watts.

Summary of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

 Maximum power transfer theorem can be applied to both DC

and AC circuits, but the only difference is that the resistance

is replaced with impedance in AC circuit.

 In an AC electrical network, the maximum power will be

transferred from source section to the load section when the

impedance of the load is complex conjugate of the source

impedance.

 It is important to note that in AC circuit, source also

possesses an internal reactance. Therefore, in order to have

maximum power transfer the load must possess same value

of reactance but it should be of opposite type. This means

that the load must have an equivalent capacitive reactance, if

source has inductive reactance, and vice versa.

 The efficiency is 50 percent only at maximum power transfer

condition. In power system network, our goal is to increase

the efficiency rather than maximum power. Therefore,

 power system never operated under maximum power

transfer.

Star Delta Transformation

There are certain circuit configurations that cannot be simplified by

series-parallel combination alone. A simple transformation based on

mathematical technique is readily simplifies the electrical circuit

configuration.

T-connected and Equivalent Star Network

Pi-connected and Equivalent Delta Network

Delta – Wye conversion (Δ) - (Y)

Let us consider the network shown in fig.1(e) and assumed the

resistances (RAB, RBC, RCA) in 1(c)→ network is known. Our

problem is to find the values of RA, RB, RC in Wye (Y) network (see

fig.1(e)) that will produce the same resistance when measured

between similar pairs of terminals. We can write the equivalence

resistance between any two terminals in the following form.

Subtracting equations (2), (1), and (3) from (4) equations, we can

write the express for unknown resistances of Wye (Y) network

These relationships may be expressed thus: the equivalent star

resistance connected to a given terminal is equal to the product of the

two delta resistances connected to the same terminal divided by the

sum of the delta resistances.

Conversion from Star or Wye to Delta

To convert a Wye (Y) to a Delta (Δ), the relationships RAB, RBC and

RCA must be obtained in terms of the Wye (RA, RB, RC) resistances

(referring to fig.6.1 (f)).

Let us next consider how to replace the star-connected network of

Fig. 6.1(f) by the equivalent delta-connected network.

Dividing equation [5] by equation [6], we have

Similarly, dividing equation [5] by equation [7], we have

Substituting for RAB and RCA in equation [5], we have

Similarly, we get
These relationships may be expressed thus: the equivalent delta

resistance between two terminals is the sum of the two-star connected

resistances to those terminals plus the product of the same two star

resistances divided by the third star resistance.

Observations
In order to note the symmetry of the transformation equations, the

Wye (Y) and Delta (Δ) networks have been superimposed on each

other as shown in fig.

 The equivalent star resistance connected to a given terminal

is equal to the product of the two Delta (Δ) resistances

connected to the same terminal divided by the sum of the

Delta (Δ) resistances (see fig.).

 The equivalent Delta (Δ) resistance between two-terminals is

the sum of the two-star (Wye) resistances connected to those

terminals plus the product of the same two-star (Wye)

 resistances divided by the third star (Wye (Y)) resistance

(see fig.).

 One final point about converting a star resistive network to

an equivalent delta network. If all the resistors in the star

network are all equal in value then the resultant resistors in

the equivalent delta network will be three times the value of

the star resistors and equal, giving: RDELTA = 3RSTAR.

 If the three resistors in the delta network are all equal in

value then the resultant resistors in the equivalent star

network will be equal to one third the value of the delta

resistors, giving each branch in the star network as:

RSTAR = (1/3) RDELTA

Example: 1

Find the value of the voltage source (Vs) that delivers 2 Amps

current through the circuit as shown in Figure below.

Solution:
The source Vs that delivers 2A current through the circuit can be

obtained as, Vs = 2x3.1 = 6.2V.

Example: 2

Calculate the current flowing through the 10  resistor of Figure

below.

Solution:

Here are two deltas in the circuit i.e., ABC and DEF. They have

been converted into their equivalent stars as shown in Figure (b).

Each arm of the delta ABC has a resistance of 12  and each arm of

the equivalent star has a resistance of 4 . Similarly, each arm of

the delta DEF has a resistance of 30  and the equivalent star has a

resistance of 10  per arm.

The total circuit resistance between A and F = 4 + 48 || 24 + 10 = 30

. Hence, I = 180/30 = 6 A.

Current through 10 Ω resistor as given by current-divider rule = 6 ×

48/(48 + 24) = 4 A.

Example: 3

Determine the equivalent resistance between the terminals A and B

of network shown in Figure below.

Problem 1

Find Rin

Problem 2

Find the equivalent resistance Req of the network at the terminals ‘a’

& ‘b’ using star-delta transformations.

Nodal Analysis

In electric circuit analysis, nodal analysis, node-voltage analysis is a

method of determining the voltage (potential difference) between

“nodes” (connection of two or more branches) in an electric circuit

in terms of the branch currents.

KCL is used to develop the method referred to as nodal analysis.

Steps to determine node voltage and node currents

1. Convert all voltage sources (if any) to current sources through

source transformation.
 2. Identify the nodes and choose one of them as reference node

and indicate it by ‘0’(preferably a common point or ground

connection is chosen as reference). Number the remaining (n-1)

nodes in sequence from 1 to (n-1).

3. Label the node voltages with respect to Ground for all the

nodes except the reference node. Assign remaining (n-1) nodes

with their branch voltages (w.r.t. reference node) for an “n”

node network.

4. Assign branch currents to each branch.

5. Write current equation at each of (n-1) nodes (except reference

node) using KCL. The sign of current is taken as positive if it is

flowing towards the node.

6. Solve the simultaneous equations for the unknown node

voltages.

Example
According to KCL

∑ I = 0 at a node.

At node 1

I1 –I3-I5-I4 = 0

Or

I1 –V1Y1 – V1Y3 – (V1-V2) Y2 = 0

Or

(Y1 + Y2 + Y3)V1 + (-Y2)V2 +(0)V3 = I1 ………………..(1)

Where Y1, Y2……….Y6 are inverse of resistance i.e. Y1 = 1 / R1.

At node 2

I2 + I4 – I 6 – I 7 = 0

Or

I2 + (V1 – V2)Y2 – (V2-V3)Y4 – (V2-V3)Y6 = 0

Or

(-Y2)V1 + (Y2+Y4+Y6)V2 + (-Y4-Y6)V3 = I2 …………………(2)

At node 3

-I2 +I6 +I7 –I8 = 0

Or

-I2 + (V2-V3)Y4 + (V2-V3)Y6 –V3Y5 = 0

Or

(0)V1 + (-Y4-Y6)V2 + (Y4+Y5+Y6)V3 = -I2 ………………..(3)

From relations (1), (2) and (3)

Or

[Y][V] = [I]

where [Y] is a square matrix.

Alternatively, [V] = [Y]-1[I]

By using Cramer’s rule,

V1 = D1 / D, V2 = D2 / D and V3 = D3 / D

here
The generalized representation with (n+1) nodes

[Y][V] = [I]

Where the square matrix Y, having yij as elements i= 1, 2, ….. m and

j=1,2,……m, and I is the column matrix of the input currents

sources I = 1,2,…..m. The elements yij of the matrix Y are

(i) Yii, the self admittance of the ith node

(ii) Yij, the mutual admittance between the ith and jth nodes.

V is the node voltage vector of order (mx1).

For networks having only passive elements and without any source,

the admittance matrix becomes symmetric, i.e. yij = yji.

Example
Determine the node voltages and currents in each branch using

nodal analysis method in the given circuit.

Label the nodes present in the given circuit. By choosing the bottom

node as reference node, there are two other nodes in the given

circuit. So, these nodes are labeled as V1 and V2 as shown in below

figure. And also, current directions in each branch are represented.

By applying KCL at node 1, we get

5 = I3 + I10

5 = (V1 – V2)/3 +(V1/10)

13V1 – 10V2 = 150 ………(1)

By applying KCL at node 2, we get

I3 = I5 + I1

(V1 – V2) /3 = (V2/5) + (V2 – 10)/1

5V1 – 23V2 = -150 ……..(2)

By solving above two equations, we get

V1 = 19.85 Volts and V2 = 10.9 Volts

The currents in each branch are given as

I10 = V1/10 = 19.85/10 = 1.985A

I3 = V1 – V2/3 = 19.85 – 10.9/3 = 2.98 A

I5 = V2/5= 10.9/5 = 2.18 A

I1 = V2 – 10 = 10.9 – 10 = 0.9 A

Concept of Super node

Sometimes it becomes difficult to apply nodal analysis when any

voltage source is present in between two branches in a circuit. One

way to overcome this problem is by applying a super node

technique. In super node technique, voltage source is connected

between two adjacent nodes is shorted to reduce the two nodes to

form a single super node.

In the above example a voltage source is connected between the 2

and 3 nodes. The calculations become more difficult if we analyze

the circuit with voltage source. The analysis of this circuit becomes

easier if we create a super node by shorting 2 and 3 nodes.

By applying Kirchhoff’s current law at the node 1 we get,

I = (V1/R1) + ((V1-V2)/R2) ……(1)

The super node technique can be applied to the given circuit by

shorting the 2 and 3 nodes and by applying KCL we get

((V2-V1)/R2) + (V2/R3) + ((V3-Vy)/R4) + (V3/R5) = 0 ………(2)

And also, voltage in the voltage source is given as

 Vx = V2 – V3……..(3)

From the above three equations, it can easily find out the three

unknown voltages in the circuit.

Example of Super node

Consider the circuit below and find the three unknown node

voltages V1, V2 and V3 by using super node technique.

At node 1, source is connected to the reference node and hence V1

becomes 5v

V1 = 5 V
A super node is formed by enclosing the nodes 2 and 3. By applying

KCL at this super node we get

I1 = I2 + I3

(V1 – V2)/5 = (V2 / 10) + (V3/20) …………….. (1)

And also, KVL at super node gives,

V2 – V3 = 10…………… (2)

By solving above equations, we get V2 = 4.29V and V3 = -5.71 V

Find node voltages for a very simple resistive circuit using Nodal

Analysis.