Elaborate the salient features and the role

of the middle class in India’s democracy

and development.
Introduction:
 Middle class can be defined as a social group which has
a stable source of income, well educated, upwardly mobile
and distinct from lower and upper class.
 The advent of the British in India and their policies
led to the emergence of middle class. This
transformation was marked by the introduction of various
elements, including railways, administrative institutions,
the press, and postal departments etc. In addition to this
new class encompassed independent professionals such
as lawyers, doctors, teachers, and journalists.
Main body:
Salient features of middle class
D. L. Seth has outlined the evolution of the middle class in India
through four distinct phases, each characterized by specific
features:
1. During initial phase of Colonial Period:
 The middle class in pre-British India was nascent
and relatively small.
 It mainly consisted of traders, artisans, and local
merchants, professionals, collectors. N. Srinivas has
highlighted these were the people who have
undergone primary westernisation.
 This class was not politically influential but played a
role in sustaining local economies and small-scale
trade. Racial arrogance of the British played a huge
 role in igniting Nationalistic consciousness among
the middle classes.
 The introduction of modern education and
administrative institutions by the British contributed to
the growth of this class. They began to emerge as a
politically conscious and vocal group.
2. During the Period of Renaissance:
 The middle class became more politically active and aware
during the early 20th century.
 During this time the middle class has become harbinger
of social reform movement and nationalistic
movement.
 They were at the forefront of the Indian nationalist
movement, actively participating in various protests,
rallies, and agitations against British colonial rule.
 This period also witnessed the growth of the
industrial and business middle class, comprising
entrepreneurs and industrialists.
3. Post -Independence middle class:
 Post -independence in earlier decades this middle class
played a huge role in nation building and building
the foundation of a liberal, secular, progressive and
democratic nation.
 After independence measures like land reforms, green
revolution etc. led to the emergence of a new middle
class. According to Pawan Verma these factors led to
growth of middle class in rural areas. However this
rural middle class is also oriented in urban
occupations. Also new middle rural middle class is local
in orientation and regional in character.
 Benefits of reservation also came to fruition. A new Dalit
middle class also emerged due to forces of social mobility
 like education, jobs in administration, reservation in
parliament and assemblies and jobs.
4. Middle class after LPG reforms:
 Globalisation, liberalisation, privatisation and
neoliberal economic and social policies influenced
lifestyle, life choices and life chances of a very
large population.
 Urban based, English speaking and technically
skilled sections of the population benefited most from
the process of Globalisation facilitated through new
economic policy.
 Thus emerged a new middle class which is employed in
Multinational corporations.
Role of middle class in India’ s Democracy and
Development:
 The middle class provided leadership to the National
struggle for independence. Most of our leaders belonged
to professional families.
 Middle classes formed the core of administrative
machinery. Government has to build administrative set-up
from scratch.
 Middle classes provided leadership and technical services
in newly formed Public sector enterprises and
establishment of Modern technical institutions.
Eg. Vikram Sarabhai founded INCOSPAR, IIM AHMEDABAD, led
Atomic Energy Mission; Verghese Kurien & Tribhuvan Das Patel
led Milk revolution; Homi J. Bhabha founded TIFR & Atomic
Energy Establishment.
 According to Gurucharan Das middle class is open,
dynamic, liberated, and de- ritualised. It is outgoing, risk
taking and innovative. For example the success of Start Up
India and emergences of Unicorns can be contributed to
this middle class.
  According to T. K. Oommen Indian middle class is
harbinger of silent revolution as it has through NGOs,
PILs, raised the voice of poor and marginalised sections.
 According to Amartaya Sen middle class scrutinise
the public policies, leads public debate and
discourse and act as public think tanks.
 At the level of ideology also, the post-independence
middle class was committed to social inclusion and equity.
Middle class was committed to socialism and strategic
autonomy symbolised in the policy of Non Alignment.
There are some alternate views also about the character
and role of Indian middle class.
 According to Rajesh Kochar the new middle class is
de nationalised.
 There is decline in social responsibility of new middle
class. Also this middle class is not dependent on state
protection. Hence least interested in actively participating
in civil and political spheres.
 Also it is said that the middle class is consumption
oriented and indulge in conspicuous consumption.
 According to Andre Beteille middle class is not
homogenous in India. According to him Indian middle
class has expanded in its western outlook still it
carries hierarchical ideas.
Conclusion:
Indian middle class still in process of formation and
characteristics are difficult to define. Though Indian
middle class is sometimes criticised for being self -
oriented and regional in outlook. But the contribution of
Indian middle class in upholding the democratic tradition
and leading the path of development cannot be denied.
Elaborate the salient features and the role
of the middle class in India’s democracy
and development.

1. Introduction:
The middle class, situated between the working and upper
classes, gained prominence in 19th- century India under British
colonial rule, driven more by changes in law and administration
than economic development.
DL Seth examines the middle class evolution in India across
three periods: 19th-century upper-caste progressivism, late
19th-century diversification driven by colonial policies, and
post-independence expansion. In the contemporary period, the
new middle class negotiates India's globalized economy both
culturally and economically.
According to B.B. Misra , the middle class has an occupational
interest but it is bound together by a typical style of living and
behavioural patterns, and stands for democratic values, which
they express in their social and political lives.
Salient features of the middle class:
o  Heterogeneity: According to Leela Fernandes,
middle class derives power from authority, skills and
not just property. Andre Beteille has suggested that
it’s more appropriate to speak of middle classes than
of the middle class in India.
o  Consumerism: Indian “new” middle class contribute
significantly to the country’s consumer market
growth since the economic liberalization of the 1991.
Acts of consumption are considered as indicators of
modern status by them.
o  Education: Educational and cultural capital is
central to the middle class as it’s considered as
 means for upward mobility. Gurucharan Das notes
importance of English language for the middle class.
The new middle class is also called as the knowledge
class as they are most likely to have advanced
education and technological expertise.
o  Global perspective: T
o  Cultural values: Indian urban middle class grapples
with tradition-modernity clash in personal lives.
Patriarchy, social control, and normative expectations
persist, even as modernity expands options and fuels
ambivalence. As Dipankar Gupta argues “though the
past is in our present, it is not as if the past in its
entirety is our present”
Role of the middle class in India’s democracy and
development:
Political Interference : The middle class has been considered
a significant force in shaping political outcomes. DL Seth
highlights the historical leadership role of the middle class
during the nationalist movement, contributing to the initiation
of the nationalist movement in the late 19th century and
playing a decisive ideological role in representing the national
interest.
Ideological role: The middle class, a small yet influential
group, serves as a "moral majority" shaping 21st-century India
with shared aspirations for education, mobility, and
Westernized consumption.
Hegemonic Project: Satish Deshpande argues that the middle
class articulates the hegemony of the ruling bloc. In the
Nehruvian era, the middle class pursued its narrow self- interest
through rent-seeking while simultaneously claiming to
represent the national interest as agents of developmentalism.
Shift in Power Dynamics: The middle class has transitioned
from relying on the state to playing a leading role in the
market. Yogendra Yadav notes this shift aligns with the
emergence of a new social bloc in Indian politics, blending
traditional caste-community differences with class distinctions,
notably seen in reactions to initiatives like Mandal, where
upper-caste groups resisted extending reservations to OBCs.
Role in social change: In the post-independence era, the
Indian middle class led movements for linguistic states, anti-
corruption (Anna Hazare movement), and educational reforms.
They actively participated in environmental causes, youth-led
campaigns, urban protests, and contributed to NGOs, impacting
policy decisions in various domains.

Conclusion:
The formation of the Indian middle class is ongoing as
suggested by Beteille, making it challenging to precisely define
its characteristics. While occasionally criticized for self-
centeredness and parochial perspectives, the middle class
significantly contributes to upholding democratic traditions and
spearheading developmental pathways.

How has the New Economic Policy (1991)

affected the lifestyle and life changed in
new middle class in India.

New Economic Policy of 1991 refers to economic liberalisation

or relaxation in the import tariffs, deregulation of markets or
opening the markets for private and foreign players, and
reduction of taxes to expand the economic wings of the
country. The policy implemented significant economic reforms
and liberalization measures in India, aiming to boost economic
growth, attract foreign investment, and integrate the country
into the global economy. This policy had far-reaching effects on
various segments of society, including the emerging new
middle class.
This new middle class, which comprised of professionals,
entrepreneurs, and white-collar workers, experienced notable
changes in their lifestyle and life patterns as a result of the
policy.
Economic Changes:
The New Economic Policy brought about increased job
opportunities, industrial growth, and globalization, which had a
direct impact on the income levels and financial well-being of
the new middle class. Sectors like information technology,
finance, and services expanded, resulting in higher salaries and
improved career prospects. The policy also led to the growth of
a consumer- driven economy, reshaping consumption patterns
and encouraging discretionary spending among the new middle
class.
Social Changes:
The new middle class experienced significant social
transformations due to the New Economic Policy. The rise of a
consumerist culture driven by media, advertising, and global
influences played a central role. Western lifestyles, fashion, and
trends gained prominence, influencing social norms and values.
Sociologist Jeffrey C. Alexander highlighted the new middle
class's ability to engage in the consumption of globally
recognized iconic objects as a distinctive characteristic.
Cultural Changes:
Cultural values and identities within the new middle class
underwent shifts as a result of the New Economic Policy.
Dipankar Gupta suggests that the policy reforms have
brought about shifts in their lifestyles, leading to a growing
desire for material possessions and a redefinition of social
status. The new middle class embraced elements of Western
culture, including food, entertainment, and social practices,
while also maintaining the significance of traditional values for
many individuals.
Challenges:
While the New Economic Policy brought prosperity and
opportunities, it also gave rise to income disparities, social
stratification, and the dilution of traditional values. The
pressure to maintain a certain lifestyle strained social
relationships and resulted in work-life imbalance. Ashish Nandy
emphasized that the policy's emphasis on competitiveness and
achievement within the middle class promoted a culture of
material success, which sometimes overshadowed traditional
values and collective identities.
Overall, the New Economic Policy had a multifaceted impact on
the new middle class, reflecting the interplay of economic,
social, and cultural factors in shaping their lives.

Discuss the status of women among the

emerging urban middle class.

1. The urban emerging middle class refers to a group of

people who have experienced significant economic growth
and social mobility in recent years. This group is typically
characterized by their education, professional skills, and
increased earning power. The urban emerging middle class
in India is a diverse group, encompassing people from
different regions, religions, and castes.
They are generally concentrated in urban areas and are
engaged in professional, technical, and managerial
occupations. They often work in the service sector, including IT,
finance, and healthcare, and have access to better
opportunities for career advancement and higher salaries.
The current status of women among the emerging urban
middle class is a mixed one.
o  On the positive side, there has been a significant
increase in the number of women from the emerging
urban middle class in India who are pursuing higher
education and specialized skills training. This trend is
opening up a wider range of professional
opportunities for women, enabling them to enter non-
traditional fields such as STEM that were previously
male-dominated. Additionally, many women in this
group are breaking traditional gender roles by
delaying marriage and having children, and
prioritizing their careers and personal goals.
o  As a result, women in the emerging urban middle
class in India are becoming more financially
independent and able to make their own financial
decisions, which gives them more control over their
lives and greater self-confidence. Some companies
are also implementing policies that promote gender
equality and support women in the workplace, such
as flexible work arrangements, maternity and
paternity leave, and mentorship programs for
women.
o  Finally, women in this group are taking on
leadership roles in various fields, such as politics,
business, and media, which promotes women's
visibility and representation in these areas. For
example, in the 1950s, women contested elections in
around 7% of constituencies, but by the 2010s,
women were competing in 54%of constituencies.
These positive trends indicate a significant shift towards greater
gender equality and empowerment of women in the emerging
urban middle class in India.
However, women in the emerging urban middle class still face
significant challenges. They are often expected to fulfil
traditional roles as wives and mothers, even as they pursue
their careers.

Leela Dube thus argued that the emerging middle class in

India was not necessarily conducive to greater gender equality,
as women were often expected to balance traditional gender
roles with the demands of modernity. They also face
discrimination and bias in the workplace and have fewer
opportunities for career advancement than men. Furthermore,
women in this group are often expected to balance work and
family responsibilities, which can limit their professional growth
and earning potential. This has impact on the female labour
force participation. According to World Bank data, the female
labour force participation rate has declined from 32% in 2005
to 19% in 2022.
Other challenges faced by women in the emerging urban
middle class include limited access to healthcare and
inadequate legal protection from discrimination and violence.
Many women in this group also face societal pressure to
conform to traditional gender roles, which can limit their
choices and opportunities. A woman’s identity is seen to be
largely dependent on her marital status. While women are
selecting fashionable clothing, it appears that their freedom
and independence is only superficial, as marriage and
motherhood continue to be seen as the most essential
objectives, with all choices being made to align with these
goals. Uma Chakravarti thus argued that the emerging middle
class in India is often characterized by a narrow and
exclusionary vision of modernity, which does not necessarily
challenge traditional gender roles and hierarchies.
However, the States have also taken significant steps to
improve the status of women through legal reforms, education,
employment, health initiatives, and awareness campaigns.
Legal reforms such as the Protection of Women from Domestic
Violence Act and the Sexual Harassment of Women at
Workplace Act aim to protect women's rights.
Education initiatives like the Right to Education Act provide free
education for children, and employment initiatives like the
Maternity Benefit Act provide paid maternity leave. Health
initiatives like the National Health Mission provide free
healthcare services for women in rural areas, and awareness
campaigns like Beti Bachao Beti Padhao promote gender
equality. Further, schemes like SHG՚s and reservation policy
have played a major role in creating channels for women
empowerment and have enabled them to take independent
decisions in family, marriage and work places. Despite these
efforts, gender equality in India still needs more progress.
In conclusion, while the emerging urban middle class in India
has seen progress in terms of education and employment
opportunities for women, there are still significant challenges in
terms of social and cultural attitudes towards women's roles
and status. Further efforts are needed to promote gender
equality and empower women in all areas of Indian society.

What accounts for the growth and

consolidation of the middle classes in
modern India?

1. Despite extensive study, there is no commonly agreed

definition of the middle class; some scholars define it in
terms of its link to the means of production, while others
define it in terms of relative salaries or spending patterns.
The middle class has notably evolved as a strong,
influential, and dominating element of society,
determining the nation's economy, polity, culture,
education, and social interactions based on money, social
status, education, occupation, and consumption. Common
characteristics of the middle class include moderate to
 high income, higher education levels, a wide range of
occupations, and a focus on cultural and social values
such as education, professional achievement, and upward
mobility.
The growth and consolidation of the middle classes in modern
India can be attributed to several factors:
o  British colonial legacy: B.B. misra explained that
because of British rule classes emerged in India. In
Misra’s viewpoint the British attempted to create a
class comparable to their own to assist the former in
the administration of the country. The aim of the
British was to create a class of imitators and not
originators of new values and methods.
o  Caste and kinship networks: Caste and kinship
networks provide social support, opportunities for
collaboration, and access to resources. Pawan Verma
talks about domination of upper castes in early
middle class formation.
o  Education: Andre Betteile conceptualised the
emergence of middle class in India as result of
introduction of modern education and job
opportunities under the colonial government.
o  Aspirations: The middle class in India is driven by
aspirations for upward mobility and an improved
quality of life. This translates into a focus on savings,
investment, and a desire for homeownership and
other symbols of social status.
o  Middle-class values: Middle-class values in India,
like importance of education, hard work, ambition,
financial responsibility, entrepreneurship, social
mobility, and adaptability, fuel the growth and
consolidation of the middle class.
o  Welfare Measures: After independence, through
reservation policies, central planning, and expanded
 education, the focus was on uplifting the deprived
sections and states. As a result, the middle class
witnessed a significant increase in numbers. Many
communities benefited from reservation policies,
gaining political power as well. For example, the
Dalits under the BSP (Bahujan Samaj Party).
o  LPG Reforms: In the post-economic reform era
(liberalization, privatization, and globalization),
opportunities for skilled manpower increased. New
sectors were opened up, creating more job
opportunities.
The middle class seized these opportunities and
consolidated their numbers. With India being one of the
fastest-growing countries in the world, the middle class
is expected to continue growing.
 Diversification of Occupation: The Indian middle class
encompasses a wide range of occupations, including
professionals, managers, entrepreneurs, and skilled
workers in various industries such as IT, finance, and
healthcare. This diversification of occupations
contributes to the growth and consolidation of the
middle class.
Issues concerning the middle class
  Caught between 'traditional' and 'modernity' - in an
economic sense, the emerging middle class wants to
replicate Western ideas and practises while culturally
adhering to tradition. Dominance of same-caste
marriages, for example, or a surge in religious intolerance
and hostility
  An increase in 'Alienation' - As a result of over-
competitiveness and a lack of assistance, many
employees in the corporate sector are experiencing
alienation, depression, and other mental difficulties.
  Women's Status - Women's engagement in public
spheres has expanded in recent years, although there are
still limits to their liberty and empowerment. For example,
there is a rise in sexual harassment and lower income
than male peers.
  The stereotypical roles of male as "breadwinner" and
woman as "nurturer". Contradiction in middle-class ideals;
they are modern in commercial choices, yet concepts
remain ingrained in tradition, for example, women's
identity still revolves around mother and wife rather than
as an individual entity
In summary, the growth and consolidation of the middle
class in modern India can be attributed to various
factors. However, it is important to acknowledge that
the middle class is not a homogeneous group, and there
can be conflicts and inequalities within it.
Understanding the complexities and nuances of the
middle class in India requires a multidimensional
perspective and consideration of diverse factors at play.

How does Andre Beteille justify middle

class in India? (10 Marks)

1. Andre Beteille’s justification for the Middle Class:

According to Andre Beteille in his paper, The Social
Character of the Indian Middle Class, before the
nineteenth century, there existed numerous distinctions
on the basis of class, caste, kinship. However, there was
no middle class that existed. This according to him was
a feature of the western countries. He also argues that,
from the European point of view, it was the very
absence of the middle class, which was the main reason
for India being considered an oriental society. For him
the growth of middle classes is a rather modern
phenomenon which took place post the nineteenth
century.
o  Beteille identifies occupational function and
employment status as crucial criteria for defining the
middle class, with non-manual work being typical of
middle-class occupations.
o  The urban middle classes in India are categorized
into three hierarchical sections: "upper," comprising
top managerial, executive, legal, and medical
positions; "lower," including school teachers, clerks,
and shop assistants; and a middle section with
intermediate income and social status.
o  While the urban middle classes are largely
composed of upper castes, recruitment to
professional and managerial roles is selectively based
on caste.
o  The diversity in income, occupation, education, and
caste within the urban middle classes offers a rich
field for studying changing dynamics between caste
and class, as well as the interaction between
"traditional" and "modern" elements of status.
o  Beteille views castes as status groups, noting that
fluidity among the "upper caste, urban middle
classes" suggests a shift toward more overlapping
and less rigid categories while retaining influences
from the traditional order.
o  Middle-class values are characterized by
contradictions and oppositions, still in the process of
formation and lacking a stable form, according to
Beteille.
o  Beteille advises against comparing the Indian
middle class with the European middle class,
 considering the Indian middle class to be the most
polymorphous in the world.
o  Despite significant growth, the Indian middle class
coexists with the multitude of castes and
communities from the past, with its peculiarity arising
from the social environment in which it operates.
Conclusion:
Beteille's approach highlights the complexity of
defining and understanding the middle class in India.
By emphasizing its diverse composition, evolving
nature, and distinct socio-cultural characteristics, he
provides a valuable framework for analysing this
influential social group and its role in Indian society.

Explain the and the implication and the

impact of globalization in situating the
changing agrarian class structure in India
Introduction:
Globalization, characterized by the free flow of capital,
technology, goods, and labor across international boundaries,
has significantly impacted India’s agrarian class structure.
This transformation has been driven by various sociological
factors and has resulted in a complex and evolving agrarian
landscape.
Main body:
 Traditional Agrarian Class Structure: The traditional
agrarian class structure in India was characterized
by distinctions such as landlords (Malik), cultivators
(Kisan), and laborers (Mazdoor). Additionally, D.N.
Dhanagre’s classification further categorized farmers
 based on landownership into big, middle, marginal, and
small farmers, along with landless laborers.
o Impacts and implications of Globalization on Indian
Agriculture:
 Shift in Agricultural Practices: Globalization has led to
changes in agricultural practices in India. The adoption of
modern technology and practices, such as the Green
Revolution and biotechnology, has created a divide
between large-scale commercial farmers who can afford
these advancements and small-scale, subsistence farmers
who cannot. This has led to a differentiation within the
agrarian class.
 Market Integration: The integration of Indian agriculture
into the global market has exposed farmers to
international price fluctuations and market
dynamics. Large-scale farmers who can adapt to these
changes and access global markets have
prospered, while smaller farmers may face vulnerability
and economic challenges.
 The transition from earlier social organizational models
like “feudalism” and “peasant societies” to more complex
‘capitalist’ relations of production has led to the
disintegration of traditional structures. ‘


o Within the peasantry, various strata and classes have

emerged. Mechanization’s benefits are not evenly
distributed. For instance, tenants are often evicted
from the lands they once cultivated and compelled to
work as wage laborers for landowners.
o In many regions of India, formerly known as Maliks
have transformed into enterprising farmers, while
many landless laborers who were once tenants or
sharecroppers have shifted to wage labour.
 Marginalisation and Depeasantisation: Vibha Arora in her
article Globalisation and Depeasantisation, puts agrarian
class structure under the light of
globalisation. Transnational corporations are promoting
use of land for cash crops in partnership with large
farmers and are also acquiring agricultural land. As a
result, subsistence farmers are further marginalised or
depeasantised.
 Emergence of new classes: The emergence of a new class
of “gentlemen farmers” in India reflects the changing
agrarian landscape influenced by globalization. These
individuals, often from diverse backgrounds, such as
retired civil and military service personnel, are drawn to
agriculture as a vocation, signalling a shift
towards educated, specialized, and business-oriented
farming practices, aligning with globalized trends in
modern agriculture and entrepreneurial endeavours.
 Rural-Urban Migration: As agriculture becomes less
profitable and industrial and service sectors grow due to
globalization, there is a shift of labour from rural areas to
urban centres. This migration has implications for the
agrarian class, as some rural workers leave agriculture
entirely. It has also led to feminisation of agriculture, as
migration is usually male dominated.


o Deere and Gunewardena argue that despite the

increasing participation of women in
agriculture, there hasn’t been a concurrent
enhancement in their involvement in household
decision-making.
 Socioeconomic Inequality: Globalization can exacerbate
socioeconomic inequalities within the agrarian class.
Those with access to resources, education, and
opportunities are better positioned to benefit from
globalization, while those are lacking resources are again
 reaching to underclass status. Yogendra Singh argues that
the sociological process that is undergoing in rural areas is
’embourgeoisement of few and proletarianisation of many
‘.
Conclusion:
Globalization has brought certain benefits to the agricultural
sector in India, but it has also led to several negative
consequences. The changing agrarian class structure,
characterized by increasing disparities, marginalization, and
dispossession, reflects the uneven and unequal nature of
globalization. Therefore, there is a need for more equitable
policies that can help small farmers and landless laborers to
benefit from globalization.