CHAPTER (2)

Hardware Components of 8*8*8 LED CUBE

2.1. Arduino

Arduino is an open-source electronics platform based on easy-to-use hardware and

software. Arduino boards are able to read inputs - light on a sensor, a finger on a button, or a
Twitter message - and turn it into an output - activating a motor, turning on an LED,
publishing something online. You can tell your board what to do by sending a set of
instructions to the microcontroller on the board. To do so you use the Arduino programming
language (based on Wiring), and the Arduino Software (IDE), based on Processing.

Over the years Arduino has been the brain of thousands of projects, from everyday
objects to complex scientific instruments. A worldwide community of makers - students,
hobbyists, artists, programmers, and professionals - has gathered around this open-source
platform, their contributions have added up to an incredible amount of accessible knowledge
that can be of great help to novices and experts alike.

Arduino was born at the Ivrea Interaction Design Institute as an easy tool for fast
prototyping, aimed at students without a background in electronics and programming. As
soon as it reached a wider community, the Arduino board started changing to adapt to new
needs and challenges, differentiating its offer from simple 8-bit boards to products for IoT
applications, wearable, 3D printing, and embedded environments.

Figure 2.1. Types of Arduino

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2.1.1. Types of Arduinos

1. Arduino Uno R3
2. Arduino Nano
3. Arduino Micro
4. Arduino Leonardo
5. Arduino Mega2560 Rev3
6. Arduino Nano 33 BLE
7. Arduino Due
8. Lilypad Arduino Board
9. Arduino Bluetooth
10. Arduino MKR FOX 1200
11. Arduino MKR WAN 1300/1310
12. Arduino MKR GSM 1400
13. Arduino MKR WIFI 1010
14. Arduino MKR NB 1500
15. Arduino Diecimila
16. Red Board Arduino Board
17. Arduino Robot
18. Arduino Esplora
19. Arduino Ethernet
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2.2. Resistor

Are neither insulators nor good conductors: they are somewhere in between, allowing
some current to flow. The lower the resistance, the more current can flow. Resistance is
measured in ohms. Resistors are used to limit current to values which can be used by the
various components; too much current and the components may be damaged. It is symbolized
by English capital letter R and is measured in ohm. There are two types of resistors. They are
fixed resistors and variable resistors.

Figure 2.2. Resistor color code

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2.2.1. Fixed resistors

Three types of fixed resistors are carbon film, metal film and wire-wound law
tolerance. A film of carbon is deposited on a ceramic rod and protected by a taught insulating
coating, Figure 2.1 values rage from a few ohms to 10 M, typical tolerance is 15 %, ratings
are from 0.125 W to 1 W and stability is very good.

Figure 2.3. Fixed Resistor

2.2.2. Variable resistors

A variable resistor or potentiometer to give it the correct name (often referred to as a

pot), is merely a fixed value resistor with a slider and (or wiper) that allow continuous
adjustment of the value with respect to either end. The action varies with different types. The
adjustment of the wiper may be by a hand operated shaft of slots for screwdriver. The wiring
of potentiometers with respect to the wiper has to be considered. With a volume control for
example, the connection to the circuit has to be made so that the volume is increased as the
shaft is turned clockwise. These connections are sometimes marked. W for wiper, C for the
clockwise and CW for counterclockwise limits. Maximum values range from a few ohm’s to
several mega-ohms; common values are 10 kΩ, 50 kΩ, 100 kΩ, 500 kΩ and 1 MΩ.

Figure 2.4. Variable Resistor

2.3. Capacitors

A capacitor is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to temporarily store

electrical energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but most
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contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric insulator that can store
energy by becoming. The conductors can be thin films, foils or sintered beads of metal or
conductive electrolyte, etc. The nonconducting dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's
charge capacity. Materials commonly used as dielectrics included glass, ceramic, plastic film,
paper, mica and oxide layers.

Figure 2.5. Types of capacitors

2.4. Light Emitting Diode (LED)

A light-emitting diode (LED) is the semiconductor light source. LEDS are used as
indicator lamps in many devices and are increasingly use for other lighting. Early LEDs
emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are available across visible, ultraviolet,
and infrared wavelengths with very high brightness.

Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as replacements for aviation

lighting, automotive lighting (in particular brake lamps, turn signals, and indicators) as well
as in traffic signals. LEDs have allowed signboards, video displays, while their high
switching rates are also useful in advanced communications technology. Infrared LEDs are
also used in the remote-control units of many commercial products including televisions,
DVD players, and other domestic appliances.
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Figure 2.6. Light-emitting diode

2.4.1. Types of Light Emitting Diodes

There are different types of light emitting diodes present and some of them are
mentioned below.

 Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) – infra-red

 Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) – red to infra-red, orange

 Aluminium Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (AlGaAsP) – high-brightness red, orange-

red, orange, and yellow

 Gallium Phosphide (GaP) – red, yellow and green

 Aluminium Gallium Phosphide (AlGaP) – green

 Gallium Nitride (GaN) – green, emerald green

 Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN) – near-ultraviolet, bluish-green and blue

 Silicon Carbide (SiC) – blue as a substrate

 Zinc Selenide (ZnSe) – blue

 Aluminium Gallium Nitride (AlGaN) – ultraviolet

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Figure 2.7. Types of light-emitting diodes

2.5. Transistor

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electrical signals and

power. It is one of the basic building blocks of modern electronics. It is composed of
semiconductor material, usually with at least three terminals for connection to an electronic
circuit.

2.5.1. Basic structure of transistor

Semiconductor Material: Typically, silicon, though materials like gallium arsenide are
also used.

Layers: A transistor has three layers of semiconductor material, forming two

junctions. The three layers are named the Emitter, Base, and Collector.

Figure 2.8. Transistor

2.5.2. Two types of Transistors

The two main types of transistors are the Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) and the
Field-Effect Transistor (FET). The fundamental difference between the two types of
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transistors is the fact that the BJT is a current-controlled device, while the FET is a voltage-
controlled device.

Figure 2.9. Types of transistor

1. BJT

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT): Uses both electron and hole charge carriers.
It has two main types:

1. NPN Transistor: The majority charge carriers are electrons.

2. PNP Transistor: The majority charge carriers are holes.

2. FET
Field-Effect Transistor (FET): Controls the electrical behavior using an electric
field. Main types include:
1. Junction FET (JFET)
2. Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor FET (MOSFET)
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2.5.3. Working principal of BJT and FET

 BJT: Works by controlling the current flow between the collector and emitter using a
small current at the base.
 FET: Controls the current flow between the drain and source by applying a voltage to
the gate.

2.5.4. Basic Characteristics

Type: NPN Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

Polarity: NPN

Package: The most common package is the TO-18 metal can, though it's also available in a
plastic package (e.g., TO-92 as PN2222).

Pin Configuration:

Collector (C): The pin where the majority of the current flows out.

Base (B): The pin that controls the transistor's operation.

Emitter (E): The pin where the current flows in.

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2.6. Integrated Circuit Definition

An integrated circuit (IC) is an assembly of electronic components in which hundreds

to millions of transistors, resistors, and capacitors are interconnected and built up on a thin
substrate of semiconductor material (usually silicon) to form a small chip or wafer.

Figure 2.10. Integrated circuit (IC)

2.7. Copper Wire

Copper is the electrical conductor in many categories of electrical wiring.

Copper wire is used in power generation, power transmission, power distribution,
telecommunications, electronics circuitry, and countless types of electrical equipment.
Copper and its alloys are also used to make electrical contacts.

2.7.1. Types of copper wire

There are two types of copper wire: tinned copper and bare copper. Tinned
copper is coated with tin, whereas bare copper is entirely copper. Bare copper is generally
cheaper to purchase and easier to install than tinned copper, but both materials have
advantages and disadvantages.

Figure 2.11. Types of copper wire

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2.8. Jumper Wire

Jumper wires are simply wires that have connector pins at each end, allowing them to
be used to connect two points to each other without soldering. Jumper wires are typically
used with breadboards and other prototyping tools in order to make it easy to change a circuit
as needed. Fairly simple. In fact, it doesn’t get much more basic than jumper wires.

Figure 2.12. Jumper wire

2.8.1. Jumper Wire Colors

Though jumper wires come in a variety of colors, the colors don’t actually mean
anything. This means that a red jumper wire is technically the same as a black one. But the
colors can be used to your advantage in order to differentiate between types of connections,
such as ground or power.

Figure 2.13. Jumper wire colors

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2.8.2. Types of jumper wire

There are three types of jumper wire:

Female-to-Female - female jumper wires used in connecting the female
header pin of Arduino or any development board to plug in any other
development board.

Male-to-Female - male to female jumper wires used in connecting the

female header pin of any development board to other development boards
having a male connector.

Male-to-Male- male to male jumper wires used in connecting the male header
pin of any development board to other development boards having a male
connector.

Figure 2.14. Types of Jumper wire