Definition of the Map

Miljenko Lapaine a,*, Terje Midtbø b, Georg Gartner c, Temenoujka Bandrova d, Tao Wang e,
Jie Shen f
a
University of Zagreb, Faculty of Geodesy – [email protected]
b
Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Geomatics group –
[email protected]
c
Technische Universität Wien, Department of Geodesy and Geoinformation – [email protected]
d
University of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Geodesy, Sofia – [email protected]
e
Geographic Information Science, Capital Normal University, [email protected]
f
Key Laboratory of Virtual Geographic Environment (Nanjing Normal University), Ministry of Education, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210023,
China – [email protected]

* Corresponding author

Abstract: Cartography has undergone great changes in the last 40 years. Many web platforms and location-based
services are offering increasing opportunities, paper maps have been largely supplemented by multimedia and digital
maps, and spatial databases. The definition of a map has changed throughout history and the differences in their
definitions are presented. This paper aims for new central cartographic definitions, corresponding to contemporary
cartographic development after presenting the current situation of the topic. Definitions of cartographic mapping,
cartography and cartographer are proposed, as well as a new definition of the map. All they are made on the base of
logical analyses including different types of maps from traditional and real to virtual, 3D, animation, and digital.

Keywords: map definition, mapping, cartography, cartographer

Kraak and Fabrikant (2017) give another definition: “A

1. Introduction and problems observed map is a visual representation of an environment”. The
Andrews (1996) published a paper about map definitions. authors admit in their paper that the map is ‘visual’
In his historical overview, there are 321 definitions of the because it usually acts as a visual interface with a virtual
term “map”. Fortunately, or unfortunately, we can or real environment and shows only a selection, thus an
conclude that there are many different map definitions, abstraction, of the envisaged environment. The map is an
while no single definition is accepted by all. Over time, interface to an ‘environment’ which could be a
definitions of what a map is have changed. Often dynamically evolving situation, geographic reality,
cartographers make their own definition on the base of perceived or cognized reality, virtual, artificial, or a
their professional background, theoretical and practical simulated environment, and so on.
knowledge, and research or on the base of use of map. The ICA Strategic Plan for 2019-2027 (ICA 2019),
The mission of the International Cartographic includes the following definition, which is rather similar
Association (ICA) is to promote the discipline and to the one proposed by Kraak and Fabrikant (2017): “A
profession of cartography and GIScience in an map is an abstract visual representation of the geo-
international context. Since the map lies at the heart of environment”. The third Strategic Plan was presented for
cartography and GIScience, it is obvious that the ICA approval at the 18th General Assembly of the ICA in
must grapple with defining it. Tokyo, Japan, in 2019. During the General Assembly
“A map is a symbolized representation of geographic (ICA 2019b) Croatia raised a question about the
reality, representing selected features or characteristics, definitions in the Strategic Plan and presented their
resulting from the creative effort of its author’s execution concerns. This opinion was seconded by Austria. USA
of choices, and is designed for use when spatial did also point out that the definitions of map and
relationships are of primary relevance.” This old cartography is an important issue and suggested further
definition appears in the ICA Strategic Plan 2003-2011 actions on revisiting the definitions. Belgium suggested a
(ICA 2003), adopted at the 10th General Assembly of the new working group on this issue. The Strategic Plan was
ICA in Barcelona in 1995. So, it is now 25 years old. The accepted with a note that a work proper definition of the
main weakness of this definition is the term ‘geographical “map” should be initiated.
reality’, since everybody knows that there are many other The definition of the map proposed in Tokyo is difficult
elements on maps apart from geographical reality. to understand and accept. We found three problems. The

Advances in Cartography and GIScience of the International Cartographic Association, 3, 2021.

30th International Cartographic Conference (ICC 2021), 14–18 December 2021, Florence, Italy. This contribution underwent
double-blind peer review based on the full paper. https://doi.org/10.5194/ica-adv-3-9-2021 | © Author(s) 2021. CC BY 4.0 License
 2 of 6

first is the meaning of ‘abstract’ (existing in thought or as equations, integrals, or differentials, just something from
an idea, but not having a physical or concrete existence; everyday life.
disassociated from any specific instance; existing as an In everyday life, as in mathematics, we often encounter
idea, feeling, or quality, not as a material object). The the notion of sets. Intuitively, a set is a whole composed
implication is that a paper map is not a map. The second of elements (objects) that have a common property (Figs
is the usual meaning of ‘visual’ (of or relating to seeing 1, 2, 3).
or sight). The implication is that a tactile map is not a What is a set?
map. The third is the meaning of ‘geo-environment’,
Elementary set theory can be studied informally and
which is unclear and misleading (for example, see Geo-
intuitively, and so can be taught in primary schools. The
Environment - Monitoring, Simulation and Remediation
basics of set theory have been taught in Croatia since
of the Geological Environment, published in 2004). The
1975.
word ‘environment’ nowadays is often connected with
the concept of environmental protection or sustainability
(Malik, Grohmann 2012). In our opinion, spatial
relationships, instead of the environment, should be at the
core of the definition of the map.
Kraak et al (2021) gave a new definition of the map: an
abstracted and authored (often) visual representation of
geographic phenomena or processes.
Some remarks to this definition are as follows. The
adjective abstracted has many synonyms: miles away,
absentminded, distracted, preoccupied, absorbed,
engrossed, far away, somewhere else, not there, not with
us, in a world of one's own, with one's head, in the
clouds, daydreaming, dreamy, inattentive, thoughtful, Figure 1. A set of quadrilaterals
pensive, lost in thought, deep in thought, immersed in
thought, wool-gathering, in a brown study, musing,
brooding, absent, distrait, heedless, oblivious. Many of
these are not applicable to the definition of a map.
Furthermore, the good definition should not contain
anything in parentheses.
Moreover, the adjective visual is not so important in the
definition of a map, because the goal of cartography is to
model space, and not only to visualize spatial data. A
map plays two roles basically: a spatial database (non-
visual) and a communication tool (visual) of spatial
information, where the first role is well exemplified
nowadays in location-based services and autonomous Figure 2. A set of triangular objects
driving of various mobile vehicles.
Finally, maps do not belong only to geography. Maps are
ubiquitous.
The authors of the recent published paper (Gotlib et al,
2021) explore the extended concept of the map in the
light of modern geoinformation products. They argue that
the development of electronic products based on
geoinformation has caused a growing need for the
systematization of basic concepts, including defining
what a map is. They performed a survey on a group of
nearly 900 respondents from a variety of countries. As a
result of the survey, the authors of this research are
inclined to state that a map should be treated as a specific,
ordered information structure and not as a method of
presenting spatial data. Unfortunately, they do not
propose a new definition of the map.

2. Definition of the set

Figure 3. A set of keywords from 'Of maps, cartography and the
We are going to suggest a new definition of the map by geography of the International Cartographic Association' by
using an idea from mathematics. But we will not use any Kraak and Fabrikant (2017)

Advances in Cartography and GIScience of the International Cartographic Association, 3, 2021.

30th International Cartographic Conference (ICC 2021), 14–18 December 2021, Florence, Italy. This contribution underwent
double-blind peer review based on the full paper. https://doi.org/10.5194/ica-adv-3-9-2021 | © Author(s) 2021. CC BY 4.0 License
 3 of 6

The intuitive approach assumes that a set may be formed

from a class of objects satisfying a particular defining
condition (Figs. 1, 2, 3). Although this may seem a
simple idea, sets are one of the most important
fundamental concepts in modern mathematics. Set theory,
created only at the end of the 19th century, is a ubiquitous
part of mathematics teaching today, and is therefore
introduced as early as primary school in most countries.
Set theory can be understood as the basis on which
almost all mathematics can be built.
A set is a collection of objects. The objects that make up Figure 6. Ela, Filip, and Ivan are 6th grade students. Ela goes to
a set (also known as the elements or members) can be school by tram, Filip by tram or bicycle, and Ivan by bicycle or
bus.
anything: numbers, people, letters of the alphabet,
buildings, rivers, and so on.

3. Definition of the map

The definition of the map should include traditional and
modern maps, real and virtual maps such as web maps,
3D maps and animation maps, and even globes (Fig. 8a,
8b. We will propose a new definition of the map by using
as a background the mathematical concept of mapping
from one set to another. Let us start with a simple
example. We have two sets (Fig. 4). Ela, Filip, and Ivan
are 6th grade students. Ela and Filip like strawberries Figure 7. The set on the left (domain) is mapped on the set on
the right (codomain)
best, and Ivan loves bananas. How are we going to show
that? It could be done as in Fig. 5. Mapping is one of the basic terms in mathematics. To
recall, two non-empty sets, X and Y, are given. By
mapping, we understand the rule that each element x from
X joins element y from Y. So, we write f :X→Y (Fig. 9).
The element y is the image of x, so we write y = f (x). The
set X is the domain of mapping f, while the set Y is the
codomain. Each mapping consists of three parts: the
domain, codomain, and mapping rule.
What is a map?
A map is always the result of mapping (Walbert 1997,
Figure 4. Ela, Filip, and Ivan are students who like strawberries Weisstein 1997, Rysted 2001). But not any mapping. It
and bananas should be a special type of mapping (Lapaine 2019)
which we will call cartographic mapping. This is a
process that associates a set of spatially related data with
another set called a map, representation, or model, while
preserving spatial arrangements and simplifying detail for
specific purposes. Cartographic mapping in German will
be kartographische Abbildung, in French application
cartographique, in Russian картографическое
отображение, in Croatian kartografsko preslikavanje.
The codomain of cartographic mapping is usually a flat
surface as a piece of paper or monitor screen. However, it
Figure 5. Ela, Filip, and Ivan are 6th grade students. Ela and
Filip like strawberries best, and Ivan loves bananas
can also be produced of different materials for tactile
maps, or it is just imagination, as is the case with mental
Figure 6 shows another situation. Ela, Filip, and Ivan are maps.
students. Ela goes to school by tram, Filip by tram or Lots of things are represented on maps. The domain of
bicycle, and Ivan by bicycle or bus. cartographic mapping can be any set of spatial data, for
The elements of the two sets can be linked, connected, example the surface of the Earth, Moon or Mars, depths
joined, associated, put in a relationship, transformed, or of the sea, temperature distribution, population density,
mapped in different ways (Fig. 7). We prefer the term economic production, or fictional regions (Fig. 8).
mapping due to its neat links with the verb to map and the In our opinion, spatial components are the most
noun map. The truth is that mapping has many meanings important part of maps and cartography. By preserving
in general (Lapaine 2019). This is why we need a spatial arrangements, we mean preserving topology, that
definition of mapping in cartography.

Advances in Cartography and GIScience of the International Cartographic Association, 3, 2021.

30th International Cartographic Conference (ICC 2021), 14–18 December 2021, Florence, Italy. This contribution underwent
double-blind peer review based on the full paper. https://doi.org/10.5194/ica-adv-3-9-2021 | © Author(s) 2021. CC BY 4.0 License
 4 of 6

Figure 8. Different types of maps

Advances in Cartography and GIScience of the International Cartographic Association, 3, 2021.

30th International Cartographic Conference (ICC 2021), 14–18 December 2021, Florence, Italy. This contribution underwent
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 5 of 6

f
X Y

Figure 9. The set on the left (domain) is mapped on the set on This definition includes traditional and modern maps.
the right (codomain) There are many different cartographic mappings that
result in different kind of maps and communicate
is, relations such as ‘between’, ‘in front of’,’ behind’, different messages (Fig. 8a and 8b).
‘in’, ‘outside’ and so on. For instance, if a road and a
river run parallel in the landscape, then their images 4. Definition of cartography and the
should not intersect on a map. Cartographic mapping cartographer
should be continuous deformation, such as translation,
Regardless of the definition of the map, we think that
rotation, stretching, twisting, crumpling, and bending, but
most people involved in cartography would accept that
not tearing or gluing, in general.
cartography is the science, technology and art of
However, if we need a definition of the map without cartographic mapping and using maps.
introducing mapping as an intermediate step, then we
We live in an age of the rapid proliferation of computer
would express it like this. A map is a result of a process
games. So, it is no wonder that if we type the word
that associates a set of spatially related data with their
cartographer into a search engine, we find ‘Ellen’
representation, while preserving spatial arrangements
(2020). Who is Ellen, and is she really a cartographer?
and simplifying detail.
She is the main character in an action role-playing game.
Much shorter definition would be: Obviously, Ellen is not a cartographer in the usual sense.
A map is a generalized representation of spatial We propose a very simple definition: the cartographer is a
relationships. person involved in cartography. It can be a mapmaker,
The ICA Working Group on the Cartographic Body of scientist, teacher, archivist, librarian, collector of maps or
Knowledge (WG CartoBoK) https://icaci.org/working- any other person engaged in cartography.
groups/) has in its Terms of Reference the task to review
current terms related to cartography and propose new 5. Conclusion
terms and updated definitions to current terms as The technology for producing maps has changed
appropriate. The members of the WG discussed the fundamentally in the last 40 years. Nowadays, paper
definition of a map at sessions held over the past few maps are produced exclusively using digital technology.
months (2020-2021). They came to a conclusion that a However, they are increasingly being replaced by
map is the result of mapping, but the mapping that creates multimedia or electronic maps. Global cartographic
a map always wish to communicate something. So, services provide potential applications which were
current WG CartoBoK definition of a map is: recently unimaginable. Due to all the changes in
A map is a medium designed for communication of cartography, we thought it is necessary to produce a new
generalized spatial information and relationships. definition of main cartographic terms. Based on the
Note: A map often includes a title, scale, map projection, preceding sections, we propose the following new
cartographic network or coordinate grid, legend, source definitions:
citation, information on the map author, publisher, and Cartographic mapping is mapping a set of spatially
date of production. A map is usually produced in visual related data, while preserving spatial arrangements and
form and serves for communication using cartographic simplifying detail.
symbols. A map is a medium designed for communication of
In this last version of the definition the term generalized spatial information and relationships.
representation (…or model) is not included. When we are Cartography is the science, technology and art of
“communicating generalized information” we implicitly cartographic mapping and using maps.
talking about a representation/model. A cartographer is a person involved in cartography.

Advances in Cartography and GIScience of the International Cartographic Association, 3, 2021.

30th International Cartographic Conference (ICC 2021), 14–18 December 2021, Florence, Italy. This contribution underwent
double-blind peer review based on the full paper. https://doi.org/10.5194/ica-adv-3-9-2021 | © Author(s) 2021. CC BY 4.0 License
 6 of 6

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Advances in Cartography and GIScience of the International Cartographic Association, 3, 2021.

30th International Cartographic Conference (ICC 2021), 14–18 December 2021, Florence, Italy. This contribution underwent
double-blind peer review based on the full paper. https://doi.org/10.5194/ica-adv-3-9-2021 | © Author(s) 2021. CC BY 4.0 License