SKELETAL SYSTEM / OSSEOUS SYSTEM :-

Introduction :-
 Skeleton constitutes the bony framework of the body.
 The Skeletal system consist of about 206 bones to make a strong, movable living
framework for the body. It supports and protects softer, delicate tissues and organs
and they form joints for the movement of the body. The bones making up the skeleton
are of various types e.g. long bones, short bones, flat bones, irregular bones etc.
 Therefore there is an Internal or Endoskeleton and Outer as Exoskeleton.

The bones perform following important functions: -

(1) They form the supporting framework of the body.

(2) They form boundaries for the cranial, thoracic and pelvic cavities;
(3) They give protection to delicate organs;
(4) They form joints which are essential for the movement of the body:
(5) They provide attachment for the voluntary muscles. This helps in the movements of
joints.
(6) They form blood cells in the red bone marrow in cancellous bone.
(7) They act as a store house of calcium salts.

The bones of the skeleton are divided into two groups:

(1) The Axial Skeleton: It consists of the bones which form the skull, the vertebral column
and the thoracic cage.

(2) The Appendicular Skeleton: It consists of shoulder girdles, upper limbs, pelvic girdle
and lower limbs.

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1. The Axial Skeleton :-
 The bones of the axial skeleton constitute the central bony core of the body.
 The axial skeleton is the central part of the skeleton that includes the bones of the
skull, vertebral column (spine), and rib cage. It provides support and protection for the
brain, spinal cord, and thoracic organs, while also serving as an attachment point for
various muscles.

In adults, it consists of 80 bones, including:

 Skull: Protects the brain and houses the structures of the face.
 Vertebral column: Composed of vertebrae that protect the spinal cord and support
the head.
 Rib cage: Protects the heart and lungs and assists in breathing.

1. Skull :-

 It rests upon the upper end of the vertebral coloumn and its bony structure is divided
into 2 parts :-

1. The Cranium

2. The Face

 The Cranium :- (8 bones)

The cranial bones include:

1. Frontal Bone (1): Forehead region; forms the anterior part of the skull.
2. Parietal Bones (2): Located on the sides and roof of the skull.
3. Temporal Bones (2): Located on the sides, containing structures of the ear.
4. Occipital Bone (1): Forms the back and base of the skull; contains the foramen
magnum, where the spinal cord passes through.
5. Sphenoid Bone (1): Located in the middle of the skull; resembles a butterfly and
helps form the base of the skull.
6. Ethmoid Bone (1): Located between the eyes; contributes to the nasal cavity and
orbits.

Function :-

The cranium serves several important functions:

 Protection: Shields the brain from injury.

 Support: Provides structure and shape to the head.
 Attachment: Serves as an attachment point for muscles involved in facial expressions
and head movement.
1. The Frontal Bone :-

 The frontal bone in an adult is an unpaired bone that is a part of the boney structure
that forms the anterior and superior portions of the skull. At the beginning of life, it is
a bone separated by a temporary suture called the frontal suture.

2. The Parietal Bone :-

 The parietal bone is usually present in the posterior end of the skull and is near the
midline. This bone is part of the skull roof, which is a set of bones that cover the
brain, eyes and nostrils.

3. Occipital Bone :-

 The occipital bone forms back of the head and part of the base of the skull. It forms
immovable joints with parietal, temporal and sphenoid bones.
 On the outer surface, there is a roughened area called occipital protuberance. In this
bone, there is a large opening called foramen magnum, for the passage of spinal cord.

4. The Temporal Bones :-

 The temporal bone is a pair of bones located on the sides of the skull, just above the
jaw.
 The temporal bones lie on each side of the head. Each temporal bone is divided into
four parts. They are :-
  The squamous part is the fan shaped portion.
 The mastoid process is a thickened part of bone and can be felt just behind the ear.
It contains a large number of small air sinuses which communicate with middle ear.
A styloid process projecting from it gives attachment to muscles.
 The petrous portion is thick and forms a part of the base or floor of the skull and
contains the organ of hearing.
 The zygomatic process is directed forward and articulates with the zygomatic bone
to form zygomatic arch.

5. The Sphenoid Bone :-

 A butterfly-shaped bone at the base of the skull, behind the nose. The sphenoid bone
helps form the eye socket. It contains two large sinuses, which are hollow spaces lined
with cells that make mucus to keep the inside of the nose from drying out.
 The sphenoid bone is an irregular bone in the shape of a bat with its wings
outstretched and lies in the centre of the base of the skull . On the superior surface
of the middle of the bone, there is a depression in which the pituitary gland rests.
The wings are perforated by many openings for the passage of nerves and blood
vessels.

6. The Ethmoid Bone :-

 The ethmoid bone is a very light, fragile, irregular bone and occupies an anterior part
of the base of the skull and helps to form the orbital cavity, the nasal septum and the
lateral walls of the nasal cavity.
  It has a horizontal flattened part called cribriform plate which has many fine
openings like a sieve. The openings are for the passage of the nerves of smell called
the olfactory nerves. It also contains a flat vertical portion between the two nasal
cavities. Two spongy portions form an outer wall of the upper part of the nasal.
cavity and inner wall of the orbit. On each side, the spongy portions present two
projections into nasal cavities which are called turbinated processes. The spongy
portions contain a number of air cavities which communicate with the nose .

2. The Face :- (14 bones)

 There are 14 bones in the human face, also known as the facial skeleton or
viscerocranium:

 Two zygomatic bones: Form the cheek bones

 Two lacrimal bones: The smallest bones in the face, located in the medial wall of the orbit
 Two nasal bones: Slender bones located at the bridge of the nose
 Two inferior nasal conchae: Located in the nasal cavity, these bones increase the surface area
of the cavity
 Two palatine bones: Located at the rear of the oral cavity, these bones form part of the hard
palate
 Two maxilla bones: Part of the upper jaw and hard palate
 One vomer bone: Forms the posterior aspect of the nasal septum
 One mandible bone: The jaw bone that articulates with the base of the cranium at the temporo
mandibular joint (TMJ)
 The facial skeleton supports the soft tissues of the face and houses the orbits of the
eyes, the nasal and oral cavities, and the sinuses.

 Function: Provide structure, shape, and support to the face; house the teeth; and form
part of the orbits and nasal cavity.
Major Facial Bones

1. Maxillae (2)
o Forms the upper jaw and part of the orbit and form the anterior part of the roof
of the mouth.
o It presents the alveolar ridge which projects downwards and carries the upper
teeth. On each side, there is a large air sinus, the maxillary sinus which is
lined with ciliated mucous membranes and communicates with the nasal
cavity.
2. Mandible (1)
o The lower jaw; the only movable facial bone.
o Supports the lower teeth and has a U-shaped body.
o The mandible is the strongest bone of the face and is the only movable bone
of the skull. It has two identical parts. Each part consists of (1) a curved
body on the superior surface of which there is the alveolar ridge containing
the lower teeth and (2) a ramus which projects upward (Fig. 4.5). At the
upper end, the ramus is divided into two processes; the condyloid process
which articulates with the temporal bone and the coronoid process which
gives attachment to muscles and ligaments. The point where the ramus joins
the body is called the angle of the jaw.
3. Zygomatic Bones (2)
o Also known as cheekbones.
o Form the lateral walls of the orbits.
4. Nasal Bones (2)
o Form the bridge of the nose.
o Small and rectangular in shape.
5. Lacrimal Bones (2)
o Small bones forming part of the medial wall of the orbit.
 o They are grooved and the groove contains lacrimal sac and nasal duct. It
carries tears or lacrimal fluid from eye down to the nasal cavity.
6. Palatine Bones (2)
o Form part of the hard palate (roof of the mouth) and nasal cavity.
o L-shaped, contributing to both oral and nasal structures.
7. Inferior Nasal Conchae (2)
o Curved bones located in the nasal cavity.
o Help to warm and humidify air.
8. Vomer (1)
o The vomer is a thin flat bones which extends upwards from middle of the
hard plate to separate the two nasal cavities.

 Middle Ear bones & Hyoid Bones :-

 Auditory ossicles of middle ear are 6 bones :-

1. Malleus (6)

2. incus (2)

3. Stapes (one in each ear)

 Function :- helps in transmission of sound vibrations.

Hyoid Bone :-

 Lies below mandible and above larynx.

 Function :-
(A). attachment for base of tongue & muscles of floor of oral cavity.
(B). Controls the opening of airway and gut.

2. The Vertebral Coloumn :-

Definition: A flexible, segmented structure that forms the backbone, providing support and
protecting the spinal cord.

 Number of Vertebrae: 33 vertebrae in total, divided into regions.

Regions of the Vertebral Column

1. Cervical Region (7 vertebrae, C1-C7)

o Location: Neck area.
o Function: Supports the head, allows for its movement.
o Notable Vertebrae:
 C1 (Atlas): Supports the skull.
 C2 (Axis): Allows for head rotation
 Atlas : It is the first cervical vertebra consisting of a ring of bone
with two short transverse processes. The ring is divided into two
parts.
 (1) The anterior part is occupied by the odontoid process of the axis
which is held in position by a transverse ligament.

(ii) The posterior part is the vertebral foramen and is occupied by the
spinal cord. On its superior surface, it has two facets which form
joints with the condyles of the occipital bone. The nodding
movements of the head takes place at these joints.

Axis: It is the second cervical vertebra. The body is small and has an
upward projecting tooth-like 'odontoid process' or the 'dens'. This
process articulates with the atlas .

2. Thoracic Region (12 vertebrae, T1-T12)

o Location: Upper and mid-back.
o Function: Articulates with ribs, providing stability and protection to the
thoracic organs.
3. Lumbar Region (5 vertebrae, L1-L5)
o Location: Lower back.
o The bodies of these vertebrae are largest and the vertebral foramina are
smallest. And giving attachment to the powerful muscles supporting the back.
o Function: Bears most of the body’s weight; allows for flexibility and
movement.
4. Sacral Region (5 fused vertebrae, S1-S5)
o Location: Base of the spine.
o These are fused together to form one bone known as sacrum.
o Function: Forms the back of the pelvis; supports pelvic organs.
5. Coccygeal Region (4 fused vertebrae, Co1-Co4)
o Location: Tailbone.
o Function: Provides attachment for ligaments and muscles.

Structure of a Vertebra
  Body: The weight-bearing part.
 Arch: Forms the vertebral foramen (canal for the spinal cord).
 Processes:
o Spinous Process: Projects posteriorly.
o Transverse Processes: Project laterally; sites for muscle attachment.
o Articular Processes: Allow for articulation with adjacent vertebrae.

Functions of the Vertebral Column

 Support: Maintains posture and supports the weight of the body.

 Protection: Encloses and protects the spinal cord.
 Movement: Allows flexibility and movement of the trunk and head.
 Shock Absorption: Intervertebral discs provide cushioning.

3. The Thoracic Cage :-

 The bones of the thoracic cage are as follows: 1 sternum; 12 pairs of ribs and 12
thoracic vertebrae.

1. Sternum :-

 The sternum, commonly known as the breastbone, is a long, flat bone located in the
central part of the chest. It connects to the ribs via cartilage, forming the front of the
 rib cage and helping to protect vital organs such as the heart, lungs, and major blood
vessels from physical damage.

Structure of the Sternum :-

 The sternum has three main parts :-

1. Manubrium: The uppermost part, which articulates with the clavicles (collarbones)
and the first pair of ribs.
2. Body (Gladiolus): The longest part of the sternum, connecting with the cartilage of
the second through seventh ribs.
3. Xiphoid Process: A small, cartilaginous structure at the lower end of the sternum.
Over time, it ossifies and becomes bone in adults.

2. Ribs :-

The ribs are a set of long, curved bones that form the rib cage, which protects vital organs
such as the heart and lungs. There are 24 ribs in the human body, arranged in 12 pairs, which
are attached to the spine at the back.
Here’s a breakdown of the ribs :-

1. True ribs (1–7): These ribs are directly attached to the sternum (breastbone) via
costal cartilage.
2. False ribs (8–10): These ribs are indirectly attached to the sternum. Their cartilage
connects to the cartilage of the ribs above them rather than to the sternum.
3. Floating ribs (11–12): These ribs are shorter and do not connect to the sternum at all;
they are only attached to the spine at the back.

The rib cage helps in respiration by moving up and out during inhalation to allow the lungs to
expand. The muscles between the ribs, called intercostal muscles, assist in this process.

 The first rib does not move during respiration. Spaces between the ribs are occupied
by intercostal muscles. During respiration, when these muscles contract, the ribs and
sternum are lifted upwards and downwards increasing the capacity of thoracic
cavity.

2. THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON :-

1. Pectoral Girdle :-

The pectoral girdle (also known as the shoulder girdle) is the set of bones that connects the
upper limb to the axial skeleton, providing support and flexibility to the shoulder. It plays a
key role in upper body movement and helps anchor muscles that control the shoulder and
arm.

Components of the Pectoral Girdle:

1. Clavicle (collarbone):
o Structure: A long, slender bone that runs horizontally between the sternum
(breastbone) and the scapula (shoulder blade).
 o Function: Acts as a strut that holds the shoulder laterally away from the
thorax, stabilizing the shoulder and allowing for a wide range of arm
movement. It also serves as a connection point for muscles.
o Joints:
 Sternoclavicular joint: Where the clavicle meets the sternum.
 Acromioclavicular joint: Where the clavicle connects with the
acromion of the scapula.

2. Scapula (shoulder blade):( 2)

o Structure: A flat, triangular bone located on the posterior side of the ribcage.
o Key Parts:
 Spine of the scapula: A prominent ridge that runs across the back of
the scapula.
 Acromion: The bony process at the top of the scapula that articulates
with the clavicle.
 Glenoid cavity: A shallow socket that articulates with the head of the
humerus (upper arm bone), forming the shoulder joint (glenohumeral
joint).
 Coracoid process: A small, hook-like structure on the scapula that
provides attachment for muscles like the biceps brachii.
o Function: Provides attachment points for several muscles and forms the
socket part of the ball-and-socket shoulder joint.

2. Upper Limbs :-

 Arm (Brachium):

 Humerus:
o The single long bone in the upper arm.
o Proximal End: The head of the humerus articulates with the glenoid cavity of
the scapula.
 o Distal End: The humerus articulates with both the radius and ulna at the
elbow.
o Features include:
 Greater and Lesser Tubercles: Serve as sites for muscle attachment.
 Deltoid Tuberosity: Midpoint of the humerus where the deltoid
muscle attaches.
 Capitulum: Articulates with the radius at the elbow.
 Trochlea: Articulates with the ulna at the elbow.

 Forearm (Antebrachium):

 Radius:
o Located on the lateral (thumb) side of the forearm.
o Proximal End: The head of the radius articulates with the capitulum of the
humerus and the radial notch of the ulna.
o Distal End: Forms part of the wrist joint by articulating with the carpal bones.
o Allows supination (palm up) and pronation (palm down) movements of the
forearm.
 Ulna:
o Located on the medial (little finger) side of the forearm.
o Proximal End: The olecranon process forms the bony prominence of the
elbow.
o Trochlear Notch: Articulates with the trochlea of the humerus.
o Distal End: The head of the ulna is smaller and forms part of the distal
radioulnar joint.
 Hand:

 Carpals (Wrist Bones): (8)

o There are 8 small bones arranged in two rows:
 Proximal Row (lateral to medial): Scaphoid, Lunate, Triquetrum,
Pisiform.
 Distal Row (lateral to medial): Trapezium, Trapezoid, Capitate,
Hamate.
 Metacarpals (Palm Bones): (5)
o There are 5 metacarpal bones, numbered I to V from the thumb side to the
little finger.
o The heads of the metacarpals form the knuckles.
 Phalanges (Finger Bones): (14)
o Each finger (except the thumb) has three phalanges: proximal, middle, and
distal.
o The thumb has two phalanges: proximal and distal.
o In total, there are 14 phalanges in one hand.
Summary of the Regions:

1. Shoulder Girdle: Clavicle, Scapula.

2. Arm: Humerus.
3. Forearm: Radius, Ulna.
4. Hand: Carpals, Metacarpals, Phalanges.

3. Lower Limbs :-

1. Pelvic Girdle :-

 The hip bone (coxal bone) is an irregularly shaped part of the bony pelvis. Each half
of the pelvic girdle is composed of a single hip bone or coxal bone.

 Coxal bone is made up of a fusion of three bones, namely ilium, ischium and pubis.
 Ilium- Ilium is the largest part of the coxal bone. It is the upper part and has a fan-like
structure. It is attached to the sacrum of the vertebral column strongly by the
sacroiliac joint.
 Ischium- It makes the posterior part of the pelvic girdle below the ilium. It provides
support while sitting.
 Pubis- It makes the lower anterior part of the pelvic girdle.
 Pubic symphysis- It is a joint between the pubis part of the two hip bones in the
middle portion. It contains fibrous cartilage.
 Acetabulum- It is a cavity formed by the fusion of ilium, ischium and pubis. The
femur or thigh bone articulates with the acetabulum.
 The coccyx is attached to the lower part of the sacrum by sacrococcygeal symphysis.
 Obturator foramen- It is the large opening between the ischium and the pubis bone.
It is round or oval in shape. It is filled with the lining of connective tissue and is the
attachment site for muscles.

Functions of the Hip joint

  The hip is the largest weight-bearing joint in the body; it is a ball-and-socket joint.
The joint connects the lower extremities with that of the axial skeleton. The main
function of the hip joint is to support the weight of the body dynamically as it
promotes load and force transmission to the lower parts from the axial skeleton.

True Pelvis and False Pelvis

 The pelvic girdle divides the pelvic region into two portions, the upper is known as
the false pelvis or greater pelvis and the lower part is known as the lesser pelvis or
true pelvis.

 Greater pelvis- It is also known as the false pelvis. It is the upper part and encloses
the small and large intestine.
 Lesser pelvis- It is the lower part of the pelvis. It contains pelvic organs such as the
urinary bladder, internal sex organs, etc. and known as the true pelvis.

 The female pelvis differs from the male and is adapted for the foetal development and
childbirth. The female pelvis is wider and broader than the male pelvis. The bones are
lighter compared to males. The pubic arch is greater than 90°, whereas in males it is
narrower and less than 90°.
 The true pelvis has rectum, some bowel, the reproductive structures and the urinary
bladder. The false pelvis is superiorly and anteriorly in association with the abdominal
cavity. It has sections of colon, most parts of small bowel and the iliac vessels.

Female pelvis definition

 Pelvis is the lower section of the torso found between the legs and the abdomen. The
region supports the intestines and comprises the bladder and the reproductive
structures. The female pelvis, in addition, comprises the cervix, vagina, uterus,
ovaries and fallopian tubes. It must accommodate and provide enough space for the
development of the foetus and provide a passageway during parturition. Thus, the
female pelvis is typically wider and broader compared to the male pelvis.

2. Lower Limbs :-

 Femur (Thigh Bone):

o The longest and strongest bone in the body.
o Extends from the hip to the knee.
o Head of the femur articulates with the acetabulum of the hip bone to form the
hip joint.
o Distal end forms the upper part of the knee joint.
 Greater and lesser trochanters: Attachment points for muscles.
 Linea aspera: Ridge along the posterior side where muscles attach.
Leg Region (between knee and ankle):

 Tibia:
o The larger and medial bone of the leg.
o It bears most of the body’s weight.
o Articulates with the femur at the knee joint and with the talus (ankle bone) at
the ankle joint.
 Tibial tuberosity: Attachment point for the patellar ligament.
 Medial malleolus: A bony prominence at the inner side of the ankle.
 Fibula:
o A long, thin bone located laterally to the tibia.
o It does not bear significant weight but provides muscle attachment points.
o Its distal end forms the lateral malleolus, which is the outer bony prominence
of the ankle.
o Functions in stabilizing the ankle joint.
  Patella (Kneecap):
o A triangular sesamoid bone embedded within the quadriceps tendon.
o Protects the knee joint and increases the leverage of the quadriceps muscle
during leg extension.
o Articulates with the femur at the patellofemoral joint.

Ankle and Foot Region:

 Tarsal Bones (Ankle Bones): There are seven tarsal bones in the foot, which together
form the ankle and part of the arch of the foot:
1. Talus: Articulates with the tibia and fibula to form the ankle joint. It helps
transmit weight from the tibia to the foot.
2. Calcaneus (Heel Bone): The largest tarsal bone, it forms the heel and is an
attachment point for the Achilles tendon.
3. Navicular: Located medially, between the talus and the cuneiform bones.
4. Cuboid: On the lateral side of the foot, between the calcaneus and the
metatarsals.
5. Three Cuneiform Bones:
 Medial cuneiform.
 Intermediate cuneiform.
 Lateral cuneiform.
 Metatarsal Bones:

o There are five metatarsal bones, numbered I to V from the medial (big toe) to
lateral (little toe) side.
o They form the body of the foot and connect the tarsal bones to the phalanges
(toe bones).
o Important for maintaining the arches of the foot and aiding in balance and
movement.
 Phalanges (Toe Bones):
o Each toe has three phalanges, except for the big toe, which has two:
 Proximal phalanges: Closest to the metatarsals.
 Middle phalanges: Absent in the big toe.
 Distal phalanges: The tips of the toes.
o The phalanges provide structure to the toes and play a role in balance and
walking.