Range and endurance

Flight mechanics - Academic year 2023/24

Dr. Mauro Mancini

Politecnico di Torino
Table of contents

1. Introduction

2. Jet planes
Endurance
Range

3. Propeller planes
Endurance
Range

1
Intro
Introduction

• DEFINITIONS
• Range is distance the aircraft can fly from a given
speed and altitude until it runs out of fuel. it is a
measure of distance.
• Endurance is the time the aircraft can can stay
aloft from a given speed and altitude until it runs
out of fuel. it is a measure of time.
Maximum range and maximum endurance are obtained
for different flight conditions, so it is not possible to
maximise both at the same time.
The range and endurance of an aircraft depend on the
type of engine used, so jet planes and propeller planes
must be studied separately.

2
Introduction

Studying range and endurance involves fuel consumption. In this

chapter, we will address the variation of aircraft weight W over time.
(In previous chapters it was W = const.)
• Wp → Payload weight
W = Wp + Wf + We • Wf → Fuel weight
• We → Empty weight
Wf is the variable we are going to consider, dWf = dW.
• Range: interest is in the change of Wf per unit distance: dW/ds.
• Endurance: interest is in the change of Wf per unit time: dW/dt.
Engine fuel usage is provided by the manufacturers in terms of specific
fuel consumption.
• Jet planes: thrust specific fuel consumption.
• Propeller planes: power specific fuel consumption.
3
Jet planes
Jet planes

The engine output of a jet plane is measured in terms of Thrust →

thrust specific fuel consumption (kt or γt ).

• In terms of mass of fuel • In terms of weight of fuel

kgfuel N 1
[kt ] = Nthrust [γt ] = fuel Nthrust =
s s s
WHICH QUANTITIES DETERMINE THE SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION? Flight
velocity V, altitude z, and the throttle (or engine speed (n)):
γt = f(V, z, n) = γtS ξ2 (V)ψ2 (z)ϕ2 (n)
0

• γtS : specific fuel consumption at V = 0, z = 0 and n = n0 . (n0 :

0
design engine speed).
( )2
• ϕ2 (n) = 1 + c nn0 − 1 is the throttle. (c ≈ 0.5)
• ψ2 (z) = (T/T0 )0.75 .
• ξ2 (V) = 1 + wVg , wg is the exhaust velocity
4
Jet planes

STRAIGHT LEVEL FLIGHT - USEFUL EQUATIONS

ρ V2 ρ V2 W L
T=D= cD S, L=W= cL S, = =E
2 2 T D

5
Jet planes - Endurance

To analyse endurance, we are interested in fuel consumption per

unit time. This is as follows:
dW
= γt T = γt D (1)
dt

MAXIMUM ENDURANCE
( )
dW
for Dmin , i.e. for Emax (Fig. 1)
dt min

6
Jet planes - Endurance

Figure 1: Jet planes - Drag vs Velocity

7
Jet planes - Endurance

HOW TO COMPUTE THE ENDURANCE (E )? FROM EQ. (1)

∫ E ∫ W0 −W ∫ W0 −W
f dW f E dW
E = dt = = , (D = W/E)
0 W0 γt D W0 γt W

Computing the exact solution of the above equation requires the

trends of E, γt during flight, but a simplified solution can be found as
follows.
ASSUMPTION: E, γt = const. (if Emax → Emax )
Endurance
E W0
E = ln
γt W0 − Wf

W0 is the aircraft weight at initial time t = 0.

8
Jet planes - Range

To analyse range, we are interested in fuel consumption per unit

distance traveled. This is as follows:
dW dW dt γt T D
= = = γt (2)
ds dt ds V V

MAXIMUM RANGE
( ) ( ) ( )
dW D E
for , i.e. for √ (Fig. 2)
ds min V min cL max

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Jet planes - Range

Figure 2: Jet planes - Drag vs Velocity

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Jet planes - Range

HOW TO COMPUTE THE RANGE (R)? FROM EQ. (2)

∫ R ∫ W0 −W ∫ W0 −W
f V f EV dW
R= ds = dW = , (D = W/E)
0 W0 γt D W0 γt W

Computing the exact solution of the above equation requires the trends
of E, γt , V during flight, i.e. the parameters α , n, z, V.
2 EQUATION AND 4 VARIABLES → WE SET TWO PARAMETERS AND THE OTHER
TWO VARY CONSISTENTLY.
two strategy representing realistic flight condition:

1. α = const. (E = const.), V = const. ⇒ n?, z?

2. α = const. (E = const.), z = const. ⇒ n?, V?

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Jet planes - Range

FIRST STRATEGY E, V = const.

∫ W0 −W
f EV dW
R=
W0 γt W

γt (n, z, V) ̸= const., but either by taking the average value γtm , or

assuming small variations (γt ≈ const.) we have:

Range with first strategy

( )
EV W0
R= ln
γt W0 − Wf

W0 is the aircraft weight at initial time t0 .

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Jet planes - Range

FIRST STRATEGY E, V = const.

ρ V2
At any time of the cruise: W = L = 2 cL S

W V2
= cL S = const.
ρ 2

Important!
As the aircraft burns off fuel (W ↓), the aircraft will slowly move to
higher altitudes (ρ ↓) where the density is lower to maintain a
constant W/ρ ratio.

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Jet planes - Range

SECOND STRATEGY E, z = const.

√ √
∫ W0 −W
W/S f E 2 dW
V= 2 ⇒R= √ √
ρ cL W0 γt cL ρS W

• E, cL = const. (α = const.), ρ = const. (z = cosnt.)

• Assumption: γt ≈ const.

Range with second strategy

√
2 E 2 (√ √ )
R= √ W0 − Wf − W0
γt cL ρ S

W0 is the aircraft weight at initial time t0 .

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Jet planes - Range

SECOND STRATEGY E, z = const.

ρ V2
At any time of the cruise: W = L = 2 cL S

W ρ
2
= cL S = const.
V 2

Important!
For this flight schedule as fuel is burned (W ↓), the flight speed
must decrease in proportion to the square root of the weight to
maintain a constant W/V2 ratio.

15
Jet planes - Range

√
In Eq. (2) we derived the maximum range condition as (E/ cL )max .

This is only true if ηt is constant during flight.

Actually, γt = γtS ϕ2 (n)ψ2 (n)ξ2 (V) ⇒ γt ̸= const.

0

The maximum range is obtained for:

( )
E 1
√ √ = Σmax
cL γt ρ max

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Jet planes - Range

Procedure to fight Σ

1. Define z0 , W0
2. Choose an attempt value cL
3. Derive V from L = W
4. Derive ϕ1 = D/(TS0 ξ1 ψ1 )
5. Derive γt with ϕ2 , ξ2 , ψ2
6. Compute Σ

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Jet planes - Range

Consumption for climbing (if z ̸= const.)

ηflight Hi Wfclimb = Wm (zf − z0 )

• ηflight : flight efficiency.

• Hi : lower calorific value.
• Wfclimb : extra fuel consumed for the climb.
• Wm : average weight.
• zf : final height.

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Jet Planes - Example

Compute the maximum range and the maximum endurance of a Boe-

ing 747-300 with the following features: initial cruise weight WO =
363000 kg, weight of fuel WO = 120000 kg, specific fuel consumption
SFCJ = 0.6 lb/(lb · h), wingspan b = 59.6 m, wing area S = 511 m2 , aspect
ratio AR = 6.95 m, cD0 = 0.017, Oswald efficiency number e = 0.8, initial
cruise altitude z0 = 10 km.

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Propeller planes
Propeller planes

The engine output of a propeller plane is measured in terms of Power

(or equivalent power for turboprop) → power specific fuel consump-
tion (kp or γp ).

• In terms of weight of fuel

Nfuel
[ γp ] =
s·W
STRAIGHT LEVEL FLIGHT - USEFUL EQUATIONS

ρ V3 ρ V2 ηp Π m V
ηp Πm = DV = cD S, L=W= cL S, =
2 2 W E

Πm = Πm0 ψ (z)ϕ (n)

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Propeller planes - Endurance

To analyse endurance, we are interested in fuel consumption per

unit time. This is as follows:
dW DV
= γt Π m = γt (3)
dt ηp

MAXIMUM ENDURANCE
( )
dW √
for (DV)min = Πnmin , i.e. for (E cL )max (Fig. 3)
dt min

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Propeller planes - Endurance

Figure 3: Propeller planes - Necessary vs Velocity

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Propeller planes - Endurance

HOW TO COMPUTE THE ENDURANCE (E )? FROM EQ. (3)

∫ E ∫ W0 −W ∫ W0 −W √
f ηp E dW f ηp ρS √ dW
E = dt = = E cL
0 W0 γt V W W0 γt 2 W3/2

Computing the exact solution of the above equation requires the trends
of α , n, z, V during flight.
2 EQUATION AND 4 VARIABLES → WE SET TWO PARAMETERS AND THE OTHER
TWO VARY CONSISTENTLY.
two strategy representing realistic flight condition:

1. α = const. (E = const.), V = const. ⇒ n?, z?

2. α = const. (E = const.), z = const. ⇒ n?, V?

23
Propeller planes - Endurance

FIRST STRATEGY E, V = const.

∫ W0 −W
f ηp E dW
E =
W0 γt V W

γt (n, z, V) ̸= const., but either by taking the average value γtm , or

assuming small variations (γt ≈ const.) we have:

Endurance with first strategy

( )
ηp E W0
E = ln
γt V W0 − Wf

W0 is the aircraft weight at initial time t0 .

24
Propeller planes - Endurance

FIRST STRATEGY E, V = const.

ρ V2
At any time of the cruise: W = L = 2 cL S

W V2
= cL S = const.
ρ 2

Important!
As the aircraft burns off fuel (W ↓), the aircraft will slowly move to
higher altitudes (ρ ↓) where the density is lower to maintain a
constant W/ρ ratio.

25
Propeller planes - Endurance

SECOND STRATEGY E, z = const.

• E, cL = const. (α = const.), ρ = const. (z = cosnt.)

• Assumption: γt ≈ const.

Endurance with second strategy

( )
ηp √ √ 1 1
E = 2ρ SE cL √ −√
γt W0 − Wf W0

W0 is the aircraft weight at initial time t0 .

26
Propeller planes - Endurance

SECOND STRATEGY E, z = const.

ρ V2
At any time of the cruise: W = L = 2 cL S

W ρ
2
= cL S = const.
V 2

Important!
For this flight schedule as fuel is burned (W ↓), the flight speed
must decrease in proportion to the square root of the weight to
maintain a constant W/V2 ratio.

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Propeller planes - Range

To analyse range, we are interested in fuel consumption per unit

distance traveled. This is as follows:
dW dW dt γp
= = D (4)
ds dt ds ηp

MAXIMUM RANGE
( ) ( )
dW Πn
for Dmin = , i.e. for Emax (Fig. 4)
ds min V min

28
Propeller planes - Range

Figure 4: Propeller planes - Necessary power vs Velocity

29
Propeller planes - Range

HOW TO COMPUTE THE RANGE (R)? FROM EQ. (4)

∫ R ∫ W0 −W ∫ W0 −W
f ηp dW f ηp dW
R= ds = = E , (D = W/E)
0 W0 γp D W0 γp W

Computing the exact solution of the above equation requires the

trends of E, γt during flight, but a simplified solution can be found as
follows.
ASSUMPTION: E, γt = const. (if Emax → Rmax )
Range
ηp W0
R= Eln
γp W0 − Wf

W0 is the aircraft weight at initial time t = 0.

30
Propeller Planes - Example

Compute the maximum range and the maximum endurance of a Cessna

with the following features: initial cruise weight WO = 1100 kg, weight
of fuel WO = 100 kg, specific fuel consumption SFC = 0.45 lb/(hp · h),
wing area S = 16 m2 , aspect ratio AR = 7.5 m, cD0 = 0.03, Oswald effi-
ciency number e = 0.8, propeller efficiency ηp = 0.75, and initial cruise
altitude z0 = 4 km.

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