AIRCRAFT PERFORM ANCE 91

load -factor, and altitude. Both are very useful in aircraft performance predic-
tions.

3.4 Takeoff and Landing Performance

Takeoff is one of the most demanding phases of flight. The aircraft's
enoines are typically operating at maximum rating. Airspeeds are low, so
~
.
control is minimal. Combine these considerations with low altitude and there 1s
little room for error. In this section, we will examine the forces during takeoff,
apply Newton's 2nd law, and arrive at two ways to predict takeoff performance:
1) "average acceleration method," and 2) numerical method.

3.4. 1 Takeoff Phases and Ground Rol/ Distance

As shown in Fig. 3. 7, takeoff performance includes a ground roll, aircraft
rotation, . transition, and climb-out phase. In our discussion, we will address
only the ground-roll distance, SG. As shown, the velocity correspondi ng to SG
is VG.
VG is the lift-off velocity (VLoF ), corrected for winds (VG = VLoF + /-
VWIND)-add for a tail wind, subtract for a headwind. The liftoff velocity is
typically expressed as sorne factor above the aircraft's stall speed. We will use
VLoF = 1.1 VsTALL where VsTALL is defined in Eq. (1.34).
We will now derive a general expression for the ground-roll distance. Refer-
ring to Fig. 3.7, we will assume no wind and integrate between brake release
(both S and V are equal to zero) and SG (where V is VG)- Using the chain
rule:

dS dt 1 1
dS=--d V= V- dV=-VdV
dt dV a a

where a is acceleration or dV / dt. Now integrating both sides from brake

release to the ground roll distance,

S=SG 1
I
J V=VG
dS = -V dV (3.21)
S=O V=O a

S== O s =SG
V==O V= VG
S = S 11 s = s,mns S=S c lun
. b
t----- -----1 -----;- -----1- ---..--~ s
( ) ( >( >
Ground Roll Rotation Transition Climb
Distance Distance Dista nce Distance
(aincreased) (r~ Ychmb) To Clear
50-ft Obstacle

Fig. 3.7 TakeotI pilases.

~

92 INTRODUC-1ION TO AIR CH AFT f- LIGH r MEC HAt'IIC8

¡ ook al thc right-hand silh.: ni l·. t¡. (3 .2 1). ·1,, in tcgrntc it , ·111.; wj :1 !.í:ikr.; tw,
upprn:ic hes duri 11g thc grou nd rol l : 1) n,sume flccc)cratí_on is a co'.1stant, and 2;
use a 11u1rH!ncal approa ch, nnd aéC()Ullt 1,,r accdcrntion c.:hí:lnging. fn cith<.:r
case, ,ve will lia vc to cvaltJat c acccleration , whidi jq Jbtaincd frorn Ncwtcm \
1

2nd law (F = ma) .

3.4.2 Forces During Takeoff
As mcntioncd prcviously, wc wi ll use Ncwton 's 2nd Jaw and idcntífy the
forces during the takcoff roll . Consider ríg. 3.8 bclow in whi ch thc runway
slope is greatly exaggcratcd.
Lift, drag, thrust, and wcight are shown. rp is the runway 's slope~ a positive
slope is shown (worst case). Additionally, thcrc is a retarding force (R) because
of friction between the wheel s and the runway. Thi s is devel oped below, where
µ,. is the rolling friction coefficient.

"'i,Fz = ma z = O
= W cos cp - L- N

For small cp , cos ~ 1, and

N~W- L

The retarding force then becomes

R ~ µrCW-L ) (3.22)

Typical values of µr range between 0.02 for a dry concrete runway to 0.3 for
very soft ground. Returning back to Fig. 3.8, we can apply Newton's 2nd law
in the x direction to obtain an expression for acceleration during the ground
roll.

r,pX = maX = -w w·sm cp - R

g aX = T - D -

Fig. 3.8 Forces during takeoff roll.

~
'1!1111,.
___. ~
 AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE 93
If we asswne cp is small, sin cp ~ cp , and

ax~ ~[T - D - Wcp - µy{W - L)] (3 .23)

To gain some further insight, assume for a minute that the runway slope is
zero. Additionally, ignore any thrust variation with velocity. Figure 3.9 shows
how the forces (with these assumptions) change during the takeoff roll.
Note the following:

1) Lift and drag start at zero. They both increase through the takeoff roll; both
forces are proportional to V2 .
2) W is constant during the takeoff roll (ignoring fuel consumption).
3) R decreases during the takeoff roll because the normal force, N, decreases
as lift increases. R is zero at liftoff (weight is equal to lift).
4) With our assumptions, the difference between thrust and [D + µy{W - L)]
is the net acceleration force (again, we have assumed W cp is zero ). This is a
direct indicator of acceleration capability.

Now, the essentials are in place to estímate takeoff roll. Again, we will take
two approaches. The easiest will be first.

3.4.3 Average Acceleration Method

If we assume acceleration is constant (denoted by a) during the takeoff roll,
Eq. (3 .21) can be integrated as shown:

1 Jv=vG 1 v2 ) vG
SG =-=- V dV = -=--
ª V=O a 2 O
(3.24)
1 Vl; _ Vl;
sG =-f2 - 2a

w
Force

T- (D + R)

v~
V<~

Fig. 3.9 Variation of forces during takeoff roll.

94 INTRODUCTION TO AIRCRAFT FLI GHT MECHANICS

hea~wi_nd will reduce Ve_ by ~he wi?d ~omponent parallel to the runway and
1:1-
m a similar manner, a tail wmd w1ll mcrease Ve . Thus, a headwind w·1¡¡
decrease Se and a tail wind will increase Se. This is why the runway direcf
for takeoff (and landing) is generally selected based on having a headw:º~
component. Equation (3.24) can be simply modified to account for a head nor
· wm
tail · d:

S _~V~ _ (VLOE :::¡= Vwind)2

e- a2 - 2a

The minus sign is used for a head wind component and the plus sign is used
for a tail wind component.
What value of acceleration do we use in Eq. (3.24)? In Sec. 3.4.2, we
derived an expression for acceleration [Eq. (3 .23)]. 1t is repeated next, however.
in terms of average values :

a=_[
w[Tavg - Davg - Wcp - µ,.(W - Lava~ )]

For this approach, we will assume thrust, aircraft weight, rolling friction coeffi-
cient, and runway slope are constant during the takeoff roll. To evaluate lift
and drag, we will use an average velocity, as derived next. Let

1 2
Davg = CD 2p vavgs
D = Ds=O + Ds=Sc
avg 2
1 2 Cn½PV}= 0 S+Cn½P V§=scS
Cn2 pVavgS = 2

Of course, for no wind conditions , Vs=o. Therefore

1
With a headwind or tailwind, Vavg could be adjusted slightly using t1 ~~
approach but it is normally not, because the average velocity of Eq. P-?)
using Vavg = VLOF/ J'2 provides sufficient accuracy for the average accekm~wn
met~~d. If en~ine thrust data are a~ailable, ~e shoul~ use the thr\1st ª~1.I\ÍÍ
31
Addit10nally, hft and drag are fun ct10ns of hft coeffic1ent CL. Agarn. \\ l " .
use an optima} value, called "C¿ ." To define this value, we wi.ll try tt) m:i\i-
mize a with respect to C¿. opl
 AIRCRAFT PERFORMANC E 95

Recalling that D_ = (Cn 0 + KCi)"qS, we Cé_ffi see that only the D avg and L avg
tem1s are a function of C¿. Takmg the part1al derivative, we then have:

and solving for CL

C¿ = µr = C¿ (3.26)
2K ºP'

As you can see, we have made severa! simplifying assumptions to estimate

an aircraft's ground roll. In the next section, we'll use a numerical approach to
achieve greater accuracy.

Example 3.5
Using the average acceleration method, find the max power takeoff ground
roll, with no wind and a zero runway slope, for a 12,000-lb T-38 at sea level
and 6000 ft given the following conditions:

S = 170 ft2 C¿max = 0.88 µr = 0.025 Cn = 0.02 K=0.2

We will first work the problem for sea level. Using Eq. (1.33), we determine
the stall speed.

2W 2 (1 2 ,000) = 259.6 ft/s

Vstall = pSC¿max (0.00238)(170)(0.88)

We next determine the lift-off velocity,

VLOF = 1.lVstall = 1.1(259.6) = 285.6 ft/s

and the average velocity [using Eq. (3.25)].

Vavg = 0.707[VLoF] = 0.707(285.6) = 201.9 ft/s

The average Mach number then becomes

- Vavg - 201.9 = 0.181

Mavg - ªsL - 1116.4

The T-38 sea-level thrust and drag chart at Max power and 0.181 Mach gives
us

Tavg ~ 6000 Jb
 96 INTRODUCTION TO AIRCRAFT FLIGHT MECHANICS

U sing Eq. (3 .26),

e = 12._ = o.025 = o.0625

L a pt 2K 2(0.2)

and

Cv
avg
= Cv + KCz = 0.02 + (0.2)(0.0625) 2 = 0.0208
O opt

The average dynamic pressure is

- _1
q avg -
2
2 p vavg = 21 (0.00238)(201.9) 2 = 48.5 psf
We next determine the average acceleration

a = ~ [Tavg - Davg - µ/W - Lavg)]

= 32 ·2 . [6000 - (0.0208)(48.5)(170)
12,000
- 0.025{12,000 - (0.0625)(48.5)(170)}]
a = 14.9 ft/s 2
and use Eq. (3.24) to calculate the ground roll with VG = VLoF for the no
wind case.

1 vJ vJ (285.6)
2
= 2737 ft
SGsL = ~2 2a
The same steps are used to calculate the ground roll at 6000 ft with appropriate
changes in air density, the speed of sound, and interpolation of the T-38 thrust
curves. Intermediate values for this analysis are:
2
VLoF = 312.6 ft/s Vavg = 220.8 ft/s Tavg ~ 5100 lb a = 12.5 ft/s
The ground roll at 6000 ft is

SG6ooo ft = 3909 ft
Notice the 42% increase in ground roll distance with the increase in altitude.
This results from a decrease in thrust and an increase in VLOF·

3.4.4 Numerical Method

The 1ast section discussed how to solve the takeoff distance problet11
sum ing that acceleration remains constant and can be defined at Vaverage
ª: --

. ._,_ __¿.