ME8594 Dynamics of Machines

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ME8594- DYNAMICS OF MACHINES III /V MECHANICAL ENGINEERING ME8594- DYNAMICS OF MACHINES III /V MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
2.7 BALANCING OF RECIPROCATING MASSES 66
S.NO TOPIC PAGE NO S.NO TOPIC PAGE NO
1.13.2 Turning Moment Diagram for a Four 32 2.7.1 Primary and secondary unbalanced forces of 67
Stroke Cycle Internal Combustion Engine reciprocating parts
2.8 BALANCING OF SINGLE CYLINDER ENGINE 68
1.13.3. Turning Moment Diagram for a Multi-cylinder Engine 33
2.9 BALANCING OF INERTIAL FORCES IN THE MULTI- 68
1.14 FLUCTUATION OF ENERGY 34 CYLINDER ENGINE
2.10 PARTIAL BALANCING OF LOCOMOTIVES 69
1.14.1 Determination of Maximum Fluctuation of Energy 34
2.10.1 Variation of Tractive force 69
1.14.2 Coefficient of Fluctuation of Energy 35
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2.10.2 Swaying Couple 70
1.15 FLYWHEEL 36 2.10.3 Hammer blow 71
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1.16 COEFFICIENT OF FLUCTUATION OF SPEED 37 2.11 BALANCING OF INLINE ENGINES 72

1.17 ENERGY STORED IN A FLYWHEEL 37 2.12 BALANCING OF RADIAL ENGINES 72
1.18 DIMENSIONS OF THE FLYWHEEL RIM 45 2.13 SOLVED PROBLEMS 73
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1.19 FLYWHEEL IN PUNCHING PRESS 50 2.14 REVIEW QUESTIONS 90

1.20 CAM DYNAMICS 55 2.15 TUTORIAL PROBLEMS 90
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1.21 REVIEW QUESTIONS 55 UNIT – 3 SINGLE DEGREE FREE VIBRATION

1.22 TUTORIAL PROBLEMS 55
3.1 INTRODUCTION 92
UNIT – 2 BALANCING 3.2 BASIC ELEMENTS OF VIBRATION SYSTEM 92
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2.1 INTRODUCTION 57
3.3 CAUSES OF VIBRATION 92
2.2 BALANCING OF ROTATING MASSES 57
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3.3.1 Effects of vibration 93

2.2.1 Static balancing: 57
3.4 METHODS OF REDUCTION OF VIBRATION. 93
2.2.2 Dynamic balancing: 57 3.5 TYPES OF VIBRATORY MOTION 93
2.2.3 Various cases of balancing of rotating masses 57 3.6 TERMS USED VIBRATORY MOTION 93
2.3 BALANCING OF A SINGLE ROTATING MASS BY 58 3.7 DEGREES OF FREEDOM 94
SINGLE MASS ROTATING IN THE SAME PLANE
2.4 BALANCING OF A SINGLE ROTATING MASS BY TWO 59 3.7.1 Single degree of freedom system 94
MASSES ROTATING IN THE DIFFERENT PLANE
2.5 BALANCING OF A SEVERAL MASSES ROTATING IN 62 3.7.2 Two degree of freedom system 94
SAME PLANE
2.6 BALANCING OF SEVERAL MASSES ROTATING 64 3.8 TYPES OF VIBRATORY MOTION 95
DIFFERENT PLANE
vi C.RAVINDIRAN-AP/MECH vii C.RAVINDIRAN-AP/MECH

3.9 NATURAL FREQUENCY OF FREE UNDAMPED 96 4.4 STEADY STATE RESPONSE DUE TO HARMONIC 122
LONGITUDINAL VIBRATION OSCILLATION
3.9.1 Eq u ilib riu m m et h od or Newt on € s met h od 96 4.5 FORCED VIBRATION WITH DAMPING 125
S.NO TOPIC PAGE NO 4.6 ROTATING UNBALANCE FORCED VIBRATION 127
3.9.2 Energy Method 99 S.NO TOPIC PAGE NO
3.9.3 Rayleigh€s method 100 4.7 VIBRATION ISOLATION AND TRANSMISSIBILITY 129
3.10 EQUIVALENT STIFFNESS OF SPRING 100 4.7.1 Vibration Isolators 129
3.11 DAMPING 101 4.8 RESPONSE WITHOUT DAMPING 130
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3.11.1 Types of damping 101 4.9 SOLVED PROBLEMS 131
3.11.2 Damping Coefficient 102 4.10 REVIEW QUESTIONS 143
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3.11.3 Equivalent damping coefficient 102 4.11 TUTORIAL PROBLEMS 143
3.12 DAMPED VIBRATION 102 UNIT -5 MECHANISMS FOR CONTROL
3.12.1 Damping factor 102 5.1 INTRODUCTION TO GOVERNOR 144

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3.12.2 Logarithmic decrement 103 5.2 PRINCIPLE OF WORKING 144
3.13 TRANSVERSE VIBRATION 104 5.3 CLASSIFICATION OF GOVERNORS 144

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3.13.1 Whirling speed of shaft 105 5.4 SENSITIVENESS 146
3.14 TORSIONAL VIBRATION 106 5.5 CHARACTERISTICS AND QUALITIES OF 146

CENTRIFUGAL GOVERNOR
3.14.1 Torsional vibration of a single rotor system 108 5.6 WATT GOVERNOR 146
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3.14.2 Torsional vibration of a two rotor system 109 5.7 PORTER GOVERNOR 149
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3.14.3 Torsionally equivalent shaft 110 5.8 PROELL GOVERNOR 150
3.15 SOLVED ROBLEMS 111 5.9 HARTNELL GOVERNOR 150
3.16 REVIEW QUESTIONS 120 5.10 HARTUNG GOVERNOR 150
3.17 TUTORIAL PROBLEMS 120 5.11 WILSON HARTNELL GOVERNOR 152
UNIT – 4 FORCED VIBRATION 5.12 PICKERING GOVERNOR 153
4.1 INTRODUCTION 121 5.13 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A FLYWHEEL AND A 153

GOVERNOR
4.2 CAUSES RESONANCE 121 5.14 GYROSCOPE AND ITS APPLICATIONS 154
4.3 FORCED VIBRATION OF A SINGLE DEGREE-OF- 122 5.15 E F F E C T OF T H E G Y R O S C O P I C C O U P L E O N A 156

FREEDOM SYSTEM N A E R O P L A NE
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ME8594- DYNAMICS OF MACHINES III /V MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
5.16 EFFECT OF GYROSCOPIC COUPLE 156
UNIT – I - FORCE ANALYSIS
5.17 EFFECT OF GYROSCOPIC COUPLE ON SHIP 156
1.1 INTRODUCTION
5.17.1 EFFEC T OF GYRO SC OP IC C OU P LE 157 The subject Dynamics of Machines may be defined as that branch of Engineering-science,
ON A NAVA L S H IP DU RIN G P IT C HIN G& which deals with the study of relative motion between the various parts of a machine, and forces
STEERING which act on them. The knowledge of this subject is very essential for an engineer in designing the
S.NO TOPIC PAGE NO various parts of a machine.
5.17.2 Effect of Gyro scop i c cou p le on a Naval S h i 158 A machine is a device which receives energy in some available form and utilises it to do
p d u ri n g Rolling some particular type of work.
5.18 EFFECTOFGYROSCOPICCOUPLEONA 159
4-WHEELDRIVE If the acceleration of moving links in a mechanism is running with considerable amount
5.19 SOLVED PROBLEMS 162 of linear and/or angular accelerations, inertia forces are generated and these inertia forces also
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must be overcome by the driving motor as an addition to the forces exerted by the external load
5.20 REVIEW QUESTIONS 172 or work the mechanism does.
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1.2 NEWT ON• S LAW :

5.21 TUTORIAL PROBLEMS 172 First Law
Everybody will persist in its state of rest or of uniform motion (constant velocity) in a
straight line unless it is compelled to change that state by forces impressed on it. This means that
in the absence of a non-zero net force, the center of mass of a body either is at rest or moves at a
constant velocity.
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Second Law
A body of mass m subject to a force F undergoes an acceleration a that has the same
direction as the force and a magnitude that is directly proportional to the force and inversely
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proportional to the mass, i.e., F = ma. Alternatively, the total force applied on a body is equal to
the time derivative of linear momentum of the body.
Third Law
The mutual forces of action and reaction between two bodies are equal, opposite and
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collinear. This means that whenever a first body exerts a force F on a second body, the second
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body exerts a force −F on the first body. F and −F are equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction. This law is sometimes referred to as the action-reaction law, with F called the "action"
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and −F the "reaction"

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1.3 TYPES OF FORCE ANALYSIS:
 Equilibrium of members with two forces

 Equilibrium of members with three forces
 Equilibrium of members with two forces and torque
 Equilibrium of members with two couples.
 Equilibrium of members with four forces.
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1.3.1 Principle of Super Position: upon the rigid body, brings it in equilib-rium position. It is equal to the
Sometimes the number of external forces and inertial forces acting accelerating couple in magni-tude but opposite in direction.
on a mechanism are too much for graphical solution. In this case we apply
the method of superposition. Using superposition the entire system is broken 1.4.1 D-Alembert•s Principle
up into (n) problems, where n is the number of forces, by considering the Consider a rigid body acted upon by a system of forces. The system may be
external and inertial forces of each link individually. Response of a linear reduced to a single resultant force acting on the body whose magnitude is given
system to several forces acting simultaneously is equal to the sum of by the product of the mass of the body and the linear acceleration of the centre of
responses of the system to the forces individually. This approach is useful mass of the body. According to Newtonƒs second law of motion,
because it can be performed by graphically. F = m.a
F = Resultant force acting on the body,
1.3.2 Free Body Diagram: m = Mass of the body, and
A free body diagram is a pictorial representation often used by = Linear acceleration of the centre of mass of the
physicists and engineers to analyze the forces acting on a body of interest. A a body.
free body diagram shows all forces of all types acting on this body. Drawing The equation (i) may also be written as:
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such a diagram can aid in solving for the unknown forces or the equations of F – m.a = 0
motion of the body. Creating a free body diagram can make it easier A little consideration will show, that if the quantity – m.a be treated as a force,
to understand the forces, and torques or moments, in relation to one another equal, opposite and with the same line of action as the resultant force F, and
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and suggest the proper concepts to apply in order to find the solution to a include this force with the system of forces of which F is the resultant, then the
problem. The diagrams are also used as a complete system of forces will be in equilibrium. This principle is known as D-
conceptual device to help identify the internal forces—for example, shear Alembert€s principle. The equal and opposite force – m.a is known as reversed
forces and bending moments in beams—which are developed within effective force or the inertia force (briefly written as FI). The equation (ii) may be
structures. written as
F + FI = 0...(iii)
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1.4 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF FOUR BAR MECHANISM:
Thus, D-Alembertƒs principle states that the resultant force acting on a
A four-bar linkage or simply a 4-bar or four-bar is the simplest
body together with the reversed effective force (or inertia force), are in
movable linkage. It consists of four rigid bodies (called bars or links), each
equilibrium.
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attached to two others by single joints or pivots to form closed loop. Four-
This principle is used to reduce a dynamic problem into an equivalent static
bars are simple mechanisms common in mechanical engineering machine
problem.
design and fall under the study of kinematics.
1.4.2 Velocity and Acceleration of the Reciprocating Parts in Engines
 Dynamic Analysis of Reciprocating engines. The velocity and acceleration of the reciprocating parts of the steam engine
 Inertia force and torque analysis by neglecting weight of connecting rod. or internal combustion engine (briefly called as I.C. engine) may be determined
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 elocity
V and acceleration of piston. by graphical method or analytical method. The velocity and acceleration, by
 ngular
A velocity and Angular acceleration of connecting rod. graphical method, may be determined by one of the following constructions:
 Force and Torque Analysis in reciprocating engine neglecting the 1. Klienƒs construction, 2. Ritterhausƒs construction, and 3. Bennettƒs
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weight of connecting rod. construction.
 Equivalent Dynamical System We shall now discuss these constructions, in detail, in the following pages.
 etermination
D of two masses of equivalent dynamical system
1.5 KLIEN•S CONSTRUCTION
The inertia force is an imaginary force, which when acts upon a rigid Let OC be the crank and PC the connecting rod of a reciprocating steam
body, brings it in an equilibrium position. It is numerically equal to the engine, as shown in Fig. 15.2 (a). Let the crank makes an angle θ with the line of
accelerating force in magnitude, but opposite in direction. Mathematically, stroke PO and rotates with uniform angular velocity ω rad/s in a clockwise
direction. The Klienƒs velocity and acceleration diagrams are drawn as discussed
Inertia force = – Accelerating force = – m.a below:
where m = Mass of the body, and
a = Linear acceleration of the centre of gravity of the body.
Similarly, the inertia torque is an imaginary torque, which when applied
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This forms the quadrilateral CQNO, which is known as Klien’s acceleration

diagram.
We have already discussed that the acceleration diagram for the given
configuration is as shown in Fig. 15. 2 (c). We know that
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(i) o'c' represents a (i.e. radial component of the acceleration of crank pin C with respect
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to O ) and is parallel to CO;
(ii) c'x represents aPCr (i.e. radial component of the acceleration of crosshead or piston P
with respect to crank pin C) and is parallel to CP or CQ;
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(iii) xp' represents a (i.e. tangential component of the acceleration of P with respect to C )
PC
and is parallel to QN (because QN is perpendicular to CQ); and
(a) Klienƒs acceleration diagram. (b) Velocity diagram. (c) (iv) o'p' represents aPO (i.e. acceleration of P with respect to O or the acceleration of piston
Acceleration diagram. P) and is parallel to PO or NO.
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Fig. 15.2. Klienƒs construction. A little consideration will show that the quadrilateral o'c'x p' [Fig. 15.2 (c)] is similar to
quadrilateral CQNO [Fig. 15.2 (a)]. Therefore,
1.5.1 Klien•s velocity diagram o′c′ c′x xp′ o′p′
 ω 2 (a constant)
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  
OC CQ QN NO
First of all, draw OM perpendicular to OP; such that it intersects the line
PC produced at M. The triangle OCM is known as Klien€s velocity diagram. In
this triangle OCM,
OM may be regarded as a line perpendicular to PO,
CM may be regarded as a line parallel to PC, and ...(Q It is the same
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line.)
CO may be regarded as a line parallel to CO.
We have already discussed that the velocity diagram for given configuration is a
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triangle ocp as shown in Fig. 15.2 (b). If this triangle is revolved through 90°, it
will be a triangle oc1 p1, in which oc1 represents vCO (i.e. velocity of C with
respect to O or velocity of crank pin C) and is paralel to OC,
op1 represents vPO (i.e. velocity of P with respect to O or velocity of cross-
head or piston P) and is perpendicular to OP, and
c1p1 represents vPC (i.e. velocity of P with respect to C) and is parallel to
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CP.
A little consideration will show, that the triangles oc1p1 and OCM are
similar. Therefore,
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oc1  op1  c1 p1 ω (a constant)

OC OM CM
v v v
CO PO PC
or   ω
OC OM CM
∴ vCO = ω × OC ; vPO = ω × OM, and vPC = ω × CM
Thus, we see that by drawing the Klien’s velocity diagram, the velocities of
various points may be obtained without drawing a separate velocity diagram.
1.5.2 Klien’s acceleration diagram

The Klien’s acceleration dia-gram is drawn as discussed below:
1. First of all, draw a circle with C as centre and CM as radius.
2. Draw another circle with PC as diameter. Let this circle inter-
sect the previous circle at K and L.
3. Join KL and produce it to intersect PO at N. Let KL intersect PC at Q.

1.6 SOLVED PROBLEMS

1. The crank and connecting rod of a reciprocating engine are 200 mm and 700 mm
respectively. The crank is rotating in clockwise direction at 120 rad/s. Find with the help of
Klein’s construction: 1. Velocity and acceleration of the piston, 2. Velocity and acceleration of
the mid point of the connecting rod, and 3. Angular velocity and angular acceleration of the
connecting rod, at the instant when the crank is at 30° to I.D.C. (inner dead centre).
Solution. Given: OC = 200 mm = 0.2 m ; PC = 700 mm = 0.7 m ; ω = 120 rad/s
1.7 APPROXIMATE ANALYTICAL METHOD FOR VELOCITY AND
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ACCELERATION OF THE PISTON
Consider the motion of a crank and connecting rod of a reciprocating steam engine as
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shown in Fig. 15.7. Let OC be the crank and PC the connecting rod. Let the crank rotates with
angular velocity of ω rad/s and the crank turns through an angle θ from the inner dead centre
(briefly written as I.D.C). Let x be the displacement of a reciprocating body P from I.D.C. after
time t seconds, during which the crank has turned through an angle θ .
Fig. 15.5
The Klein’s velocity diagram OCM and Klein’s acceleration diagram CQNO as shown in
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Fig. 15.5 is drawn to some suitable scale, in the similar way as discussed in Art. 15.5. By
measurement, we find that
OM = 127 mm = 0.127 m ; CM = 173 mm = 0.173 m ; QN = 93 mm = 0.093 m ; NO =
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200 mm
= 0.2 m Fig. 15.7. Motion of a crank and connecting rod of a reciprocating steam engine.
1. Velocity and acceleration of the piston Let l = Length of connecting rod between the centres,
We know that the velocity of the piston P, r = Radius of crank or crank pin circle,
vP = ω × OM = 120 × 0.127 = 15.24 m/s Ans. and
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φ = Inclination of connecting rod to the line of stroke PO, and
acceleration of the piston P,
n = Ratio of length of connecting rod to the radius of crank = l/r.
aP = ω 2 × NO = (120)2 × 0.2 = 2880 m/s 2 Ans.
Velocity of the piston
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2. Velocity and acceleration of the mid-point of the connecting rod
In order to find the velocity of the mid-point D of the connecting rod, divide CM at D1 in
the same ratio as D divides CP. Since D is the mid-point of CP, therefore D1 is the mid-point of
CM, i.e. CD1 = D1M. Join OD1. By measurement,
OD1 = 140 mm = 0.14 m
 Velocity of D, vD = ω × OD1 = 120 × 0.14 = 16.8 m/s Ans.
In order to find the acceleration of the mid-point of the connecting rod, draw a line DD2
parallel to the line of stroke PO which intersects CN at D2. By measurement,
OD2 = 193 mm = 0.193 m
∴ Acceleration of D,
aD = ω 2 × OD2 = (120)2 × 0.193 = 2779.2 m/s 2 Ans.
3. Angular velocity and angular acceleration of the connecting rod
We know that the velocity of the connecting rod PC (i.e. velocity of P with respect to
C), vPC = ω × CM = 120 × 0.173 = 20.76 m/s

1.8 ANGULAR VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION OF THE CONNECTING ROD

Consider the motion of a connecting rod and a crank as shown in Fig. 15.7.From the
geometry of the figure, we find that
CQ = l sin φ = r sin θ
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Acceleration of the piston

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Since the acceleration is the rate of change of velocity, therefore acceleration of the piston
P,

1.9 FORCES ON THE RECIPROCATING PARTS OF AN ENGINE,

NEGLECTING THE WEIGHT OF THE CONNECTING ROD
The various forces acting on the reciprocating parts of a horizontal engine are shown in
Fig. 15.8. The expressions for these forces, neglecting the weight of the connecting rod, may be
derived as discussed below :
1. Piston effort. It is the net force acting on the piston or crosshead pin, along the line of
stroke. It is denoted by FP in Fig. 15.8.
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The negative sign shows that the sense of the acceleration of the connecting rod is such
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that it tends to reduce the angle φ..
2.In a slider crank mechanism, the length of the crank and connecting rod are 150 mm
and 600 mm respectively. The crank position is 60° from inner dead centre. The crank shaft
speed is 450 r.p.m. (clockwise). Using analytical method, determine: 1. Velocity and
acceleration of the slider, and 2. Angular velocity and angular acceleration of the connecting Fig. 15.8. Forces on the reciprocating parts of an engine.
rod. mR Mass of the reciprocating parts, e.g. piston, crosshead pin
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Solution. Given : r = 150 mm = 0.15 m ; l = 600 mm = 0.6 m ; θ = 60°; N = 400 r.p.m or Let = or
ω = π × 450/60 = 47.13 rad/s gudgeon pin etc., in kg,
1. Velocity and acceleration of the slider and
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We know that ratio of the length of connecting rod and crank, n = WR = Weight of the reciprocating parts in newtons = mR.g
We know that acceleration of the
l / r = 0.6 / 0.15 = 4 reciprocating parts,
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Accelerating force or inertia force of the reciprocating parts,
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It may be noted that in a horizontal engine, the reciprocating parts are accelerated from
rest, during the latter half of the stroke (i.e. when the piston moves from inner dead centre to
outer dead centre). It is, then, retarded during the latter half of the stroke (i.e. when the piston
moves from outer dead centre to inner dead centre). The inertia force due to the acceleration of
the reciprocating parts, opposes the force on the piston due to the difference of pressures in the
cylinder on the two sides of the piston. On the other
hand, the inertia force due to retardation of the reciprocating parts, helps the force on the piston.

5. Crank effort or turning moment or torque on the crank shaft. The product of the
crank-pin effort (FT) and the crank pin radius (r) is known as crank effort or turning moment or
torque on the crank shaft. Mathematically,
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2. Force acting along the connecting rod. It is denoted by FQ in Fig. 15.8. From the
geom-etry of the figure, we find that
FP
FQ cosφ
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3. Thrust on the sides of the cylinder walls or normal reaction on the guide bars. It is
denoted by FN in Fig. 15.8. From the figure, we find that
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4. Crank-pin effort and thrust on crank shaft bearings. The force acting on the
connecting rod FQ may be resolved into two components, one perpendicular to the crank and the
other along the crank. The component of FQ perpendicular to the crank is known as crank-pin 3. The crank-pin circle radius of a horizontal engine is 300 mm. The mass of the
effort and it is denoted by FT in Fig. 15.8. The component of FQ along the crank produces a reciprocating parts is 250 kg. When the crank has travelled 60° from I.D.C., the
thrust on the crank shaft bearings and it is denoted by FB in Fig. 15.8. difference between the driving and the back pressures is 0.35 N/mm 2. The connecting rod
Resolving FQ perpendicular to the crank, length between centres is 1.2 m and the cylinder bore is 0.5 m. If the engine runs at 250
r.p.m. and if the effect of piston rod diameter is neglected, calculate : 1. pressure on slide
bars, 2. thrust in the connecting rod, 3. tangential force on the crank-pin, and 4. turning
moment on the crank shaft.
Solution. Given: r = 300 mm = 0.3 m ; mR = 250 kg; θ = 60°; p1 – p2 = 0.35 N/mm2; l =

1.2 m ; D = 0.5 m = 500 mm ; N = 250 r.p.m. or ω = 2 π × 250/60 = 26.2 rad/s 4. The crank and connecting rod of a petrol engine, running at 1800 r.p.m.are 50 mm and
200 mm respectively. The diameter of the piston is 80 mm and the mass of the reciprocat-ing
parts is 1 kg. At a point during the power stroke, the pressure on the piston is 0.7 N/mm 2, when it
First of all, let us find out the piston effort (FP). has moved 10 mm from the inner dead centre. Determine : 1. Net load on the gudgeon pin, 2.
Thrust in the connecting rod, 3. Reaction between the piston and cylinder, and 4. The engine
We know that net load on the piston, speed at which the above values become zero.
Solution. Given : N = 1800 r.p.m. or ω = 2π × 1800/60 = 188.52 rad/s ; r = 50 mm = 0.05
m; l = 200 mm ; D = 80 mm ; mR = 1 kg ; p = 0.7 N/mm2 ; x = 10 mm
1. Net load on the gudgeon pin
We know that load on the
piston,
P
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When the piston has moved 10 mm from the inner dead centre, i.e. when P1P = 10 mm,
the crank rotates from OC1 to OC through an angle θ as shown in Fig. 15.10.
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By measurement, we find that *θ = 33°.
We know that ratio of lengths of connecting rod and crank,
1. Pressure on slide bars
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n = l/r = 200 /50 = 4
Let φ = Angle of inclination of the connecting rod to the line of stroke. and inertia force on the reciprocating
We know parts,
that, sin φ  sin θ  sin 60  0.866  0.2165
n 4 4
∴ φ = 12.5°
We know that pressure on the slide bars,
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FN = FP tan φ = 49.424 × tan 12.5° = 10.96 kN Ans.
2. Thrust in the connecting rod
We know that thrust in the connecting rod,
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F
F  P
 49.424  50.62 kN Ans.
Q
cos φ cos 12.5
3. Tangential force on the crank-pin 2. Thrust in the connecting rod
We know that tangential force on the crank pin,
FT  FQ sin ( θ  φ ) 50.62 sin (60 12.5 ) 48.28 kN Ans.
4. Turning moment on the crank shaft
We know that turning moment on the crank shaft,
T  FT  r  48.28 0.3 14.484 kN-m Ans.

We know that thrust in the connecting rod, We know that for a vertical engine, net force on the piston,
FP 1849  1866.3N Ans.
FP  FL − FI  WR  FL − FI  mR .g
F  
Q  5500 − 3254  1.1  9.81 2256.8 N Ans.
cos φ cos 7.82
3. Reaction between the piston and cylinder 2. Resultant load on the gudgeon pin
We know that reaction between the piston and cylinder, Let φ = Angle of inclination of the connecting rod to the line of stroke.
FN  FP tan φ  1849 tan 7.82 254 N Ans. We know that,
sin φ = sin θ / n = sin 20°/4.17 = 0.082
4. Engine speed at which the above values will become zero ∴ φ = 4.7°
A little consideration will show that the above values will become zero, if the inertia force
on the reciprocating parts (FI) is equal to the load on the piston (FL). Let ω 1 be the speed in We know that resultant load on the gudgeon pin,
rad/s, at which FI = FL .
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3. Thrust on the cylinder walls

We know that thrust on the cylinder walls,
FN  FP tan φ  2256.8 tan 4.7  185.5 N Ans.

4. Speed, above which, the gudgeon pin load would be reversed in direction
Let N1 = Required speed, in r.p.m.
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The gudgeon pin load i.e. FQ will be reversed in direction, if FQ becomes negative. This is
5. A vertical petrol engine 100 mm diameter and 120 mm stroke has a connecting rod 250 only possible when FP is negative. Therefore, for FP to be negative, FI must be greater than (FL +
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mm long. The mass of the piston is 1.1 kg. The speed is 2000 r.p.m. On the W R),
expansion stroke with a crank 20° from top dead centre, the gas pressure is 700 kN/m 2.
Determine:
1. Net force on the piston, 2. Resultant load on the gudgeon pin,
3. Thrust on the cylinder walls, and 4. Speed above which, other things re-
maining same, the gudgeon pin load would be reversed in direction.
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Solution. Given: D = 100 mm = 0.1 m ; L = 120 mm = 0.12 m or

r = L/2 = 0.06 m ; l = 250 mm = 0.25 m ; mR = 1.1 kg ; N = 2000 r.p.m. or
ω = 2 π × 2000/60 = 209.5 rad/s ; θ = 20°; p = 700 kN/m2
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1. Net force on the piston

The configuration diagram of a vertical engine is shown in Fig. 15.11.
We know that force due to gas pressure,
6. A horizontal steam engine running at 120 r.p.m. has a bore of 250 mm and a stroke of
400 mm. The connecting rod is 0.6 m and mass of the reciprocating parts is 60 kg. When the
crank has turned through an angle of 45° from the inner dead centre, the steam pressure on the
cover end side is 550 kN/m2 and that on the crank end side is 70 kN/m 2. Considering the
diameter of the piston rod equal to 50 mm, determine:
1. turning moment on the crank shaft, 2. thrust on the bearings, and 3. acceleration of the
flywheel, if the power of the engine is 20 kW, mass of the flywheel 60 kg and radius of gyration
0.6 m.

Solution. Given : N = 120 r.p.m. or ω = 2π × 120/60 = 12.57 rad/s ; D = 250 mm = 0.25 I = m.k2 = 60 × (0.6) 2 = 21.6 kg-m2
m; ∴ Accelerating torque, TA = I.α = 21.6 α N-m ...(i)
L = 400 mm = 0.4 m or r = L/2 = 0.2 m ; l = 0.6 m ; mR = 60 kg ; θ = 45° ; d = 50 mm = 0.05 m ;
p1 = 550 kN/m2 = 550 × 10 3 N/m2 ; p2 = 70 kN/m2 = 70 × 10 3 N/m2
1. Turning moment on the crankshaft
First of all, let us find the net load on the piston (FP).
We know that area of the piston on the cover end side,
1.10 EQUIVALENT DYNAMICAL SYSTEM
P
In order to determine the motion of a rigid body, under the action of external forces, it is
usually convenient to replace the rigid body by two masses placed at a fixed distance apart, in
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AP
such a way that,
1. the sum of their masses is equal to the total mass of the body ;
2. the centre of gravity of the two masses coincides with that of the body ; and
3. the sum of mass moment of inertia of the masses about their centre of gravity is equal
to the mass moment of inertia of the body.
When these three conditions are satisfied, then it is said to be an equivalent dynamical
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system. Consider a rigid body, having its centre of gravity at G, as shown in Fig. 15.14.
Let m = Mass of the body,
k G = Radius of gyration about its centre of gravity G,
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m 1 and m 2 = Two masses which form a dynamical equivalent system,
l1 = Distance of mass m 1 from G,
l2 = Distance of mass m 2 from G,
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2. Thrust on the bearings
We know that thrust on the bearings,
3. Acceleration of the flywheel

Given: P = 20 kW = 20 × 10 3 W; m = 60 kg ; k = 0.6 m
Let α = Acceleration of the flywheel in rad/s2.
We know that mass moment of inertia of the flywheel,

This equation gives the essential condition of placing the two masses, so that the 1.11 CORRECTION COUPLE TO BE APPLIED TO MAKE TWO MASS
system becomes dynamical equivalent. The distance of one of the masses (i.e. either l1 or SYSTEM DYNAMICALLY EQUIVALENT
l2) is arbitrary chosen and the other distance is obtained from equation (vi).
In Art. 15.11, we have discussed the conditions for equivalent dynamical system of two
7 A connecting rod is suspended from a point 25 mm above the centre of small bodies. A little consideration will show that when two masses are placed arbitrarily*, then
end, and 650 mm above its centre of gravity, its mass being 37.5 kg. When permitted to the conditions (i) and (ii) as given in Art. 15.11 will only be satisfied. But the condition (iii)
oscillate, the time period is found to be 1.87 seconds. Find the dynamical equivalent system is not possible to satisfy. This means that the mass moment of inertia of these two masses
constituted of two masses, one of which is located at the small end centre. placed arbitrarily, will differ than that of mass moment of inertia of the rigid body.
Solution. Given : h = 650 mm = 0.65 m ; l1 = 650 – 25 = 625 mm
= 0.625 m ; m = 37.5 kg ; tp = 1.87 s
First of all, let us find the radius of gyration (k G) of the connecting rod (considering it is a
compound pendulum), about an axis passing through its centre of gravity, G.
P
P
We know that for a compound pendulum, time period of oscillation (tp),
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Fig. 15.21. Correction couple to be applied to make the two-mass system dynamically
equivalent.
Consider two masses, one at A and the other at D be placed arbitrarily, as shown in Fig.
15.21. Let l3 = Distance of mass placed at D from G,
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I1 = New mass moment of inertia of the two masses;

k1 = New radius of gyration;
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 = Angular acceleration of the body;

It is given that one of the masses is located at the small end centre. Let the other mass
is located at a distance l2 from the centre of gravity G, as shown in Fig. 15.19. We know that, for I = Mass moment of inertia of a dynamically equivalent system;
a dynamically equivalent system, kG = Radius of gyration of a dynamically equivalent system. We know
l1.l2 = (k G)2 that the torque required to accelerate the body,
T = I. = m (kG)2  ...(i)
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Similarly, the torque required to accelerate the two-mass system placed arbitrarily,
T1 = I1. = m (k 1)2  ...(ii)
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 Difference between the torques required to accelerate the two-mass system and the
torque required to accelerate the rigid body,
T' = T 1–T = m (k1)2  – m (kG)2  = m [(k1)2 – (k G)2]  ...(iii)
The difference of the torques T' is known as correction couple. This couple must be
applied, when the masses are placed arbitrarily to make the system dynamical equivalent. This,
of course, will satisfy the condition (iii)
8.A connecting rod of an I.C. engine has a mass of 2 kg and the distance between
the centre of gudgeon pin and centre of crank pin is 250 mm. The C.G. falls at a point 100 m m
from the gudgeon pin along the line of centres. The radius of gyration about an axis through
the C.G. perpendicular to the plane of rotation is 110 mm. Find the equivalent dynamical
system if only one of the masses is located at gudgeon pin.

If the connecting rod is replaced by two masses, one at the gudgeon pin and the
other at the crank pin and the angular acceleration of the rod is 23 000 rad/s2 clockwise,
determine the correction couple applied to the system to reduce it to a dynamically
equivalent system.
Solution. Given : m = 2 kg ; l = 250 mm = 0.25 m ; l1 = 100 mm = 0.1m ; kG = 110 mm = 0.11 m ;
 = 23 000 rad/s2
Equivalent dynamical system
It is given that one of the masses is located at the gudgeon pin. Let the other mass be
located at a distance l2 from the centre of gravity. We know that for an equivalent
dynamical system.
P
AP
AP
Fig. 15.22. Inertia forces is reciprocating engine, considering the weight of connecting
rod.
2. Replace the connecting rod by dynamically equivalent system of two masses as
discussed in Art. 15.12. Let one of the masses be arbitrarily placed at P. To obtain the
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position of the other mass, draw GZ perpendicular to CP such that GZ = k, the radius of
gyration of the connecting rod. Join PZ and from Z draw perpendicular to DZ which
Correction couple intersects CP at D. Now, D is the position of the second mass.
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CO
Since the connecting rod is replaced by two masses located at the two centres (i.e. Note: The position of the second mass may also be obtained from the equation,
one at the gudgeon pin and the other at the crank pin), therefore, GP × GD = k2
3. Locate the points G and D on NC which is the acceleration image of the
l = 0.1 m, and l3 = l – l1 = 0.25 – 0.1 = 0.15 m connecting rod. This is done by drawing parallel lines from G and D to the line of stroke
Let k1 = New radius of gyration. PO. Let these parallel lines intersect NC at g and d respectively. Join gO and dO. Therefore,
acceleration of G with respect to O, in the direction from g to O,
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We know that (k1)2= l1.l3 = 0.1 × 0.15 = 0.015 m2
aGO = aG = 2 × gO
 Correction couple, and acceleration of D with respect to O, in the direction from d to O,
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aDO = aD = 2 × dO
1.12 INERTIA FORCES IN A RECIPROCATING ENGINE, CONSIDERING THE 4. From D, draw DE parallel to dO which intersects the line of stroke PO at E. Since the
WEIGHT OFCONNECTING ROD accelerating forces on the masses at P and D intersect at E, therefore their resultant must
also pass through E. But their resultant is equal to the accelerang force on the rod, so that
In a reciprocating engine, let OC be the crank and PC, the connecting rod whose the line of action of the accelerating force on the rod, is given by a line drawn through E
centre of gravity lies at G. The inertia forces in a reciprocating engine may be obtained and parallel to gO, in the direction from g to O. The inertia force of the connecting rod
graphically as discussed below: FC therefore acts through E and in the opposite direction as shown in Fig. 15.22. The
inertia force of the connecting rod is given by
1. First of all, draw the acceleration diagram OCQN by Klienƒs construction. We
know that the acceleration of the piston P with respect to O, FC = m C × 2 × gO ...(i)
where mC = Mass of the connecting rod.
aPO = aP = 2 × NO,
A little consideration will show that the forces acting on the connecting rod are :
acting in the direction from N to O. Therefore, the inertia force FI of the reciprocating parts
will act in the opposite direction as shown in Fig. 15.22. (a) Inertia force of the reciprocating parts (FI ) acting along the line of stroke PO,
(b) The side thrust between the crosshead and the guide bars (FN) acting at P and

right angles to line of stroke PO,

(c) The weight of the connecting rod
(W C = m C.g),
(d) Inertia force of the connecting rod (FC),
(e) The radial force (FR) acting through O and parallel to the crank OC,
(f) The force (FT) acting perpendicular to the crank OC.
Now, produce the lines of action of FR and FN to intersect at a point I, known as instantaneous
centre. From I draw I X and I Y , perpendicular to the lines of action of FC and W C. Taking
moments about I, we have
FT × IC = FI × IP + FC × I X + W C × I Y ...(ii)
P
P
The value of FT may be obtained from this equation and from the force polygon as
shown in Fig. 15.22, the forces FN and FR may be calculated. We know that, torque exerted
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on the crankshaft to overcome the inertia of the moving parts = FT × OC

1.12.1 Analytical Method for Inertia Torque
The effect of the inertia of the connecting rod on the crankshaft torque may be
obtained as discussed in the following steps:
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CO
CO
4. In deriving the equation (ii) of the torque exerted on the crankshaft, it is

assumed that one of the two masses is placed at C and the other at P. This assumption does
Fig. 15.23. Analytical method for inertia torque. not satisfy the condition for kinetically equivalent system of a rigid bar. Hence to
1. The mass of the connecting rod (m C) is divided into two masses. One of the mass compensate for it, a correcting torque is necessary whose value is given by
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is placed at the crosshead pin P and the other at the crankpin C as shown in Fig. 15.23, so
that the centre of gravity of these two masses coincides with the centre of gravity of the rod
G.
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2. Since the inertia force due to the mass at C acts radially outwards along the crank
OC, therefore the mass at C has no effect on the crankshaft torque.
3. The inertia force of the mass at P may be obtained as
follows: Let mC = Mass of the
connecting rod,
l = Length of the connecting rod,
l1 = Length of the centre of gravity of the connecting rod from P.
The correcting torque T' may be applied to the system by two equal and opposite
forces FYacting through P and C. Therefore,

9. The crank and connecting rod lengths of an engine are 125 mm and 500 mm
respectively. The mass of the connecting rod is 60 kg and its centre of gravity is 275 mm
from the crosshead pin centre, the radius of gyration about centre of gravity being 150
mm.
If the engine speed is 600 r.p.m. for a crank position of 45° from the inner dead
centre, determine, using Klien•s or any other construction 1. the acceleration of the
piston; 2. the magnitude, position and direction of inertia force due to the mass of the
connecting rod.
Solution. Given : r = OC = 125 mm ; l = PC = 500 mm; m C = 60 kg ; PG = 275
mm ;
m C = 60 kg ; PG = 275 mm ; k G = 150 mm ; N = 600 r.p.m. or  = 2 × 600/60 = 62.84 rad/s ;
 = 45°
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1. Acceleration of the piston
Let aP = Acceleration of the piston.
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First of all, draw the configuration diagram OCP, as shown in Fig. 15.24, to some
suitable scale, such that
OC = r = 125 mm ; PC = l = 500 mm ; and  = 45°.
Now, draw the Klienƒs acceleration diagram OCQN, as shown in Fig. 15.24, in the
same manner as already discussed. By measurement,
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NO = 90 mm = 0.09 m
 Acceleration of the piston,
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aP = 2 × NO = (62.84)2 × 0.09 = 355.4 m/s Ans.
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6. The total torque exerted on the crankshaft due to the inertia of the moving parts is the algebraic
sum of T I , T C and T W.
Fig. 15.24
2. The magnitude, position and direction of inertia force due to the mass of the
connecting rod
The magnitude, postition and direction of the inertia force may be obtained as follows:

(i) Replace the connecting rod by dynamical equivalent system of two masses,
assuming that one of the masses is placed at P and the other mass at D. The position of the
point D is obtained as discussed in Art. 15.12.
(ii) Locate the points G and D on NC which is the acceleration image of the
connecting rod. Let these points are g and d on NC. Join gO and dO. By measurement,
gO = 103 mm = 0.103 m
 Acceleration of G, aG = 2 × gO, acting in the direction from g to O.
(iii) From point D, draw DE parallel to dO. Now E is the point through which the
inertia force of the connecting rod passes. The magnitude of the inertia force of the
connecting rod is given by
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P
FC = m C × 2 × gO = 60 × (62.84)2 × 0.103 = 24 400 N = 24.4
kN Ans. (iv) From point E, draw a line parallel to gO, which shows the position of the
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inertia force of
the connecting rod and acts in the opposite direction of gO.
10. The following data refer to a steam engine:
Diameter of piston = 240 mm; stroke = 600 mm ; length of connecting rod = 1.5 m ; Fig. 15.25
mass of reciprocating parts = 300 kg; mass of connecting rod = 250 kg; speed = 125 r.p.m ; Now draw the Klienƒs acceleration diagram OCQN, as shown in Fig. 15.25, and
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centre of gravity of connecting rod from crank pin = 500 mm ; radius of gyration of the complete the figure in the similar manner as discussed in Art. 15.14.
connecting rod about an axis through the centre of gravity = 650 mm. By measurement; NO = 0.28 m ; gO = 0.28 m ; IP = 1.03 m ; I X = 0.38 m ; I Y =
Determine the magnitude and direction of the torque exerted on the crankshaft 0.98 m, and IC = 1.7 m.
CO
CO
when the crank has turned through 30° from inner dead centre. We know that inertia force of reciprocating parts,
Solution. Given : D = 240 mm = 0.24 m ; L = 600 mm or r = L/2 = 300 mm =
0.3 m ; l = 1.5 m ; m R = 300 kg ; mC = 250 kg ; N = 125 r.p.m. or  = 2 ×
125/60 = 13.1 rad/s ; GC = 500 mm = 0.5 m ; kG = 650 mm = 0.65 m ;  = 30°
The inertia torque on the crankshaft may be determined by graphical method or
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analytical method as discussed below:

1. Graphical method
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First of all, draw the configuration diagram OCP, as shown in Fig. 15.25, to some
suitable scale, such that
OC = r = 300 mm ; PC = l = 1.5 m ; and angle POC =  = 30°.

11. The connecting rod of an internal combustion engine is 225 mm long and has a
mass 1.6 kg. The mass of the piston and gudgeon pin is 2.4 kg and the stroke is 150 mm.
The cylinder bore is 112.5 mm. The centre of gravity of the connection rod is 150 mm from
the small end. Its radius of gyration about the centre of gravity for oscillations in the plane
of swing of the connecting rod is 87.5 mm. Determine the magnitude and direction of the
resultant force on the crank pin when the crank is at 40° and the piston is moving away
from inner dead centre under an effective gas presure of 1.8 MN/m2. The engine speed is
1200 r.p.m.
Solution. Given : l = PC = 225 mm = 0.225 m; m C = 1.6 kg; m R = 2.4 kg; L =
150 mm or r = L/2 = 75 mm = 0.075 m ; D = 112.5 mm = 0.1125 m ; PG = 150 mm ; k G =
87.5 mm = 0.0875 m ;  = 40° ; p = 1.8 MN/m2 = 1.8 × 106 N/m2 ; N = 1200 r.p.m. or  =
2 × 1200/60 = 125.7 rad/s Let us now find the values of FN and FR in magnitude and direction. Draw the force
polygon as shown in Fig. 15.25.
P
First of all, draw the configuration diagram OCP, as shown in Fig. 15.27 to some
suitable scale, such that OC = r = 75 mm ; PC = l = 225 mm ; and  = 40°. By measurement, FN = 3550 N; and FR = 7550 N
The magnitude and direction of the resultant force on the crank pin is given by FQ , which
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is the resultant of FR and FT.
By measurement, FQ = 13 750 N Ans.
1.13 TURNING MOMENT DIAGRAM
The turning moment diagram (also known as crank-effort diagram) is the graphical
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representation of the turning moment or crank-effort for various positions of the crank. It is
plotted on cartesian co-ordinates, in which the turning moment is taken as the ordinate and crank
angle as abscissa
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1.13.1 Turning Moment Diagram for a Single Cylinder Double Acting Steam Engine
A turning moment diagram for a single cylinder double acting steam engine is shown in
Fig. 16.1. The vertical ordinate represents the turning moment and the horizontal ordinate
represents the crank angle.
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We have discussed in Chapter 15 (Art. 15.10.) that the turning moment on the crankshaft,
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Fig. 15.27
Now, draw the Klienƒs acceleration diagram OCQN. Complete the diagram in the same
manner as discussed earlier. By measurement,
NO = 0.0625 m ; gO = 0.0685 m ; IC = 0.29 m ; IP = 0.24 m ; I Y = 0.148 m ; and IX =
0.08 m
We know that force due to gas pressure,

P
P
Fig. 16.2. Turning moment diagram for a four stroke cycle internal combustion engine.
AP
AP
From the above expression, we see that the turning moment (T ) is zero, when the crank angle (θ ) is zero. It Since the pressure inside the engine cylinder is less than the atmospheric pressure during
the suction stroke, therefore a negative loop is formed as shown in Fig. 16.2. During the
compression stroke, the work is done on the gases, therefore a higher negative loop is obtained.
During the expansion or working stroke, the fuel burns and the gases expand, therefore a large
positive loop is obtained. In this stroke, the work is done by the gases. During exhaust stroke, the
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work is done on the gases, therefore a negative loop is formed. It may be noted that the effect of
is maximum when the crank angle is 90° and it is again zero when crank angle is 180°. the inertia forces on the piston is taken into account in Fig. 16.2.
This is shown by the curve abc in Fig. 16.1 and it represents the turning moment diagram
1.13.3. Turning Moment Diagram for a Multi-cylinder Engine
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for outstroke. The curve cde is the turning moment diagram for instroke and is somewhat similar
to the curve abc. A separate turning moment diagram for a compound steam engine having three cylinders
Since the work done is the product of the turning moment and the angle turned, therefore and the resultant turning moment diagram is shown in Fig. 16.3. The resultant turning moment
the area of the turning moment diagram represents the work done per revolution. In actual diagram is the sum of the turning moment diagrams for the three cylinders. It may be noted that
practice, the engine is assumed to work against the mean resisting torque, as shown by a the first cylinder is the high pressure cylinder, second cylinder is the intermediate cylinder and
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horizontal line AF. The height of the ordinate a A represents the mean height of the turning the third cylinder is the low pressure cylinder. The cranks, in case of three cylinders, are usually
moment diagram. Since it is assumed that the work done by the turning moment per revolution is placed at 120° to each other.
equal to the work done against the mean resisting torque, therefore the area of the rectangle aAFe
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is proportional to the work done against the mean resisting torque.
1.13.2 Turning Moment Diagram for a Four Stroke Cycle Internal

Combustion Engine
A turning moment diagram for a four stroke cycle internal combustion engine is shown in
Fig. 16.2. We know that in a four stroke cycle internal combustion engine, there is one working
stroke after the crank has turned through two revolutions, i.e. 720° (or 4 π radians).

1.14 FLUCTUATION OF ENERGY = E + a1 – a2 + a3 – a4

The fluctuation of energy may be determined by the turning moment diagram for one ∴ Maximum fluctuation of energy,
complete cycle of operation. Consider the turning moment diagram for a single cylinder double ∆ E  Maximum energy – Minimum energy
acting steam engine as shown in Fig. 16.1. We see that the mean resisting torque line AF cuts the = (E + a1) – (E + a1 – a2 + a3 – a4) = a2 – a3 + a4
turning moment diagram at points B, C, D and E. When the crank moves from a to p, the work
done by the engine is equal to the area aBp, whereas the energy required is represented by the
area aABp. In other words, the engine has done less work (equal to the area a AB) than the
requirement. This amount of energy is taken from the flywheel and hence the speed of the
flywheel decreases. Now the crank moves from p to q, the work done by the engine is equal to
the area pBbCq, whereas the requirement of energy is represented by the area pBCq. Therefore,
the engine has done more work than the requirement. This excess work (equal to the area BbC) is
stored in the flywheel and hence the speed of the flywheel increases while the crank moves from
P
Fig. 16.4. Determination of maximum fluctuation of energy.
p to q.
Similarly, when the crank moves from q to r, more work is taken from the engine than is 1.14.2 Coefficient of Fluctuation of Energy
AP
AP
developed. This loss of work is represented by the area C c D. To supply this loss, the flywheel
It may be defined as the ratio of the maximum fluctuation of energy to the work done
gives up some of its energy and thus the speed decreases while the crank moves from q to r. As
per cycle. Mathematically, coefficient of fluctuation of energy,
the crank moves from r to s, excess energy is again developed given by the area D d E and the
speed again increases. As the piston moves from s to e, again there is a loss of work and the Maximum fluctuation of energy
speed decreases. The variations of energy above and below the mean resisting torque line are CE 
called fluctuations of energy. The areas BbC, CcD, DdE, etc. represent fluctuations of energy. Work done per cycle
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The work done per cycle (in N-m or joules) may be obtained by using the following two
A little consideration will show that the engine has a maximum speed either at q or at s. relations
This is due to the fact that the flywheel absorbs energy while the crank moves from p to q and :
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from r to s. On the other hand, the engine has a minimum speed either at p or at r. The reason is 1. Work done per cycle = Tmean × θ
T
that the flywheel gives out some of its energy when the crank moves from a to p and q to r. The me
where an = Mean torque, and
difference between the maximum and the minimum energies is known as maximum fluctuation
θ = Angle turned (in radians), in one revolution.
of energy. = 2π , in case of steam engine and two stroke internal combustion
1.14.1 Determination of Maximum Fluctuation of Energy engines
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A turning moment diagram for a multi-cylinder engine is shown by a wavy curve in Fig. 16.4. = 4π , in case of four stroke internal combustion engines.
The horizontal line A G represents the mean torque line. Let a1, a3, a5 be the areas above the
The mean torque (Tmean) in N-m may be obtained by using the following relation :
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mean torque line and a2, a4 and a6 be the areas below the mean torque line. These areas represent
some quantity of energy which is either added or subtracted from the energy of the moving parts P  60 P
T  ω
of the engine
mean 2πN
Let the energy in the flywheel at A = E, then from Fig. 16.4, we have where P = Power transmitted in watts,
Energy at B = E + a1 N = Speed in r.p.m., and
Energy at C = E + a1– a2 ω Angular speed in rad/s = 2 π N/60
Energy at D = E + a1 – a2 + a3 Energy at E = E + a1 – a2 + a3 – a4 2. The work done per cycle may also be obtained by using the following relation :
Energy at F = E + a1 – a2 + a3 – a4 + a5 Energy at G = E + a1 – a2 + a3 – a4 + a5 – a6
= Energy at A (i.e. cycle repeats after G) P 60
Work done per cycle 
Let us now suppose that the greatest of these energies is at B and least at E. Therefore, n
Maximum energy in flywheel where n = Number of working strokes per minute,
= E + a1 Minimum energy in the flywheel = N, in case of steam engines and two stroke internal combustion

engines, 1.16 COEFFICIENT OF FLUCTUATION OF SPEED

= N /2, in case of four stroke internal combustion engines. The difference between the maximum and minimum speeds during a cycle is called the
The following table shows the values of coefficient of fluctuation of energy for steam maximum fluctuation of speed. The ratio of the maximum fluctuation of speed to the mean
engines and internal combustion engines. speed is called the coefficient of fluctuation of speed.
Let N1 and N2 = Maximum and minimum speeds in r.p.m. during the cycle, and
Coefficient of fluctuation of energy (CE) for steam and internal combustion engines.
S.No. Type of engine Coefficient of fluctuation
of energy (CE)
1. Single cylinder, double acting steam engine 0.21
2. Cross-compound steam engine 0.096
Single cylinder, single acting, four stroke gas
P
P
3. engine 1.93
Four cylinders, single acting, four stroke gas
4. engine 0.066
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Six cylinders, single acting, four stroke gas

5. engine 0.031
1.15 FLYWHEEL
The coefficient of fluctuation of speed is a limiting factor in the design of flywheel. It
A flywheel used in machines serves as a reservoir, which stores energy during the period varies depending upon the nature of service to which the flywheel is employed.
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when the supply of energy is more than the requirement, and releases it during the period when
the requirement of energy is more than the supply. 1.17 ENERGY STORED IN A FLYWHEEL
A flywheel is shown in Fig. 16.5. We have discussed in Art. 16.5 that when a flywheel
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In case of steam engines, internal combustion engines, reciprocating compressors and absorbs energy, its speed increases and when it gives up energy, its speed decreases.
pumps, the energy is developed during one stroke and the engine is to run for the whole cycle on Let m = Mass of the flywheel in kg,
the energy produced during this one stroke. For example, in internal combustion engines, the k = Radius of gyration of the
energy is developed only during expansion or power stroke which is much more than the engine flywheel in metres,
load and no energy is being developed during suction, compression and exhaust strokes in case
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of four stroke engines and during compression in case of two stroke engines. The excess energy
developed during power stroke is absorbed by the flywheel and releases it to the crankshaft
during other strokes in which no energy is developed, thus rotating the crankshaft at a uniform
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speed. A little consideration will show that when the flywheel absorbs energy, its speed increases
and when it releases energy, the speed decreases. Hence a flywheel does not maintain a constant
speed, it simply reduces the fluctuation of speed. In other words, a flywheel controls the speed
variations caused by the fluctuation of the engine turning moment during each cycle of
operation.
In machines where the operation is intermittent like *punching machines, shearing

machines, rivetting machines, crushers, etc., the flywheel stores energy from the power source
during the greater portion of the operating cycle and gives it up during a small period of the
cycle. Thus, the energy from the power source to the machines is supplied practically at a
constant rate throughout the operation.

Let the total energy at A = E, then referring to Fig. 16.7,

Energy at B = E + 52 ...(Maximum energy)
Energy at C = E + 52 – 124 = E – 72
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Energy at D = E – 72 + 92 = E + 20
Energy at E = E + 20 – 140 = E – 120 ...(Minimum energy)
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Energy at F = E – 120 + 85 = E – 35
Energy at G = E – 35 – 72 = E – 107
Energy at H = E – 107 + 107 = E = Energy at A
The radius of gyration (k) may be taken equal to the mean radius of the rim (R), because We know that maximum fluctuation of energy,
the thickness of rim is very small as compared to the diameter of rim. Therefore, substituting k = ∆ E = Maximum energy – Minimum energy
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R, in equation (ii), we have = (E + 52) – (E – 120) = 172 = 172 × 31.42 = 5404 N-m
Let m = Mass of the flywheel in kg. We know that maximum fluctuation
of energy (∆ E ),
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2 2 2 2
12. The turning moment diagram for a multicylinder engine has been drawn to a scale 1 5404 = m.R .ω .CS = m × (0.5) × (62.84) × 0.03 = 29.6 m
m m = 600 N-m vertically and 1 m m = 3° horizontally. The intercepted areas between the output  m = 5404 / 29.6 = 183 kg Ans.
torque curve and the mean resistance line, taken in order from one end, are as follows :
+ 52, – 124, + 92, – 140, + 85, – 72 and + 107 m m2, when the engine is running at a 13. A shaft fitted with a flywheel rotates at 250 r.p.m. and drives a machine. The torque of
speed of 600 r.p.m. If the total fluctuation of speed is not to exceed  1.5% of the mean, find the machine varies in a cyclic manner over a period of 3 revolutions. The torque rises from 750 N-m
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necessary mass of the flywheel of radius 0.5 m. to 3000 N-m uniformly during 1/2 revolution and remains constant for the following revolution.
Solution. Given : N = 600 r.p.m. or ω = 2 π × 600 / 60 = 62.84 rad / s ; R = 0.5 m It then falls uniformly to 750 N-m during the next 1/2 revolution and remains constant for one
revolution, the cycle being repeated thereafter.
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Determine the power required to drive the machine and percentage fluctuation in speed, if
the driving torque applied to the shaft is constant and the mass of the flywheel is 500 kg with
radius of gyration of 600 m m.
Solution. Given : N = 250 r.p.m. or ω = 2π × 250/60 = 26.2 rad/s ; m = 500 kg ; k = 600
mm = 0.6 m
The turning moment diagram for the complete cycle is shown in Fig. 16.8.
Fig. 16.7 We know that the torque required for one complete cycle
Since the total fluctuation of speed is not to exceed  1.5% of the mean speed, therefore ω 1 – ω = Area of figure OABCDEF
=Area OAEF + Area ABG + Area BCHG + Area CDH
2 = 3% ω = 0.03 ω

14. A single cylinder, single acting, four stroke gas engine develops 20 kW at 300 r.p.m.
The work done by the gases during the expansion stroke is three times the work done on the
gases during the compression stroke, the work done during the suction and exhaust strokes being
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negligible. If the total fluctuation of speed is not to exceed ± 2 per cent of the mean speed and the
turning moment diagram during compression and expansion is assumed to be triangular in
shape, find the moment of inertia of the flywheel.
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Solution. Given : P = 20 kW = 20 × 10 3 W; N = 300 r.p.m. or ω = 2π × 300/60 = 31.42 rad/s

Since the total fluctuation of speed (ω 1 – ω 2) is not to exceed ± 2 per cent of the mean
speed  ), therefore
ω 1 – ω 2 = 4% ω
and coefficient of fluctuation of speed,

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Power required to drive the machine

The turning moment-crank angle diagram for a four stroke engine is shown in Fig. 16.11. It is
assumed to be triangular during compression and expansion strokes, neglecting the suction and
We know that power required to drive the machine,
exhaust strokes.
P = Tmean × ω = 1875 × 26.2 = 49 125 W = 49.125 kW Ans.
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Coefficient of fluctuation of speed We know that for a four stroke engine, number of working
Let CS = Coefficient of fluctuation of speed. strokes per cycle,
First of all, let us find the values of L M and NP. From similar triangles ABG and BLM, n = N/2 = 300 / 2 = 150
...
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∴ Work done/cycle =P × 60/ n = 20 × 10 3 × 60/150 = 8000 N-m (i)
Fig. 16.11

Since the work done during suction and exhaust strokes is negligible, therefore net work
done per cycle (during compression and expansion strokes)
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2. Moment of inertia of the flywheel
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Let I = Moment of inertia of the flywheel in kg-m .
The turning moment diagram for one stroke (i.e. half revolution of the crankshaft) is shown in Fig. 16.13.
Since at points B and D, the torque exerted on the crankshaft is equal to the mean resisting torque on the flywheel,
therefore,
T=T
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mean
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15. The turning moment curve for an engine is represented by the equation, T = (20 000 +
9500 sin 2θ – 5700 cos 2θ ) N-m, where θ is the angle moved by the crank from inner dead
centre. If the resisting torque is constant, find:
1. Power developed by the engine ; 2. Moment of inertia of flywheel in kg-m2, if the total
fluctuation of speed is not exceed 1% of mean speed which is 180 r.p.m; and 3. Angular
acceleration of the flywheel when the crank has turned through 45° from inner dead centre.
Solution. Given : T = (20 000 + 9500 sin 2θ – 5700 cos 2θ ) N-m ; N = 180 r.p.m. or
ω = 2π × 180/60 = 18.85 rad/s

1.18 DIMENSIONS OF THE FLYWHEEL RIM

Consider a rim of the flywheel as shown in Fig. 16.17.
Let D = Mean diameter of rim in metres,
R = Mean radius of rim in metres,
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A = Cross-sectional area of rim in m2,
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ρ  Density of rim material in kg/m3,

N = Speed of the flywheel in r.p.m.,
Fig. 16.17. Rim of a
flywheel.
ω = Angular velocity of the flywheel in rad/s,
v = Linear velocity at the mean radius in m/s
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We know that maximum fluctuation of energy(∆ E), ω π D.N/60, and
2 2 σ = Tensile stress or hoop stress in N/m 2 due to the centrifugal force.
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11 078 = I.ω .CS = I × (18.85) × 0.01 = 3.55 I

2 Consider a small element of the rim as shown shaded in Fig. 16.17. Let it subtends an
∴ I =11078/3.55 = 3121 kg-m Ans. angle δθ at the centre of the flywheel.
3. Angular acceleration of the flywheel Volume of the small element
Let α = Angular acceleration of the flywheel, and = A × R.δθ ∴ Mass of
θ = Angle turned by the crank from inner the small element
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dm = Density × volume = ρ .A .R.δθ

and centrifugal force on the element, acting radially outwards,
dF = dm.ω 2.R = ρ .A .R2.ω 2.δθ
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16 The turning moment diagram for a multi-cylinder engine has been drawn to a
scale of 1 mm to 500 N-m torque and 1 mm to 6° of crank displacement. The intercepted areas
between output torque curve and mean resistance line taken in order from one end, in sq. mm
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are – 30, + 410, – 280, + 320, – 330, + 250, – 360, + 280, – 260 sq. mm, when the engine is
running at 800 r.p.m.The engine has a stroke of 300 mm and the fluctuation of speed is not to
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exceed ± 2% of the mean speed. Determine a suitable diameter and cross-section of the flywheel
rim for a limiting value of the safe centrifugal stress of 7 MPa. The material density may be
assumed as 7200 kg/m3. The width of the rim is to be 5 times the thickness.
Solution. Given : N = 800 r.p.m. or ω = 2π × 800 / 60 = 83.8 rad/s; *Stroke = 300 mm ;

σ = 7 MPa = 7 × 10 6 N/m2 ; ρ = 7200 kg/m3
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Since the fluctuation of speed is ± 2% of mean speed, therefore total fluctuation of
speed,
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ω 1 – ω 2 = 4% ω = 0.04 ω
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17. The turning moment diagram of a four stroke engine may be assumed for the sake of
simplicity to be represented by four triangles in each stroke. The areas of these triangles are as
Suction stroke = 5 × 10 –5 m2; Compression stroke = 21 × 10 –5 m2; Expansion stroke =
follows: –5
85 × 10 m2; Exhaust stroke = 8 × 10 –5 m2.
All the areas excepting expression stroke are negative. Each m 2 of area represents 14
MN-m of work.
Assuming the resisting torque to be constant, determine the moment of inertia of the
flywheel to keep the speed between 98 r.p.m. and 102 r.p.m. Also find the size of a rim-type
flywheel based on the minimum material criterion, given that density of flywheel material is 8150
kg/m3 ; the allowable tensile stress of the flywheel material is 7.5 MPa. The rim cross-section is
rectangular, one side being four times the length of the other.
Solution. Given: a1 = 5 × 10 –5 m2; a2 = 21 × 10 –5 m2; a3 = 85 × 10 –5 m2; a4 = 8 × 10 –5 m2; N2 =
98 r.p.m.; N1 = 102 r.p.m.; ρ = 8150 kg/m3; σ = 7.5 MPa = 7.5 × 10 6 N/m2
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1.19 FLYWHEEL IN PUNCHING PRESS
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Solution. Given : d = 38 mm ; t = 32 mm ; E1  7 N-m/mm2 of sheared area ; v  25 m/s ;

s = 100 mm ; v1 − v2  3% v  0.03 v
18 A punching press is driven by a constant torque electric motor. The press is provided
with a flywheel that rotates at maximum speed of 225 r.p.m. The radius of gyration of the
flywheel is 0.5 m. The press punches 720 holes per hour; each punching operation takes 2
second and requires 15 kN-m of energy. Find the power of the motor and the minimum mass of
the flywheel if speed of the same is not to fall below 200 r. p. m.
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20. A riveting machine is driven by a constant torque 3 kW motor. The moving parts
including the flywheel are equivalent to 150 kg at 0.6 m radius. One riveting operation takes 1
second and absorbs 10 000 N-m of energy. The speed of the flywheel is 300 r.p.m. before
riveting. Find the speed immediately after riveting. How many rivets can be closed per minute?
19. A machine punching 38 mm holes in 32 mm thick plate requires 7 N-m of energy per Solution. Given : P = 3 kW ; m = 150 kg ; k = 0.6 m ; N1 = 300 r.p.m. or
sq. mm of sheared area, and punches one hole in every 10 seconds. Calculate the power of the ω 1 = 2π × 300/60 = 31.42 rad/s
motor required. The mean speed of the flywheel is 25 metres per second. The punch has a stroke
of 100 mm.
Find the mass of the flywheel required, if the total fluctuation of speed is not to exceed 3%
of the mean speed. Assume that the motor supplies energy to the machine at uniform rate.

1.20 CAM DYNAMICS:
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Mechanism provides a non-linear I/O relationship. Different mechanism like
single or multi-degree of freedom, intermittent motion mechanisms and linkages etc.
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have different I/O Relationship. When we can not obtain a certain functions from the
well known mechanisms, we use a cam mechanism. It is a one degree of freedom
mechanism of two moving links. One is cam and the other is follower.
 Rigid and elastic body cam system.

 Analysis of eccentric cam
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 Problems on Cam –follower system.
1.21 REVIEW QUESTIONS:

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1. When the crank is at the inner dead centre, in a horizontal reciprocating steam engine, then the
velocity of the piston will be ?
2. A rigid body, under the action of external forces, can be replaced by two masses placed at a
21. A punching press is required to punch 40 mm diameter holes in a plate of 15 mm fixed distance apart. The two masses form an equivalent dynamical system, if?
thickness at the rate of 30 holes per minute. It requires 6 N-m of energy per mm2 of sheared 3. The essential condition of placing the two masses, so that the system becomes dynamically
area. If the punching takes 1/10 of a second and the r.p.m. of the flywheel varies from 160 to equivalent is ?
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140, determine the mass of the flywheel having radius of gyration of 1 metre. 4. In an engine, the work done by inertia forces in a cycle is ?
Solution. Given: d = 40 mm; t = 15 mm; No. of holes = 30 per min.; Energy required = 6 5. In a turning moment diagram, the variations of energy above and below the mean resisting
N-m/mm2; Time = 1/10 s = 0.1 s; N1 = 160 r.p.m.; N2 = 140 r.p.m.; k = 1m torque line is called?
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We know that sheared area per hole
1.22 TUTORIAL PROBLEMS
1. The stroke of a steam engine is 600 mm and the length of connecting rod is 1.5 m. The crank
rotates
at 180 r.p.m. Determine: 1. velocity and acceleration of the piston when crank has travelled
through an angle of 40° from inner dead centre, and 2. the position of the crank for zero
acceleration of the piston. [Ans. 4.2 m/s, 85.4 m/s2; 79.3° from I.D.C]
2. The following data refer to a steam engine :
Diameter of piston = 240 mm; stroke = 600 mm; length of connecting rod = 1.5 m; mass of
reciprocat-ing parts = 300 kg; speed = 125 r.p.m.
Determine the magnitude and direction of the inertia force on the crankshaft when the crank has
turned through 30° from inner dead centre. [Ans. 14.92 kN]

3. A vertical petrol engine 150 mm diameter and 200 mm stroke has a connecting rod 350 mm UNIT – II BALANCING
long. The
mass of the piston is 1.6 kg and the engine speed is 1800 r.p.m. On the expansion stroke with 2.1 INTRODUCTION:
crank angle 30° from top dead centre, the gas pressure is 750 kN/m 2. Determine the net thrust on
the piston. [Ans. 7535 N] Balancing is the process of eliminating or at least reducing the ground forces and/or
moments. It is achieved by changing the location of the mass centres of links. Balancing of
4. A certain machine tool does work intermittently. The machine is fitted with a flywheel of rotating parts is a well known problem. A rotating body with fixed rotation axis can be fully
mass 200 kg and radius of gyration of 0.4 m. It runs at a speed of 400 r.p.m. between the balanced i.e. all the inertia forces and moments. For mechanism containing links rotating about
operations. The machine is driven continuously by a motor and each operation takes 8 seconds. axis which are not fixed, force balancing is possible, moment balancing by itself may be
When the machine is doing its work, the speed drops from 400 to 250 r.p.m. Find 1. minimum possible, but both not possible. We generally try to do force balancing. A fully force balance is
possible, but any action in force balancing severe the moment balancing.
power of the motor, when there are 5 operations performed per minute, and 2. energy expanded
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in performing each operation. 2.2 BALANCING OF ROTATING MASSES:
[Ans. 4.278 kW; 51.33 kN-m] The process of providing the second mass in order to counteract the effect of the
centrifugal force of the first mass is called balancing of rotating masses.
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5. A constant torque 4 kW motor drives a riveting machine. A flywheel of mass 130 kg and
radius of gyration 0.5 m is fitted to the riveting machine. Each riveting operation takes 1 second 2.2.1 Static balancing:
and requires 9000 N-m of energy. If the speed of the flywheel is 420 r.p.m. before riveting, find: The net dynamic force acting on the shaft is equal to zero. This requires that the line of
1. the fall in speed of the flywheel after riveting; and 2. the number of rivets fitted per hour. action of three centrifugal forces must be the same. In other words, the centre of the masses of
[Ans. 385.15 r.p.m.; 1600] the system must lie on the axis of the rotation. This is the condition for static balancing.
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2.2.2 Dynamic balancing:

The net couple due to dynamic forces acting on the shaft is equal to zero. The algebraic
sum of the moments about any point in the plane must be zero.
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2.2.3 Various cases of balancing of rotating masses:
 Balancing of a single rotating mass by single mass rotating in the same plane.
 Balancing of a single rotating mass by two masses rotating in the different plane.
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 Balancing of a several masses rotating in single plane.

 Balancing of a several masses rotating in different planes.
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2.3 BALANCING OF A SINGLE ROTATING MASS BY SINGLE MASS ROTATING IN

THE SAME PLANE: 2.4 BALANCING OF A SINGLE ROTATING MASS BY TWO MASSES ROTATING IN
THE DIFFERENT PLANE:
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2.5 BALANCING OF A SEVERAL MASSES ROTATING IN SAME PLANE:
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2.6 BALANCING OF SEVERAL MASSES ROTATING DIFFERENT PLANE:

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2.7.1 Primary and secondary unbalanced forces of reciprocating parts:
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2.7 BALANCING OF RECIPROCATING MASSES:
Mass balancing encompasses a wide array of measures employed to obtain partial or

complete compensation for the inertial forces and moments of inertia emanating from the
crankshaft assembly. All masses are externally balanced when no free inertial forces or moments
of inertia are transmitted through the block to the outside. However, the remaining internal forces
and moments subject the engine mounts and block to various loads as well as deformities and
vibratory stresses. The basic loads imposed by gas-based and inertial forces

2.8 BALANCING OF SINGLE CYLINDER ENGINE:

A single cylinder engine produces three main vibrations. In describing them we will forces can be balanced using two countershafts rotating in opposite directions at double the rate
assume that the cylinder is vertical. Firstly, in an engine with no balancing counterweights, there of the crankshaft (Lanchester system).
would be an enormous vibration produced by the change in momentum of the piston, gudgeon
pin, connecting rod and crankshaft once every revolution. Nearly all single-cylinder crankshafts 2.10 PARTIAL BALANCING OF LOCOMOTIVES:
incorporate balancing weights to reduce this. While these weights can balance the crankshaft
completely, they cannot completely balance the motion of the piston, for two reasons. The first
reason is that the balancing weights have horizontal motion as well as vertical motion, so
balancing the purely vertical motion of the piston by a crankshaft weight adds a horizontal
vibration. The second reason is that, considering now the vertical motion only, the smaller piston
end of the connecting rod (little end) is closer to the larger crankshaft end (big end) of the
connecting rod in mid-stroke than it is at the top or bottom of the stroke, because of the
connecting rod's angle. So during the 180° rotation from mid-stroke through top-dead-center and
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back to mid-stroke the minor contribution to the piston's up/down movement from the
connecting rod's change of angle has the same direction as the major contribution to the piston's
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up/down movement from the up/down movement of the crank pin. By contrast, during the 180°
rotation from mid-stroke through bottom-dead-center and back to mid-stroke the minor
contribution to the piston's up/down movement from the connecting rod's change of angle has the
opposite direction of the major contribution to the piston's up/down movement from the up/down
movement of the crank pin. The piston therefore travels faster in the top half of the cylinder than
it does in the bottom half, while the motion of the crankshaft weights is sinusoidal. The vertical
motion of the piston is therefore not quite the same as that of the balancing weight, so they can't
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Secondly, there is a vibration produced by the change in speed and therefore kinetic
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energy of the piston. The crankshaft will tend to slow down as the piston speeds up and absorbs
energy, and to speed up again as the piston gives up energy in slowing down at the top and
bottom of the stroke. This vibration has twice the frequency of the first vibration, and absorbing
it is one function of the flywheel.
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Thirdly, there is a vibration produced by the fact that the engine is only producing power
during the power stroke. In a four-stroke engine this vibration will have half the frequency of the
first vibration, as the cylinder fires once every two revolutions. In a two-stroke engine, it will 2.10.1 Variation of Tractive force:
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have the same frequency as the first vibration. This vibration is also absorbed by the flywheel.
The resultant unbalanced force due to the cylinders, along the line of stroke, is known as
2.9 BALANCING OF INERTIAL FORCES IN THE MULTI-CYLINDER ENGINE: tractive force.
In multi-cylinder engines the mutual counteractions of the various components in the

Crank shaft assembly are one of the essential factors determining the selection of the Crank
shafts configuration and with it the design of the engine itself. The inertial forces are Balanced if
the common centre of gravity for all moving crankshaft-assembly components lies at the
crankshaft's midpoint, i.e. if the crankshaft is symmetrical (as viewed from the front). The
crankshaft's symmetry level can be defined using geometrical representations of 1st- and 2nd-
order forces (star diagrams). The 2nd order star diagram for the four-cylinder in-line engine is
asymmetrical, meaning that this order is characterized by substantial free inertial Forces. These

2.10.2 Swaying Couple: 2.10.3 Hammer blow:
The couple has swaying effect about a vertical axis, and tends to sway the engine The maximum magnitude of the unbalanced force along the perpendicular to the line of
alternately in clock wise and anticlockwise directions. Hence the couple is known as swaying stroke is known as Hammer blow.
couple.
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2.11 BALANCING OF INLINE ENGINES:
An in-line engine is one wherein all the cylinders are arranged in a single line, one behind
the other as schematically indicated in Fig. Many of the passenger cars found on Indian roads
such as Maruti 800, Zen, Santro, Honda City, Honda CR-V, and Toyota Corolla all have four
cylinder in-line engines. Thus this is a commonly employed engine and it is of interest to us to
understand the analysis of its state of balance.
For the sake of simplicity of analysis, we assume that all the cylinders are identical viz., r, ,
and are same. Further we assume that the rotating masses have been balanced out for all
cylinders and we are left with only the forces due to the reciprocating masses.
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2.12 BALANCING OF RADIAL ENGINES:
A radial engine is one in which all the cylinders are arranged circumferentially as shown
in Fig.These engines were quite popularly used in aircrafts during World War II. Subsequent
developments in steam/gas turbines led to the near extinction of these engines. However it is still
interesting to study their state of balance in view of some elegant results we shall discuss shortly.
Our method of analysis remains identical to the previous case i.e., we proceed with the
assumption that all cylinders are identical and the cylinders are spaced at uniform interval
around the circumference.

ME8594- DYNAMICS OF MACHINES III YEAR/V SEMESTER MECHANICAL ENGINEERING ME8594- DYNAMICS OF MACHINES III YEAR/V SEMESTER MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
2.13 SOLVED PROBLEMS

Out-of-balance force = vector oc = 4.75 × 10–3 kg-m
1. A shaft has three eccentrics, each 75 mm diameter and 25 mm thick, machined in one = 4.75 × 10–3 × ω 2
= 4.75 × 10–3 (62.84)2 = 18.76 N Ans.
piece with the shaft. The central planes of the eccentric are 60 mm apart. The distance of the
centres from the axis of rotation are 12 mm, 18 mm and 12 mm and their angular positions are
120° apart. The density of metal is 7000 kg/m3. Find the amount of out-of-balance force and
couple at 600 r.p.m. If the shaft is balanced by adding two masses at a radius 75 mm and at
distances of 100 mm from the central plane of the middle eccentric, find the amount of the
masses and their angular positions. (AU-MAY/JUNE-2013)
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Let L and M be the planes at distances of 100 mm from the central plane of middle eccentric. The
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position of the planes and the angular position of the three eccentrics is shown in Fig. 21.12 (a) and (b)
respectively. Assuming L as the reference plane and mass of the eccentric A in the vertical direction,
the data may be tabulated as below :
Out-of-balance couple
The out-of-balance couple is obtained by drawing the couple polygon from the data given in Table 21.6 (column
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6), as shown in Fig. 21.12 (d). The resultant o ′ c′ represents the out-of-
balance couple. Since the couple is proportional to the product of force and distance (m.r.l), there-fore by measurement,
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Amount of balancing masses and their angular positions
The vector c ′ o′ (in the direction from c′ to o′ ), as shown in Fig. 21.12 (d)
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represents the balancing couple and is proportional to 15 × 10–3 mM, i.e.
15 × 10–3 mM = vector c ′ o′ = 1.1 × 10–3 kg-m2
or mM = 0.073 kg Ans.
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Draw OM in Fig. 21.12 (b) parallel to vector c ′ o′ . By measurement, we find that the angular
position of balancing mass (mM) is 5° from mass A in the clockwise direction. Ans.
In order to find the balancing mass (mL), a force polygon as shown in Fig. 21.12 (e) is drawn.
The closing side of the polygon i.e. vector do (in the direction from d to o) represents the balancing
force and is proportional to 75 × 10–3 mL. By measurement, we find that,
75 × 10–3 mL = vector do = 5.2 ×10–3 kg-m or mL = 0.0693 kg Ans.
Draw OL in Fig. 21.12 (b), parallel to vector do.
By measurement, we find that the angular position of mass (mL) is 124° from mass A in the
clockwise direction. Ans.
2.(i) A, B, C and D are four masses carried by a rotating shaft at radii 100, 125, 200
and 150 mm respectively. The planes in which the masses revolve are spaced 600 mm apart and
the mass of B, C and D are 10 kg, 5 kg, and 4 kg respectively.Find the required mass A and the
Since the centrifugal force is proportional to the product of mass and radius (i.e. m.r), therefore
by measurement. relative angular settings of the four masses so that the shaft shall be in complete balance.
(AU-NOV/DEC-2012) (8)
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Solution. Given : rA = 100 mm = 0.1 m ; rB = 125 mm = 0.125 m ; rC = 200 mm = 0.2 m ; rD =

150 mm = 0.15 m ; mB = 10 kg ; mC = 5 kg ; mD = 4 kg
1. The position of planes is shown in Fig. 21.10 (a). Assuming the plane of mass A as the
reference plane (R.P.), the data may be tabulated as below :
First of all, the angular setting of masses C and D is obtained by drawing the couple polygon All dimensions in mm
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from the data given in Table 21.4 (column 6). Assume the position of mass B in the horizontal (a) Position of planes. (b) Angular position of masses.
direction OB as shown in Fig. 21.10 (b). Now the couple polygon as shown in Fig.(c) is drawn as
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discussed below :
1. Draw vector o′ b′ in the horizontal direction (i.e. parallel to OB) and equal to 0.75
kg-
2
m , to some suitable scale.
2. From points o′ and b′ , draw vectors o′ c′ and b′ c′ equal to 1.2 kg-m2 and
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1.08 kg-m2
respectively. These vectors intersect at c′ .
(c) Couple polygon. (d) Force polygon.
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Fig. 21.10
3. Now in Fig. 21.10 (b), draw OC parallel to vector o′ c′ and OD parallel to vector
b′ c′ . By measurement, we find that the angular setting of mass C from mass B in the 2(ii) Derives the expressions for the following: (i) Variation in tractive force and (ii) Swaying
couple. (8) (AU-NOV/DEC-2009)
anticlockwise
Variation in tractive force
direction, i.e. ∠ BOC = 240° Ans.
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The resultant unbalanced force due to the two cylinders, along the line of stroke, is known as
and angular setting of mass D from mass B in the anticlockwise direction, i.e. ∠ BOD = 100° tractive force. Let the crank for the first cylinder be inclined at an angle θ with the line of stroke, as
Ans. shown in Fig. 22.4.
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In order to find the required mass A (mA) and its angular setting, draw the force polygon to Since the crank for the second cylinder is at right angle to the first crank, therefore the angle of
some suitable scale, as shown in Fig. 21.10 (d), from the data given in Table 21.4 (column 4). inclination for the second crank will be (90° + θ ).
Since the closing side of the force polygon (vector do) is proportional to Let m = Mass of the reciprocating parts per cylinder, and
0.1 mA, therefore c = Fraction of the reciprocating parts to be balanced.
by measurement,
0.1 m = 0.7 kg-m2 or mA= 7 kg Ans.
Now draw OA in Fig. 21.10 (b ), parallel to vector do. By measurement, we find that the
angular setting of mass A from mass B in the anticlockwise direction, i.e.
∠ BOA = 155° Ans.
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We know that unbalanced force along the line of stroke for cylinder 1 are shown in Fig. 21.8 (a) and (b) respectively.
Assume the plane X as the reference plane (R.P.). The distances of the planes to the right of
plane X are taken as + ve while the distances of the planes to the left of plane X are taken as – ve. The
data may be tabulated as shown in Table 21.2.
Swaying couple.
The unbalanced forces along the line of stroke for the two cylinders constitute a couple about
the centre line YY between the cylinders as shown in Fig. 22.5.
This couple has swaying effect about a vertical axis, and tends to sway the engine alternately in
clockwise and anticlockwise directions. Hence the couple is known as swaying couple. The balancing masses mX and mY and their angular positions may be determined graphi-cally
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a = Distance between the centre lines of the two cylinders. as discussed below :
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1. First of all, draw the couple polygon from the data given in Table 21.2 (column 6) as shown in
Fig. 21.8 (c) to some suitable scale. The vector d ′ o′ represents the balanced couple. Since
the
balanced couple is proportional to 0.04 mY, therefore by measurement,
2
0.04 m Y  vector d ′ o′  7.3 or m Y = 182.5 kg Ans.
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kg-m
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All dimensions in mm.
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(a) Position of planes. (b) Angular position of masses.
3. A shaft carries four masses A, B, C and D of magnitude 200 kg, 300 kg, 400 kg and 200
kg respectively and revolving at radii 80 mm, 70 mm, 60 mm and 80 mm in planes measured
from A at 300 mm, 400 mm and 700 mm. The angles between the cranks measured
anticlockwise are A to B 45°, B to C 70° and C to D 120°. The balancing masses are to be placed
in planes X and Y. The distance between the planes A and X is 100 mm, between X and Y is 400
mm and between Y and D is 200 mm. If the balancing masses revolve at a radius of 100 mm,
find their magnitudes and angular positions. (AU-MAY/JUNE-2012)
Solution. Given : mA = 200 kg ; mB = 300 kg ; mC = 400 kg ; mD = 200 kg ; rA = 80 mm =0.08m
; (c) Couple polygon. (d) Force polygon
rB = 70 mm = 0.07 m ; rC = 60 mm = 0.06 m ; rD = 80 mm = 0.08 m ; rX = rY = 100 mm = 0.1 m
Let mX = Balancing mass placed in plane X, and mY = Balancing mass placed in The angular position of the mass mY is obtained by drawing OmY in Fig. 21.8 (b), parallel to vector d
plane Y.
The position of planes and angular position of the masses (assuming the mass A as horizontal) ′ o′ . By measurement, the angular position of mY is θ Y  12 in the clockwise direction from
mass mA
78 79

(i.e. 200 kg ). Ans. direction is ∠ AOB = 236° Ans.

2. Now draw the force polygon from the data given in Table 21.2 (column 4) as shown in Fig.
21.8 (d). The vector eo represents the balanced force. Since the balanced force is proportional to 0.1
mX, therefore by measurement,
0.1 mX  vector eo  35.5 kg-m or mX = 355 kg Ans.
The angular position of the mass mX is obtained by drawing OmX in Fig. 21.8 (b), parallel to vector eo.
By measurement, the angular position of mX is θ X  145 in the clockwise direction from mass mA
(i.e. 200 kg ). Ans.
4. Four masses A, B, C and D as shown below are to be completely balanced. (a) Position of planes. (b) Angular position of masses.
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A B C D
Mass (kg) — 30 50 40
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Radius (mm) 180 240 120 150

The planes containing masses B and C are 300 mm apart. The angle between planes containing
B and C is 90°. B and C make angles of 210° and 120° respectively with D in the same sense.
Find :
1. The magnitude and the angular position of mass A ; and
2. The position of planes A and D. (AU-NOV/DEC-2011)
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Solution. Given : rA = 180 mm = 0.18 m ; mB = 30 kg ; rB = 240 mm = 0.24 m ;

mC = 50 kg ; rC = 120 mm = 0.12 m ; mD = 40 kg ; rD = 150 mm = 0.15 m ; All dimensions in mm.
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∠ BOC = 90° ; ∠ BOD = 210° ; ∠ COD = (c) Force polygon. (d) Couple polygon.
120° Fig. 21.9.
1. The magnitude and the angular position of mass A
Let mA = Magnitude of Mass A, 2. Position of planes A and D
x = Distance between the planes B and D, and y = Distance between the planes A and B. The position of planes A and D may be obtained by drawing the couple polygon, as shown in
The position of the planes and the angular position of the masses is shown in Fig. 21.9 (a) and (b) Fig. 21.9 (d), from the data given in Table 21.3 (column 6). The couple polygon is drawn as discussed
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respectively. below :
Assuming the plane B as the reference plane (R.P.) and the mass B (mB) along the horizon-tal line as
shown in Fig. 21.9 (b), the data may be tabulated as below : 1. Draw vector o′ c′ parallel to OC and equal to 1.8 kg-m2, to some suitable scale.
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2. From points c′ and o′ , draw lines parallel to OD and OA respectively, such that they
intersect at point d′ . By measurement, we find that
6 x = vector c′ d′ = 2.3 kg-m2 or x = 0.383 m
We see from the couple polygon that the direction of vector c ′ d′ is opposite to the
direction of mass D. Therefore the plane of mass D is 0.383 m or 383 mm towards left of plane B and
not towards right of plane B as already assumed. Ans.
Again by measurement from couple polygon,
The magnitude and angular position of mass A may be determined by drawing the force polygon from
the data given in Table 21.3 (Column 4), as shown in Fig. 21.9 (c), to some suitable scale. Since the – 0.18 mA.y = vector o′ d′ = 3.6 kg-m2
masses are to be completely balanced, therefore the force polygon must be a closed figure. The closing – 0.18 × 20 y = 3.6 or y = – 1 m
side (i.e. vector do) is proportional to 0.18 mA. By measurement,
The negative sign indicates that the plane A is not towards left of B as assumed but it is 1 m or
0.18 mA = Vector do = 3.6 kg-m or mA = 20 kg Ans.
In order to find the angular position of mass A, draw OA in Fig. 21.9 (b) parallel to vector do. 1000 mm towards right of plane B. Ans.
By measurement, we find that the angular position of mass A from mass B in the anticlockwise
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5. An inside cylinder locomotive has its cylinder centre lines 0.7 m apart and has a stroke
of 0.6 m. The rotating masses per cylinder are equivalent to 150 kg at the crank pin, and the
reciprocating masses per cylinder to 180 kg. The wheel centre lines are 1.5 m apart. The cranks
are at right angles.
The whole of the rotating and 2/3 of the recipro-cating masses are to be balanced by
masses placed at a radius of 0.6 m. Find the magnitude and direction of the balancing masses.
Find the fluctuation in rail pressure under one wheel, variation of tractive effort and the
magnitude of swaying couple at a crank speed of 300 r.p.m. (AU-NOV/DEC-2008)
Solution. Given : a = 0.7 m; lB = lC = 0.6 m or
rB = rC = 0.3 m; m1 = 150 kg; m2 = 180 kg; c = 2/3; rA = rD = 0.6 m; N = 300 r.p.m. or
ω  2 300 / 60 = 31.42 rad/s
We know that the equivalent mass of the rotating parts to be balanced per cylinder at the crank
pin,
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m = mB = mC = m1 + c.m2 = 150 + 23 × 180 = 270 kg
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Magnitude and direction of the balancing masses
Let mA and mD = Magnitude of the balancing masses
θ A and θ D = Angular position of the balancing masses mA and mD from the first crank B.
The magnitude and direction of the balancing masses may be determined graphically as
discussed below :
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1. First of all, draw the space diagram to show the positions of the planes of the wheels and the 4. To determine the angular position of the balancing mass D, draw OD in Fig. 22.7 (b)
cylinders, as shown in Fig. 22.7 (a). Since the cranks of the cylinders are at right angles, parallel to vector c ′ o′ . By measurement,
therefore assuming the position of crank of the cylinder B in the horizontal direc-tion, draw OC θ D = 250°
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and OB at right angles to each other as shown in Fig. 22.7 (b). Ans.
Tabulate the data as given in the following table. Assume the plane of wheel A as the reference plane. 5. In order to find the balancing mass A, draw the force polygon from the data given in
Table 22.1 (column 4), to some suitable scale, as shown in Fig. 22.7 (d), The vector do
represents the balancing force and it is proportional to 0.6 mA. Therefore by measurement,
0.6mA = vector do = 63 kg-m or mA = 105 kg Ans.
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6. To determine the angular position of the balancing mass A, draw OA in Fig. 22.7 (b)
parallel to vector do. By measurement,
θ A = 200°
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Ans.
Fluctuation in rail pressure
We know that each balancing mass105 kg
3. Now, draw the couple polygon from the data
given in Table 22.1 (column 6), to some suitable ∴ Balancing mass for rotating masses,
scale, as shown in Fig 22.7 (c). The closing side c ′o′ represents the balancing
couple and it is proportional to 0.9 mD. Therefore, by measurement,
Variation of tractive effort

We know that maximum variation of tractive effort
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, 3. Now draw the couple polygon with the data given in Table 22.4 column (6), to some
suitable scale as shown in Fig. 22.11(c). The closing side d ′ o′ represents thebalancing
couple
and it is proportional to 1.08 mC. Therefore, by measurement,
Swaying couple
We know that maximum swaying couple
6. The following data apply to an outside cylinder uncoupled locomotive :

Mass of rotating parts per cylinder = 360 kg ; Mass of reciprocating parts per cylinder = 300 kg
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P
; Angle between cranks = 90° ; Crank radius = 0.3 m ; Cylinder centres = 1.75 m ; Radius of
balance masses = 0.75 m ; Wheel centres = 1.45 m. If whole of the rotating and two-thirds of
reciprocating parts are to be balanced in planes of the driving wheels, find :
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1. Magnitude and angular positions of balance masses,

2. Speed in kilometres per hour at which the wheel will lift off the rails when the load on
each driving wheel is 30 kN and the diameter of tread of driving wheels is 1.8 m, and
3. Swaying couple at speed arrived at in (2) above. (AU-NOV/DEC-2013)
Solution : Given : m1 = 360 kg ; m2 = 300 kg ; ∠ AOD = 90° ; rA = rD = 0.3 m ; a = 1.75 m ; rB
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= rC = 0.75 m ; c = 2 / 3.
We know that the equivalent mass of the rotating parts to be balanced per cylinder,
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1. Magnitude and angular position of balance masses

Let mB and mC = Magnitude of the balance masses, and
θ B and θ C = angular position of the balance masses mB and mC from the crank
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A.
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The magnitude and direction of the balance masses may be determined, graphically, as
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4. To determine the angular position of the balancing mass C, draw OC parallel to vector d′ o
discussed below :
1. First of all, draw the positions of the planes of the wheels and the cylinders as shown in Fig. ′ as shown in Fig. 22.11 (b). By measurement, θ C = 275° Ans.
22.11 (a). Since the cranks of the two cylinders are at right angles, therefore assum-ing the 5. In order to find the balancing mass B, draw the force polygon with the data given in Tablecolumn
position of the cylinder A in the horizontal direction, draw OA and OD at right angles to each (4), to some suitable scale, as shown in Fig. 22.11 (d). The vector co represents
other as shown in Fig. 22.11 (b). the balancing force and it is proportional to 0.75 mB. Therefore, by measurement, 0.75
mB = 186.75 kg-m or mB = 249 kg Ans.
4. To determine the angular position of the balancing mass B, draw OB parallel to vector oc as
shown Fig. 22.11 (b). By measurement, θ B = 174.5° Ans.
2. Speed at which the wheel will lift off the rails
Given : P = 30 kN = 30 × 103 N ; D = 1.8 m

Let ω = Angular speed at which the wheels will lift off the rails in rad/s,
and v = Corresponding linear speed in km/h.
2. Assuming the plane of wheel B as the reference plane, the data may be tabulated as be-low: We know that each balancing mass, mB = mC = 249 kg
84 85

∴ Balancing mass for reciprocating parts,
3. Now draw the couple polygon with the data given in Table 22.2 (column 6), to some
suitable scale, as shown in Fig. 22.8 (c). The closing side c ′ o′ represents the balancing
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couple
and it is proportional to 0.96 B2. Therefore, by measurement,
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7. The three cranks of a three cylinder locomotive are all on the same axle and are set at 120°. 0.96 B2 = vector c ′ o′ = 55.2 kg-m2 or B2 = 57.5 kg Ans.
The pitch of the cylinders is 1 meter and the stroke of each piston is 0.6 m. The reciprocating 4. To determine the angular position of the balancing mass B2, draw OB2 parallel to vector c
masses are 300 kg for inside cylinder and 260 kg for each outside cylinder and the planes of
′ o′ as shown in Fig. 22.8 (b). By measurement,
rotation of the balance masses are 0.8 m from the inside crank. If 40% of the reciprocating
parts are to be balanced, find : θ 2 = 24° Ans.
1. the magnitude and the position of the balancing masses required at a radius of 0.6 m ; 5. In order to find the balance mass B1, draw the force polygon with the data given in Table
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And 22.2(column 4 ), to some suitable scale, as shown in Fig. 22.8 (d). The closing side co
2. the hammer blow per wheel when the axle makes 6 r.p.s. (AU-MAY/JUNE-2013) represents the balancing force and it is proportional to 0.6 B1. Therefore, by measurement,
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Solution. Given : ∠ AOB = ∠ BOC = ∠ COA = 120° ; lA = lB = lC = 0.6 m or rA = rB 0.6 B1 = vector co = 34.5 kg-m or B1 = 57.5 kg Ans.
= rC = 0.3 m ; mI = 300 kg ; mO = 260 kg ; c = 40% = 0.4 ; b1 = b2 = 0.6 m ; N = 6 r.p.s. 6. To determine the angular position of the balancing mass B1, draw OB1 parallel to vector co, as
shown in Fig. 22.8 (b). By measurement,
= 6 × 2 π = 37.7 rad/s
θ 1 = 215° Ans.
Since 40% of the reciprocating masses are to be balanced, therefore mass of the reciprocat-ing
parts to be balanced for each outside cylinder,
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mA = mC = c × mO = 0.4 × 260 = 104 kg and mass of the
reciprocating parts to be balanced for inside cylinder,
mB = c × m1 = 0.4 × 300 = 120 kg
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1. Magnitude and position of the balancing masses
Let B1 and B2 = Magnitude of the balancing masses in kg,
θ 1 and θ 2 = Angular position of the balancing masses B1 and B2 from crank
A.
The magnitude and position of the balancing masses may be determined graphically as
discussed below :
1. First of all, draw the position of planes and cranks as shown in Fig. 22.8 (a) and (b)
respectively. The position of crank A is assumed in the horizontal direction.
2. Tabulate the data as given in the following table. Assume the plane of balancing mass B1 (i.e.
plane 1) as the reference plane.
86 87

8. The following data refer to two cylinder locomotive with cranks at 90° :
Reciprocating mass per cylinder = 300 kg ; Crank radius = 0.3 m ; Driving wheel diameter = 1.8
m ; Distance between cylinder centre lines = 0.65 m ; Distance between the driving wheel central
planes = 1.55 m.
Determine : 1. the fraction of the reciprocating masses to be balanced, if the hammer blow is not
to exceed 46 kN at 96.5 km. p.h. ; 2. the variation in tractive effort ; and 3. the maximum
swaying couple. (AU-MAY/JUNE-2009)
Solution. Given : m = 300 kg ; r = 0.3 m ; D = 1.8 m or R = 0.9 m ; a = 0.65 m ; Hammer blow
= 46 kN = 46 × 103 N ; v = 96.5 km/h = 26.8 m/s
1. Fraction of the reciprocating masses to be balanced
Let c = Fraction of the reciprocating masses to be balanced, and
B = Magnitude of balancing mass placed at each of the driving wheels at radius b.
2. Hammer blow per wheel
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We know that the mass of the reciprocating parts to be balanced  c.m  300c kg
We know that hammer blow per wheel
= B1.ω 2.b1 = 57.5 (37.7)2 20.6 = 49 035 N Ans.
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(a) Position of planes. (b) Position of cranks.

Fig. 22.9
The position of planes of the wheels and cylinders is shown in Fig. 22.9 (a), and the position of
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cranks is shown in Fig 22.9 (b). Assuming the plane of wheel A as the reference plane, the data may
be tabulated as below :
Now the couple polygon, to some suitable scale, may be drawn with the data given in Table
22.3 (column 6), as shown in Fig. 22.10. The closing side of the polygon (vector c′ o′ ) represents
the
balancing couple and is proportional to 1.55 B.b.
From the couple polygon,
1.55 B.b  (40.5c) 2  (99 c) 2  107c
∴ B.b = 107 c / 1.55 = 69 c
We know that angular speed,
88 89

ω = v/R = 26.8/0.9 = 29.8 rad/s ∴ Hammer 3. A three cylinder radial engine driven by a common crank has the cylinders spaced at 120°. The
blow, stroke is 125 mm, length of the connecting rod 225 mm and the mass of the reciprocating parts per
cylinder 2 kg. Calculate the primary and secondary forces at crank shaft speed of 1200 r.p.m.
46 × 103 = B. ω 2 .b
= 69 c (29.8)2 = 61 275 c [Ans. 3000 N ; 830 N]
∴ c = 46 × 103/61 275 = 0.751
Ans. 4. The pistons of a 60° twin V-engine has strokes of 120 mm. The connecting rods driving a common
2. Variation in tractive effort crank has a length of 200 mm. The mass of the reciprocating parts per cylinder is 1 kg and the
We know that variation in tractive effort, speed of the crank shaft is 2500 r.p.m. Determine the magnitude of the primary and secondary forces. [Ans.
6.3 kN ; 1.1 kN]
5. A twin cylinder V-engine has the cylinders set at an angle of 45°, with both pistons connected to the
single crank. The crank radius is 62.5 mm and the connecting rods are 275 mm long. The
3.Maximum swaying couple reciprocating mass per line is 1.5 kg and the total rotating mass is equivalent to 2 kg at the crank
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We know the maximum swaying couple radius. A balance mass fitted opposite to the crank, is equivalent to 2.25 kg at a radius of 87.5 mm.
Determine for an engine speed of 1800 r.p.m. ; the maximum and minimum values of the primary
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and secondary forces due to the inertia of reciprocating and rotating masses.
[ Ans. Primary forces : 3240 N (max.) and 1830 N (min.) Secondary forces : 1020 N (max.) and 470 N
(min.)]
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2.14 REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Discuss how a single revolving mass is balanced by two masses revolving in different planes.
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2.How the different masses rotating in different planes are balanced ?
3. In order to have a complete balance of the several revolving masses in different planes?
4. What are in-line engines ? How are they balanced ? It is possible to balance them completely ?
5. The primary unbalanced force is maximum when the angle of inclination of the crank with the line
of stroke is ____________
6. In order to facilitate the starting of locomotive in any position, the cranks of a locomotive, with two
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cylinders, are placed at . . . . . . to each other
7. When the primary direct crank of a reciprocating engine makes an angle θ with the line of
stroke, then the secondary direct crank will make an angle of . . . . . with the line of stroke.
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2.15 TUTORIAL PROBLEMS:
1. Four masses A, B, C and D revolve at equal radii and are equally spaced along a shaft. The mass B is 7
kg and the radii of C and D make angles of 90° and 240° respectively with the radius of B. Find the
magnitude of the masses A, C and D and the angular position of A so that the system may be
completely balanced.
[Ans. 5 kg ; 6 kg ; 4.67 kg ; 205° from mass B in anticlockwise direction]
2. A rotating shaft carries four masses A, B, C and D which are radially attached to it. The mass centres
are 30 mm, 38 mm, 40 mm and 35 mm respectively from the axis of rotation. The masses A, C and D
are 7.5 kg, 5 kg and 4 kg respectively. The axial distances between the planes of rotation of A and B is
400 mm and between B and C is 500 mm. The masses A and C are at right angles to each other. Find
for a complete balance,
1. the angles between the masses B and D from mass A,
2. the axial distance between the planes of rotation of C and D,
3. the magnitude of mass B. [Ans. 162.5°, 47.5° ; 511 mm : 9.24 kg]
90 91

UNIT-III SINGLE DEGREE FREE VIBRATION

3.1 INTRODUCTION: 3.3.1 Effects of vibration:
When a system is subjected to an initial disturbance and then left free to vibrate on its
own, the resulting vibrations are referred to as free vibrations .Free vibration occurs when a (a)Bad Effects:
mechanical system is set off with an initial input and then allowed to vibrate freely. Examples of The presence of vibration in any mechanical system produces unwanted noise, high
this type of vibration are pulling a child back on a swing and then letting go or hitting a tuning stresses, poor reliability, wear and premature failure of parts. Vibrations are a great source of
fork and letting it ring. The mechanical system will then vibrate at one or more of its "natural human discomfort in the form of physical and mental strains.
frequencies" and damp down to zero.
(b)Good Effects:
3.2 BASIC ELEMENTS OF VIBRATION SYSTEM: A vibration does useful work in musical instruments, vibrating screens, shakers, relive
pain in physiotherapy.
Mass or Inertia
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3.4 METHODS OF REDUCTION OF VIBRATION:
Springiness or Restoring element
 -unbalance is its main cause, so balancing of parts is necessary.
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Dissipative element (often called damper)  -using shock absorbers.

External excitation  -using dynamic vibration absorbers.
 -providing the screens (if noise is to be reduced)
3.3 CAUSES OF VIBRATION:
3.5 TYPES OF VIBRATORY MOTION:
Unbalance: This is basically in reference to the rotating bodies. The uneven distribution
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of mass in a rotating body contributes to the unbalance. A good example of unbalance related  Free Vibration
vibration would be the ―vibrating alert‖ in our mobile phones. Here a small amount of  Forced Vibration
unbalanced weight is rotated by a motor causing the vibration which makes the mobile phone to
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vibrate. You would have experienced the same sort of vibration occurring in your front loaded 3.6 TERMS USED VIBRATORY MOTION:
washing machines that tend to vibrate during the ―spinning‖ mode.
(a)Time period (or)period of vibration:
Misalignment: This is an other major cause of vibration particularly in machines that are
driven by motors or any other prime movers. It is the time taken by a vibrating body to repeat the motion itself.time period is usually
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expressed in seconds.
Bent Shaft: A rotating shaft that is bent also produces the the vibrating effect since it
losses it rotation capability about its center. (b) Cycle:
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It is the motion completed in one time period.

Gears in the machine: The gears in the machine always tend to produce vibration,
mainly due to their meshing. Though this may be controlled to some extent, any problem in the (c) Periodic motion:
gearbox tends to get enhanced with ease. A motion which repeats itself after equal interval of time.
Bearings: Last but not the least, here is a major contributor for vibration. In majority of (d)Amplitude (X)
the cases every initial problem starts in the bearings and propagates to the rest of the members of The maximum displacement of a vibrating body from the mean position.it is usually
the machine. A bearing devoid of lubrication tends to wear out fast and fails quickly, but before expressed in millimeter.
this is noticed it damages the remaining components in the machine and an initial look would
seem as if something had gone wrong with the other components leading to the bearing failure.
(e) Frequency (f)
The number of cycles completed in one second is called frequency

A two degree of freedom system With reference to automobile applications, this is referred
as ―quarter car‖ model. The bottom mass refers to mass of axle, wheel etc components which are
3.7 DEGREES OF FREEDOM: below the suspension spring and the top mass refers to the mass of the portion of the car and
passenger. Since we need to specify both the top and bottom mass positions to completely
The minimum number of independent coordinates required to specify the motion of a
specify the system, this becomes a two degree of freedom system.
system at any instant is known as D.O.F of the system.
3.8 TYPES OF VIBRATORY MOTION:
3.7.1 Single degree of freedom system:
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The system shown in this figure is what is known as a Single Degree of Freedom system.
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We use the term degree of freedom to refer to the number of coordinates that are required to
specify completely the configuration of the system. Here, if the position of the mass of the
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system is specified then accordingly the position of the spring and damper are also identified.
Thus we need just one coordinate (that of the mass) to specify the system completely and hence
Types of Vibration:
it is known as a single degree of freedom system.
(a)Longitudinal vibration (b)Transverse Vibration ( c)Torsional Vibration.
3.7.2 Two degree of freedom system:
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Longitudinal Vibration:
When the particles of the shaft or disc moves parallel to the axis of the shaft, then the
vibrations known as longitudinal vibrations.
Free undamped longitudinal vibrations;
When a body is allowed to vibrate on its own, after giving it an initial displacement,
then the ensuring vibrations are known as free or natural vibrations. When the vibrations take
place parallel to the axis of constraint and no damping is provided, then it is called free
undamped longitudinal vibrations.
3.9 NATURAL FREQUENCY OF FREE UNDAMPED LONGITUDINAL VIBRATION:

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3.9.1 Eq u ilib riu m m et h od or Newt on € s met h od :
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3.9.2 Energy Method

In free vibrations, no energy is transferred into the system or from the system. Therefore,
the total energy (sum of KE and PE)is constant and is same all the times.
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98

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3.9.3 Rayleigh€s method

In this method, the maximum kinetic energy at mean position is made equal to the
maximum potential energy at the extreme position.
3.10 EQUIVALENT STIFFNESS OF SPRING.
(1) Springs in series

(2) Springs in parallel
(3) Combined springs
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(4) Inclined springs
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3.11 DAMPING:
It is the resistance to the motion of a vibrating body. The vibrations associated with this
resistance are known as damped vibrations.
3.11.1 Types of damping:
(1) Viscous damping

(2) Dry friction or coulomb damping
(3) Solid damping or structural damping
(4) Slip or interfacial damping.

3.11.2 Damping Coefficient: Thus mainly three cases arise depending on the value of
The damping force per unit velocity is known as damping coefficient.
3.11.3 Equivalent damping coefficient:

When the system undergoes aperiodically decaying motion and hence such systems are said to be
Dampers may be connected either in series or in parallel to provide required damping.
Overdamped Systems.
3.12 DAMPED VIBRATION:
An example of such a system is a door damper – when we open a door and enter a room, we want the door
The vibrations associated with this resistance are known as damped vibrations. to gradually close rather than exhibit oscillatory motion and bang into the person entering the room behind
us! So the damper is designed such that
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Critically damped motion ( a hypothetical borderline case separating oscillatory decay from a
3.12.1 Damping factor: periodic decay) I the fastest decaying aperiodic motion.
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Damping factor can be defined as the ratio of actual damping coefficient to critical
damping coefficient. When ― < 1‖, x(t) is a damped sinusoid and the system exhibits a vibratory motion whose amplitude keeps
diminishing. This is the most common vibration case and we will spend most of our time studying such
systems. These are referred to as Underdamped systems.
3.12.2 Logarithmic decrement:

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It is defined as the natural logarithm of ratio of any two successive amplitudes of an
under damped system. It is a dimensionless quantity.
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We define Damping factor as
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102

103


3.13 TRANSVERSE VIBRATION:

3.13.1 Whirling speed of shaft:
When the particles of the shaft or disc moves approximately perpendicular to the axis of
the shaft, then the vibrations known as transverse vibrations. The speed, at which the shaft runs so that the additional deflection of the shaft from the
axis of rotation becomes infinite, is known as critical or whirling speed.
No shaft can ever be perfectly straight or perfectly balanced. When an element of mass is a
distance from the axis of rotation, centrifugal force, will tend to pull the mass outward. The
elastic properties of the shaft will act to restore the ―straightness‖. If the frequency of rotation is
equal to one of the resonant frequencies of the shaft, whirling will occur. In order to save the
machine from failure, operation at such whirling speeds must be avoided.
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The whirling frequency of a symmetric cross section of a given length between two points is
given by:
RPM
Where E = young's modulus, I = Second moment of area, m = mass of the shaft, L= length
of the shaft between points
A shaft with weights added will have an angular velocity of N (rpm) equivalent as follows:

3.14 TORSIONAL VIBRATION:
When the particles of the shaft or disc move in a circle about the axis of the shaft, then
the vibrations known as tensional vibration
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3.14.2 Torsional vibration of a two rotor system:

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3.14.1 Torsional vibration of a single rotor system:

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3.14.3 Torsionally equivalent shaft:
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1. A machine of mass 75 kg is mounted on springs and is fitted with a dashpot to damp
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out vibrations. There are three springs each of stiffness 10 N/mm and it is found that
the amplitude of vibration diminishes from 38.4 mm to 6.4 mm in two complete
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oscillations. Assuming that the damping force varies as the velocity, determine : 1. the
resistance of the dash-pot at unit velocity ; 2. the ratio of the frequency of the damped
vibration to the frequency of the undamped vibration ; and 3. the periodic time of the
damped vibration.
Solution. Given : m = 75 kg ; s = 10 N/mm = 10 ×103 N/m ; x1 = 38.4 mm = 0.0384 m
; x3 = 6.4 mm = 0.0064 m
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Since the stiffness of each spring is 10 × 103 N/m and there are 3 springs, therefore
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total stiffness,
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1. Resistance of the dashpot at unit velocity


2. 2. Ratio of the frequency of the damped vibration to the frequency of undamped vibration
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2. The mass of a single degree damped vibrating system is 7.5 kg and makes 24 free
oscillations in 14 seconds when disturbed from its equilibrium position. The amplitude of
vibration reduces to 0.25 of its initial value after five oscillations. Determine : 1. stiffness
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of the spring, 2. logarithmic decrement, and 3. damping factor, i.e. the ratio of the system
damping to critical damping.
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Solution. Given : m = 7.5 kg

Since 24 oscillations are made in 14 seconds, therefore frequency of free vibrations, 3(i) The measurements on a mechanical vibrating system show that it has a mass of 8 kg
and that the springs can be combined to give an equivalent spring of stiffness 5.4 N/mm.
If the vibrating system have a dashpot attached which exerts a force of 40 N when the
mass has a velocity of 1 m/s, find : 1. critical damping coefficient, 2. damping factor, 3.
logarithmic decrement, and 4. ratio of two consecutive amplitudes.
Solution. Given : m = 8 kg ; s = 5.4 N/mm = 5400 N/m
Since the force exerted by dashpot is 40 N, and the mass has a velocity of 1 m/s , therefore
Damping coefficient (actual),

4(i) A coil of spring stiffness 4 N/mm supports vertically a mass of 20 kg at the

free end. The motion is resisted by the oil dashpot. It is found that the amplitude at the
beginning of the fourth cycle is 0.8 times the amplitude of the previous vibration.
Determine the damping force per unit velocity. Also find the ratio of the frequency of
damped and undamped vibrations.
c = 40 N/m/s Solution. Given : s = 4 N/mm = 4000 N/m ; m = 20 kg
Damping force per unit velocity
Let c = Damping force in newtons per unit velocity i.e. in N/m/s
xn = Amplitude at the beginning of the third cycle,
xn+1 = Amplitude at the beginning of the fourth cycle = 0.8 xn
We know that natural circular frequency of motion,
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3 (ii) An instrument vibrates with a frequency of 1 Hz when there is no damping. When the
damping is provided, the frequency of damped vibrations was observed to be 0.9 Hz. Find 1.
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the damping factor, and 2. logarithmic decrement.
Solution. Given : fn = 1 Hz ; fd = 0.9 Hz

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1. Damping factor
Let m= Mass of the instrument in kg,
c= Damping coefficient
or damping force per unit
velocity in N/m/s, and
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cc= Critical damping coefficient in
N/m/s.
We know that natural circular frequency of undamped vibrations,
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4(ii) Derive an expression for the natural frequency of single degrees of freedom system. 5. A vertical shaft of 5 mm diameter is 200 mm long and is supported in long bearings at
its ends. A disc of mass 50 kg is attached to the centre of the shaft. Neglecting any
We know that the kinetic energy is due to the motion of the body and the potential increase in stiffness due to the attachment of the disc to the shaft, find the critical speed
energy is with respect to a certain datum position which is equal to the amount of work of rotation and the maximum bending stress when the shaft is rotating at 75% of the
required to move the body from the datum position. In the case of vibrations, the datum critical speed. The centre of the disc is 0.25 mm from the geometric axis of the shaft. E =
position is the mean or equilibrium position at which the potential energy of the body or the 200 GN/m2.
system is zero.
Solution. Given : d = 5 mm = 0.005 m ; l = 200 mm = 0.2 m ; m = 50 kg ; e = 0.25 mm =
In the free vibrations, no energy is transferred to the system or from the system.
0.25 × 10–3 m ; E = 200 GN/m2 = 200 × 109 N/m2
Therefore the summation of kinetic energy and potential energy must be a constant quantity
Critical speed of rotation
which is same at all the times. In other words,
We know that moment of inertia of the shaft,
We know that kinetic energy,

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Since the shaft is supported in long bearings, it is assumed to be fixed at both ends. We
know that the static deflection at the centre of the shaft due to a mass of 50 kg,
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Maximum bending stress

Let σ = Maximum bending stress in N/m2, and
N = Speed of the shaft = 75% of critical speed = 0.75 Nc . . . (Given)
When the shaft starts rotating, the additional dynamic load (W1) to which the shaft is
subjected, may be obtained by using the bending equation,
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We know that for a shaft fixed at both ends and carrying a point load (W1) at the centre,
Comparing equations, the maximum bending moment

6.(ii) Calculate the whirling speed of a shaft 20 mm diameter and 0.6 m long
6.(i) A shaft 50 mm diameter and 3 metres long is simply supported at the ends and carrying a mass of 1 kg at its mid-point. The density of the shaft material is 40 Mg/m3,
carries three loads of 1000 N, 1500 N and 750 N at 1 m, 2 m and 2.5 m from the left and Young€s modulus is 200 GN/m2. Assume the shaft to be freely supported.
support. The Young's modulus for shaft material is 200 GN/m2. Find the frequency of
transverse vibration.
Solution. Given : d = 50 mm = 0.05 m ; l = 3 m, W1 = 1000 N ; W2 = 1500 N ; W3 = 750 N;
E = 200 GN/m2 = 200 × 109 N/m2
The shaft carrying the loads is shown in Fig. 23.13
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3.16 REVIEW QUESTIONS UNIT-IV FORCED VIBRATION
1. When a body is subjected to transverse vibrations, the stress induced in a body will be 4.1 INTRODUCTION:
?
2. In under damped vibrating system, if x1 and x2 are the successive values of the When a system is subjected continuously to time varying disturbances, the
amplitude on the same side of the mean position, then the logarithmic decrement is equal to? vibrations resulting under the presence of the external disturbance are referred to as forced
vibrations.
3. Discuss the effect of inertia of the shaft in longitudinal and transverse vibrations?
4. How the natural frequency of torsional vibrations for a two rotor system is obtained ? Forced vibration is when an alternating force or motion is applied to a
5. . At a nodal point in a shaft, the amplitude of torsional vibration is? mechanical system. Examples of this type of vibration include a shaking washing machine due to
an imbalance, transportation vibration (caused by truck engine, springs, road, etc), or the
3.17 TUTORIAL PROBLEMS vibration of a building during an earthquake. In forced vibration the frequency of the vibration is
the frequency of the force or motion applied, with order of magnitude being dependent on the
1. A beam of length 10 m carries two loads of mass 200 kg at distances of 3 m from each actual mechanical system.
end together
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with a central load of mass 1000 kg. Calculate the frequency of transverse vibrations. When a vehicle moves on a rough road, it is continuously subjected to road
Neglect the mass of the beam and take I = 109 mm4 and E = 205×103 N/mm2. [Ans. undulations causing the system to vibrate (pitch, bounce, roll etc). Thus the automobile is said to
13.8 Hz]
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undergo forced vibrations. Similarly whenever the engine is turned on, there is a resultant
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2. A vertical shaft 25 mm diameter and 0.75 m long is mounted in long bearings and carries residual unbalance force that is transmitted to the chassis of the vehicle through the engine
a pulley mounts, causing again forced vibrations of the vehicle on its chassis. A building when subjected
of mass 10 kg midway between the bearings. The centre of pulley is 0.5 mm from the to time varying ground motion (earthquake) or wind loads, undergoes forced vibrations. Thus
axis of the shaft. Find (a) the whirling speed, and (b) the bending stress in the shaft, most of the practical examples of vibrations are indeed forced vibrations.
when it is rotating at 1700 r.p.m. Neglect the mass of the shaft and E = 200 GN/m2.
[Ans. 3996 r.p.m ; 12.1 MN/m2]
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4.2 CAUSES RESONANCE:

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3. A shaft of 100 mm diameter and 1 metre long is fixed at one end and the other end
carries a Resonance is simple to understand if you view the spring and mass as energy storage
flywheel of mass 1 tonne. The radius of gyration of the flywheel is 0.5 m. Find the elements – with the mass storing kinetic energy and the spring storing potential energy. As
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frequency of torsional vibrations, if the modulus of rigidity for the shaft material is 80 discussed earlier, when the mass and spring have no force acting on them they transfer energy
GN/m2. [Ans. 8.9 Hz] back and forth at a rate equal to the natural frequency. In other words, if energy is to be
4. The flywheel of an engine driving a dynamo has a mass of 180 kg and a radius of efficiently pumped into both the mass and spring the energy source needs to feed the energy in at
gyration of 30 a rate equal to the natural frequency. Applying a force to the mass and spring is similar to
mm. The shaft at the flywheel end has an effective length of 250 mm and is 50 mm pushing a child on swing, you need to push at the correct moment if you want the swing to get
diameter. The higher and higher. As in the case of the swing, the force applied does not necessarily have to be
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armatur high to get large motions; the pushes just need to keep adding energy into the system.
e mass 120 kg and its radius of gyration is 22.5 mm. The dynamo shaft is 43
is mm The damper, instead of storing energy, dissipates energy. Since the damping force is
diamete
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proportional to the velocity, the more the motion, the more the damper dissipates the energy.
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r and mm effective length. Calculate the position of node and frequency of

200 torsional Therefore a point will come when the energy dissipated by the damper will equal the energy
oscillation. C = 83 kN/mm2. [Ans. 205 mm from flywheel, 218 Hz] being fed in by the force. At this point, the system has reached its maximum amplitude and will
5. The two rotors A and B are attached to the end of a shaft 500 mm long. The mass of continue to vibrate at this level as long as the force applied stays the same. If no damping exists,
the rotor A is 300 kg and its radius of gyration is 300 mm. The corresponding values there is nothing to dissipate the energy and therefore theoretically the motion will continue to
grow on into infinity.
of the rotor B are 500 kg and 450 mm respectively. The shaft is 70 mm in diameter for
the first 250 mm ; 120 mm for the
next 70 mm and 100 mm diameter for the remaining length. The modulus of rigidity for
the shaft material is 80 GN/m2. Find : 1. The position of the node, and 2. The frequency
of torsional vibration. [Ans. 225 mm from A ; 27.3 Hz]


4.3 FORCED VIBRATION OF A SINGLE DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM:
We saw that when a system is given an initial input of energy, either in the form
of an initial displacement or an initial velocity, and then released it will, under the right
conditions, vibrate freely. If there is damping in the system, then the oscillations die away. If a
system is given a continuous input of energy in the form of a continuously applied force or a
continuously applied displacement, then the consequent vibration is called forced vibration. The
energy input can overcome that dissipated by damping mechanisms and the oscillations are
sustained.
We will consider two types of forced vibration. The first is where the ground to
which the system is attached is itself undergoing a periodic displacement, such as the vibration of Figure 4.2: Force polygon
a building in an earthquake. The second is where a periodic force is applied to the mass, or object
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performing the motion; an example might be the forces exerted on the body of a car by the forces The steady state response of the system can be determined by solving equation(4.1) in many
produced in the engine. The simplest form of periodic force or displacement is sinusoidal, so we different ways. Here a simpler graphical method is used which will give physical understanding
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will begin by considering forced vibration due to sinusoidal motion of the ground. In all real to this dynamic problem. From solution of differential equations it is known that the steady state
systems, energy will be dissipated, i.e. the system will be damped, but often the damping is very solution (particular integral) will be of the form
small. So let us first analyze systems in which there is no damping.
4.4 STEADY STATE RESPONSE DUE TO HARMONIC OSCILLATION: (4.2)
Consider a spring-mass-damper system as shown in figure 4.1. The equation of As each term of equation (4.1) represents a forcing term viz., first, second and third terms,
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motion of this system subjected to a harmonic force can be given by represent the inertia force, spring force, and the damping forces. The term in the right hand side
of equation (4.1) is the applied force. One may draw a close polygon as shown in figure 4.2
considering the equilibrium of the system under the action of these forces. Considering a
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(4.1) reference line these forces can be presented as follows.
where, m , k and c are the mass, spring stiffness and damping coefficient of the system, F is the
amplitude of the force, w is the excitation frequency or driving frequency. • Spring force = (This force will make an angle with the
reference line, represented by line OA).
• Damping force = (This force will be perpendicular to the spring
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force, represented by line AB).
• Inertia force = (this force is perpendicular to the damping
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force and is in opposite direction with the spring force and is represented by line BC) .
• Applied force = which can be drawn at an angle with respect to the
reference line and is represented by line OC.
From equation (1), the resultant of the spring force, damping force and the inertia force will be the
Figure 4.1 Harmonically excited system applied force, which is clearly shown in figure 4.2.
It may be noted that till now, we don't know about the magnitude of X and which can be easily computed from
Figure 2. Drawing a line CD parallel to AB, from the triangle OCD of Figure 2,

4.5 FORCED VIBRATION WITH DAMPING:

In this section we will see the behaviour of the spring mass damper model when we add
From the previous module of free-vibration it may be
a harmonic force in the form below. A force of this type could, for example, be generated by a
recalled that
rotating imbalance.
• Natural frequency
• Critical damping If we again sum the forces on the mass we get the following ordinary differential equation:
• Damping factor or damping ratio

The steady state solution of this problem can be written as:
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• Hence,
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The result states that the mass will oscillate at the same frequency, f, of the applied force,
but with a phase shift φ.
The amplitude of the vibration ―X‖ is defined by the following formula.
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or Where ―r‖ is defined as the ratio of the harmonic force frequency over the undamped
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natural frequency of the mass–spring–damper model.
The phase shift , φ, is defined by the following formula.

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As the ratio is the static deflection of the spring, is known as

the magnification factor or amplitude ratio of the system
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The plot of these functions, called "the frequency response of the system", presents one of the
most important features in forced vibration. In a lightly damped system when the forcing
frequency nears the natural frequency ( ) the amplitude of the vibration can get extremely
high. This phenomenon is called resonance (subsequently the natural frequency of a system is

often referred to as the resonant frequency). In rotor bearing systems any rotational speed that
excites a resonant frequency is referred to as a critical speed.
4.6 ROTATING UNBALANCE FORCED VIBRATION:
If resonance occurs in a mechanical system it can be very harmful – leading to
eventual failure of the system. Consequently, one of the major reasons for vibration analysis is to One may find many rotating systems in industrial applications. The unbalanced
force in such a system can be represented by a mass m with eccentricity e , which is rotating with
predict when this type of resonance may occur and then to determine what steps to take to angular velocity as shown in Figure 4.1.
prevent it from occurring. As the amplitude plot shows, adding damping can significantly reduce
the magnitude of the vibration. Also, the magnitude can be reduced if the natural frequency can
be shifted away from the forcing frequency by changing the stiffness or mass of the system. If
the system cannot be changed, perhaps the forcing frequency can be shifted (for example,
changing the speed of the machine generating the force).
The following are some other points in regards to the forced vibration shown in the frequency
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response plots.
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At a given frequency ratio, the amplitude of the vibration, X, is directly proportional to
the amplitude of the force F0 (e.g. if you double the force, the vibration doubles)
With little or no damping, the vibration is in phase with the forcing frequency when the
frequency ratio r < 1 and 180 degrees out of phase when the frequency ratio r > 1
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Figure 4.1 : Vibrating system with rotating unbalance
When r ≪ 1 the amplitude is just the deflection of the spring under the static
force F0. This deflection is called the static deflection δst. Hence, when r ≪ 1 the effects of the
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damper and the mass are minimal.
When r ≫ 1 the amplitude of the vibration is actually less than the static deflection δst. In
this region the force generated by the mass (F = ma) is dominating because the acceleration seen
by the mass increases with the frequency. Since the deflection seen in the spring, X, is reduced in
this region, the force transmitted by the spring (F = kx) to the base is reduced. Therefore the
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mass–spring–damper system is isolating the harmonic force from the mounting base – referred to
as vibration isolation. Interestingly, more damping actually reduces the effects of vibration
isolation when r ≫ 1 because the damping force (F = cv) is also transmitted to the base.
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Figure 4.2. Freebody diagram of the system
Let x be the displacement of the nonrotating mass (M-m) from the static equilibrium
position, then the displacement of the rotating mass m is
From the freebody diagram of the system shown in figure 4.2, the equation of motion is

(4.1)
or (4.2)
and (4.7)
This equation is same as equation (1) where F is replaced by . So from the force polygon So the complete solution becomes
as shown in figure 4.3
(4.3) (4.8)
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4.7 VIBRATION ISOLATION AND TRANSMISSIBILITY:
or (4.4)
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When a machine is operating, it is subjected to several time varying forces because of which it
tends to exhibit vibrations. In the process, some of these forces are transmitted to the foundation – which
could undermine the life of the foundation and also affect the operation of any other machine on the same
foundation. Hence it is of interest to minimize this force transmission. Similarly when a system is subjected
to ground motion, part of the ground motion is transmitted to the system as we just discussed e.g., an
or (4.5) automobile going on an uneven road; an instrument mounted on the vibrating surface of an aircraft etc. In
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these cases, we wish to minimize the motion transmitted from the ground to the system. Such considerations
are used in the design of machine foundations and in order to understand some of the basic issues involved,
we will study this problem based on the single d.o.f model discussed so far.
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we get the expression for force transmitted to the base as follows:

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Figure 4.3: Force polygon

4.7.1 Vibration Isolators:
Consider a vibrating machine; bolted to a rigid floor (Figure 2a).The force transmitted to the
floor is equal to the force generated in the machine. The transmitted force can be decreased by
adding a suspension and damping elements (often called vibration isolators) Figure 2b , or by
adding what is called an inertia block, a large mass (usually a block of cast concrete), directly
or (4.6) attached to the machine (Figure 2c).Another option is to add an additional level of mass
(sometimes called a seismic mass, again a block of cast concrete) and suspension (Figure 2d).

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Figure 2.Vibrat ion iso lat ion systems: a) Machine bo lted to a rigid foundation
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b) Supported o n iso lat io n springs, rigid fo u ndat io n c) machine attached to an 4.9 SOLVED PROBLEMS
inertial block. d) Supported on isolation springs, non-rigid foundation (such as a
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1. Derive the relation for the displacement of mass from the equilibrium position
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floor); or machine on isolation springs, seismic mass and seco nd level of isolator
springs of the damped vibration system with harmonic forcing.
Consider a system consisting of spring, mass and damper as shown in Fig. 23.19.
Let the system is acted upon by an external periodic (i.e. simple harmonic) disturbing
When oscillatory forces arise unavoidably in machines it is usually desired to force,
prevent these forces from being transmitted to the surroundings. For example, some unbalanced
Fx = F cos ω .t
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forces are inevitable in a car engine, and it is uncomfortable if these are wholly transmitted to the
car body. The usual solution is to mount the source of vibration on sprung supports. Vibration where F = Static force, and
isolation is measured in terms of the motion or force transmitted to the foundation. The lesser the ω = Angular velocity of the periodic disturbing
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force or motion transmitted the greater the vibration isolation force.
Suppose that the foundation is effectively rigid and that only one direction of When the system is constrained to move in vertical guides, it has only one degree of
movement is effectively excited so that the system can be treated as having only one degree of freedom. Let at sometime t, the mass is displaced downwards through a distance x from
freedom. its mean position.
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4.8 RESPONSE WITHOUT DAMPING: The equation of motion may be written as,
The amplitude of the force transmitted to the foundations is Where k is the Stiffness
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of the support and x(t) is the displacement of the mass m.
The governing equation can be determined by considering that the total forcing on the machine is
equal to its mass multiplied by its acceleration (Newton€s second law)
This equation of motion may be solved either by differential equation method or by

graphi-cal method as discussed below :
1. Differential equation method
The equation (i) is a differential equation of the second degree whose right hand side is
130 C.RAVINDIRAN-AP/MECH some function in t. The solution of such type of differential equation consists of two parts ;


one part is the complementary function and the second is particular integral. Therefore the
solution may be written as
x = x1 + x2
where x1 = Complementary function, and x2 = Particular integral.
The complementary function is same as discussed in the previous article, i.e.

x1 = Ce−at cos (ω d t− θ ) . . . (ii) where C and θ are constants. Let
us now find the value of particular integral as discussed below :
Let the particular integral of equation (i) is given by
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2. A mass of 10 kg is suspended from one end of a helical spring, the other end being
fixed. The stiffness of the spring is 10 N/mm. The viscous damping causes the amplitude
to decrease to one-tenth of the initial value in four complete oscillations. If a periodic
force of 150 cos 50 t N is applied at the mass in the vertical direction, find the amplitude
of the forced vibrations. What is its value of resonance ?
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3. The mass of an electric motor is 120 kg and it runs at 1500 r.p.m. The armature mass
is 35 kg and its C.G. lies 0.5 mm from the axis of rotation. The motor is mounted on
five springs of negligible damping so that the force transmitted is one-eleventh of the
impressed force. Assume that the mass of the motor is equally distributed among the
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five springs.
Determine : 1. stiffness of each spring; 2. dynamic force transmitted to the base at the
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operating speed; and 3. natural frequency of the system.
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4. What do you understand by transmissibility? Describe the method of finding the
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transmissibility ratio from unbalanced machine supported with foundation.

A little consideration will show that when an unbalanced machine is installed on the
foundation, it produces vibration in the foundation. In order to prevent these vibrations or to
minimize the transmission of forces to the foundation, the machines are mounted on springs
and dampers or on some vibration isolating material, as shown in Fig. 23.22. The
arrangement is assumed to have one degree of freedom, i.e. it can move up and down only.
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It may be noted that when a periodic (i.e. simple harmonic) disturbing force F cos ω t
is applied to a machine of mass m supported by a spring of stiffness s, then the force is
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transmitted by means of the spring and the damper or dashpot to the fixed support or
foundation.
The ratio of the force transmitted (FT) to the force applied (F) is known as the
isolation factor or transmissibility ratio of the spring support.
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We have discussed above that the force transmitted to the foundation consists of the
fol-lowing two forces :
1.Spring force or elastic force which is equal to s. xmax, and
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2.Damping force which is equal to c. ω .xmax.

Since these two forces are perpendicular to one another, as shown in Fig.23.23,
therefore the force transmitted,

at resonance.
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5. A machine has a mass of 100 kg and unbalanced reciprocating parts of mass 2
kg which move through a vertical stroke of 80 mm with simple harmonic motion. The
machine is mounted on four springs, symmetrically arranged with respect to centre of
mass, in such a way that the machine has one degree of freedom and can undergo
vertical displacements only.
Neglecting damping, calculate the combined stiffness of the spring in order that
the force transmitted to the foundation is 1 / 25 th of the applied force, when the speed
of rotation of ma-chine crank shaft is 1000 r.p.m.
When the machine is actually supported on the springs, it is found that the
damping reduces the amplitude of successive free vibrations by 25%. Find : 1. the
force transmitted to foundation at 1000 r.p.m., 2. the force transmitted to the
foundation at resonance, and 3. the amplitude of the forced vibration of the machine

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6.(i) Derive the relation for magnification factor in case of forced vibration.

6.(ii) A single cylinder vertical petrol engine of total mass 300 kg is mounted upon a 4.10 REVIEW QUESTIONS
steel chassis frame and causes a vertical static deflection of 2 mm. The reciprocating
parts of the engine has a mass of 20 kg and move through a vertical stroke of 150 mm 1. Explain the term •dynamic magnifier€
with simple harmonic motion. A dashpot is provided whose damping resistance is 2. What are the materials used for vibration isolation?
directly proportional to the velocity and amounts to 1.5 kN per metre per second. 3. In vibration isolation system, if ω /ω n > 1, then the phase difference between the
transmitted force and the disturbing force is ?
Considering that the steady state of vibration is reached ; determine : 1. the amplitude
4. In under damped vibrating system, if x1 and x2 are the successive values of the
of forced vibrations, when the driving shaft of the engine rotates at 480 r.p.m., and 2.
amplitude on the _______________
the speed of the driving shaft at which resonance will occur. 5. same side of the mean position, then the logarithmic decrement is equal to
Solution : Given. m = 300 kg; δ = 2 mm = 2 × 10–3 m ; m1 = 20 kg ; l = 150 mm
= 0.15 m ; c = 1.5 kN/m/s = 1500 N/m/s ; N = 480 r.p.m. or ω = 2 ⋅ 480 / 60 = 50.3 rad/s 4.11 TUTORIAL PROBLEMS:
1. A machine of mass 100 kg is supported on openings of total stiffness 800 kN/m and
has a rotating unbalanced element which results in a disturbing force of 400 N at a
speed of 3000 r.p.m. Assum-ing the damping ratio as 0.25, determine : 1. the
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amplitude of vibrations due to unbalance ; and 2. the transmitted force. [Ans. 0.04
mm ; 35.2 N]
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2. A mass of 500 kg is mounted on supports having a total stiffness of 100 kN/m and
which provides viscous damping, the damping ratio being 0.4. The mass is
constrained to move vertically and is subjected to a vertical disturbing force of the
type F cos ω t. Determine the frequency at which resonance will occur and the
maximum allowable value of F if the amplitude at resonance is to be restricted to 5
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mm. [Ans. 2.25 Hz ; 400 N]
3. A machine of mass 75 kg is mounted on springs of stiffness 1200 kN/m and with an

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assumed damping factor of 0.2. A piston within the machine of mass 2 kg has a
reciprocating motion with a stroke of 80 mm and a speed of 3000 cycles/min.
Assuming the motion to be simple harmonic, find : 1. the amplitude of motion of the
machine, 2. its phase angle with respect to the exciting force, 3. the force transmitted
to the foundation, and 4. the phase angle of transmitted force with respect to the
exciting force. [Ans. 1.254 mm ; 169.05° ; 2132 N ; 44.8°]
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UNIT-V MECHANISMS FOR CONTROL
5.1 INTRODUCTION TO GOVERNOR:

A centrifugal governor is a specific type of governor that controls the speed of
an engine by regulating the amount of fuel (or working fluid) admitted, so as to maintain a near
constant speed whatever the load or fuel supply conditions. It uses the principle of proportional
control.
It is most obviously seen on steam engines where it regulates the admission of steam into
the cylinder(s). It is also found on internal combustion engines and variously fuelled turbines,
and in some modern striking clocks.
5.2 PRINCIPLE OF WORKING:

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Power is supplied to the governor from the engine's output shaft by (in this
instance) a belt or chain (not shown) connected to the lower belt wheel. The governor is
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connected to a throttle valve that regulates the flow of working fluid (steam) supplying the prime
mover (prime mover not shown). As the speed of the prime mover increases, the central spindle
of the governor rotates at a faster rate and the kinetic energy of the balls increases. This allows (4) Height of governor
the two masses on lever arms to move outwards and upwards against gravity. If the motion goes
far enough, this motion causes the lever arms to pull down on a thrust bearing, which moves a It is the vertical distance between the centre of the governor halls and the
beam linkage, which reduces the aperture of a throttle valve. The rate of working-fluid entering point of intersection between the upper arms on the axis of spindle is known as
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the cylinder is thus reduced and the speed of the prime mover is controlled, preventing over governor height. It is generally denoted by h.
speeding.
(5) Sleeve lift
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Mechanical stops may be used to limit the range of throttle motion, as seen
near the masses in the image at right. The vertical distance the sleeve travels due to change in the equilibrium
The direction of the lever arm holding the mass will be along the Speed is called the sleeve lift. The vertical downward travel may be termed as
vector sum of the reactive centrifugal force vector and the gravitational force. Negative lift
5.3 CLASSIFICATION OF GOVERNORS: (6) Isochronism

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This is an extreme case of sensitiveness. When the equilibrium speed is constant for all radii
principles. These are: of rotation of the balls within the working range, the governor is said to be in isochronism. This
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1. Centrifugal governors means that the difference between the maximum and minimum equilibrium speeds is zero and
the sensitiveness shall be ininite.
2. Inertia governors
(7) Stability
Centrifugal governors are further classified as –
Stability is the ability to maintain a desired engine speed without Fluctuating. Instability
results in hunting or oscillating due to over correction. Excessive stability results in a dead-beat
governor or one that does not correct sufficiently for load changes
(8) Hunting
The phenomenon of continuous fluctuation of the engine speed above and below the mean
speed is termed as hunting. This occurs in over- sensitive or
isochronous governors. Suppose an isochronous governor is fitted to an engine running at a
steady load. With a slight increase of load, the speed will fall and the sleeve will immediately fall
to its lowest position. This shall open the control valve wide and excess supply of energy will be

given, with the result that the speed will rapidly increase and the sleeve will rise to its higher
position. As a result of this movement of the sleeve, the control valve will be cut off; the supply
to the engine and the speed will again fall, the cycle being repeated indefinitely. Such a governor
would admit either more or less amount of fuel and so effect would be that the engine would
hunt.
5.4 SENSITIVENESS
A governor is said to be sensitive, if its change of speed s from no Load to full load may be
as small a fraction of the mean equilibrium speed as possible and the corresponding sleeve lift
may be as large as possible.
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Suppose
ω1 = max. Equilibrium speed
ω2 = min. equilibrium speed
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ω = mean equilibrium speed = (ω1+ ω2)/2
Therefore sensitiveness = (ω1- ω2)/2
5.5 CHARACTERISTICS AND QUALITIES OF CENTRIFUGAL GOVERNOR:
For satisfactory performance and working a centrifugal governor should possess

The following qualities.
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a. On the sudden removal of load its sleeve should reach at the top most position at Once.
b. Its response to the change of speed should be fast.
c. Its sleeve should float at some intermediate position under normal operating Conditions.
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d. At the lowest position of sleeve the engine should develop maximum power.
e. It should have sufficient power, so that it may be able to exert the required force
At the sleeve to operate the control & mechanism
5.6 WATT GOVERNOR:
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5.7 PORTER GOVERNOR:

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5.8 PROELL GOVERNOR:
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5.9 HARTNELL GOVERNOR:
5.10 HARTUNG GOVERNOR:

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5.12 PICKERING GOVERNOR:

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5.11 WILSON HARTNELL GOVERNOR: 5.13 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A FLYWHEEL AND A GOVERNOR:

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(20) Description and diagram:
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Diagram of a gyro wheel. Reaction arrows about the output axis (blue) correspond to
forces applied about the input axis (green), and vice versa. Within mechanical systems or
devices, a conventional gyroscope is a mechanism comprising a rotor journal led to spin about
one axis, the journals of the rotor being mounted in an inner gimbal or ring, the inner gimbal is
journal led for oscillation in an outer gimbal which is journal led in another gimbal. So basically
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there are three gimbals. The outer gimbal or ring which is the gyroscope frame is mounted so as
to pivot about an axis in its own plane determined by the support. This outer gimbal possesses
one degree of rotational freedom and its axis possesses none. The next inner gimbal is mounted
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in the gyroscope frame (outer gimbal) so as to pivot about an axis in its own plane that is always
perpendicular to the pivotal axis of the gyroscope frame (outer gimbal). This inner gimbal has
5.14 GYROSCOPE AND ITS APPLICATIONS two degrees of rotational freedom. Similarly, next innermost gimbal is attached to the inner
gimbal which has three degree of rotational freedom and its axis posses two. The axle of the
(19) Gyroscope spinning wheel defines the spin axis. The rotor is journaled to spin about an axis which is always
perpendicular to the axis of the innermost gimbal. So, the rotor possesses four degrees of
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A gyroscope is a device for measuring or maintaining orientation, based on the principles of
rotational freedom and its axis possesses three. The wheel responds to a force applied about the
conservation of angular momentum. A mechanical gyroscope is essentially a spinning wheel or
input axis by a reaction force about the output axis.
disk whose axle is free to take any orientation. This orientation changes much less in response to
The behavior of a gyroscope can be most easily appreciated by consideration of the
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a given external torque than it would without the large angular momentum associated with the
front wheel of a bicycle. If the wheel is leaned away from the vertical so that the top of the wheel
gyroscope's high rate of spin. Since external torque is minimized by mounting the device in
moves to the left, the forward rim of the wheel also turns to the left. In other words, rotation on
gimbals, its orientation remains nearly fixed, regardless of any motion of the platform on which
one axis of the turning wheel produces rotation of the third axis.
it is mounted. Gyroscopes based on other operating principles also Exit, such as the electronic,
microchip-packaged MEMS gyroscope devices found in consumer electronic devices, solid state
ring lasers, fiber optic gyroscopes and the extremely sensitive quantum gyroscope. Applications
of gyroscopes include navigation (INS) when magnetic compasses do not work (as in the Hubble
telescope) or are not precise enough (as in ICBMs) or for the stabilization of flying vehicles like
radio-controlled helicopters or UAVs. Due to higher precision, gyroscopes are also used to
maintain direction in tunnel mining.

5.15 E F F E C T O F T H E G Y R O S C O P I C C O U P L E O N A N A E R O P L A N E
5.17.1 EFFE CT O F GYRO SCO PI C CO U PLE O N A NAV A L S H I P DU RI N G
P I T CHI N G& STEERING
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5.16 EFFECT OF GYROSCOPIC COUPLE
This couple is, therefore, to raise the nose and dip the tail of the aero plane.
Notes
1. When the aero plane takes a right turn under similar Conditions as discussed above, the effect of
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the reactive Couple will be to dip the nose and raise the tail of the aero plane.
2. When the engine or propeller rotates in anticlockwise direction when viewed from the rear or tail
end and the aero plane takes a left turn, then the effect of reactive gyroscopic couple will be to dip
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the nose and raise the tail of the aero plane.
3. When the aero plane takes a right turn under similar Conditions as mentioned in note 2 above,
the effect of Reactive gyroscopic couple will be to raise the nose and dip the of the aero plane.
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4. When the engine or propeller rotates in clockwise direction when viewed from the front and the
aero plane takes a left turn, then the effect of reactive gyroscopic couple will be to raise the tail and
dip the nose of the aero plane.
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5. When the aero plane takes a right turn under similar conditions as mentioned in note4 above,
the effect of reactive gyroscopic couple will be to raise the nose and dip the tail of the aero plane.
5.17 EFFECT OF GYROSCOPIC COUPLE ON SHIP Steering is the turning of a complete ship in a curve towards left or right, while it moves
forward, considers the ship taking a left turn, and rotor rotates in the clockwise direction
The top and front views of a naval ship are shown in fig. The fore end of the ship is called when viewed from the stern, as shown in Fig. below. The effect of gyroscopic couple on a
bow and the rear end is known as stern or aft. The left hand and the right hand sides of the ship, naval ship during steering taking left or right turn may be obtained in the similar way as
when viewed from the stern are called port and star board respectively. We shall now discuss the for an aero plane as discussed in Art.
effect of gyroscopic couple in the naval ship in the following three cases: When the rotor of the ship rotates in the clockwise direction
1. Steering when viewed from the stern, it will have its angular momentum vector in the direction ox as
shown in Fig. A1. As the ship steers to the left, the active gyroscopic couple will change the
2. Pitching, and angular momentum vector from ox to ox’. The vector xx’ now represents the active
3. Rolling gyroscopic couple and is perpendicular to ox. Thus the plane of active gyroscopic couple is

perpendicular to xx’ and its direction in the axis OZ for left hand turn is clockwise as 5.18 EFFE CT O F GYRO SCO P I C CO U P LE O N A 4- W H EE L DRI VE :
shown in Fig below. The reactive gyroscopic couple of the same magnitude will act in the
opposite direction (i.e in anticlockwise direction). The effect of this reactive gyroscopic couple
is to raise the bow and lower the stern.
Notes
1. When the ship steers to the right under similar condition as discussed above, the effect of the
reactive gyroscopic couple, as shown in Fig. B1, will be to raise the stern and lower the bow.
2. When the rotor rotates in the anticlockwise direction, when viewed from the stern and the
ship is steering to the left, then the effect of reactive gyroscopic couple will be to lower the
bow and raise the stern.
3. When the ship is steering to the right under similar conditions as discussed in note 2
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above, then the effect of reactive gyroscopic couple will be to raise the bow and lower the
stern.
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4. When the rotor rotates in the clockwise direction when viewed from the bow or fore end
and the ship is steering to the left, then the effect of reactive gyroscopic couple will be to
raise the stern and lower the bow.
5. When the ship is steering to the right under similar conditions as discussed in note 4
above, then the effect of reactive gyroscopic couple will be to raise the bow and lower the
stern.
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6. The effect of the reactive gyroscopic couple on a boat propelled by a turbine taking left or
right turn.
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5.17.2 Effect of Gy ro sco p i c co u p le o n a Na v a l S h i p d u ri n g Rolling:
We know that, for the effect of gyroscopic couple to occur, the axis of precession
should always be perpendicular to the axis of spin. If, however, the axis of precession becomes
parallel to the axis of spin, there will be no effect of the gyroscopic couple acting on the body of
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the ship. In case of rolling of a ship, the axis of precession (i.e. longitudinal axis) is always parallel
to the axis of spin for all positions. Hence, there is no effect of the gyroscopic couple acting on the
body of a ship.
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5.19. SOLVED PROBLEMS

1.(i) Explain the function of the proell governor with the help of a neat sketch.
Derive that relationship among the various forces acting on the link. (12)
The Proell governor has the balls fixed at B and C to the extension of the
links DF and EG, as shown in Fig. 18.12 (a). The arms FP and GQ are pivoted at P
and Q respectively.
Consider the equilibrium of the forces on one-half of the governor as shown in
Fig. 18.12 (b). The instantaneous centre (I) lies on the intersection of the line PF
produced and the line from D drawn perpendicular to the spindle axis. The
perpendicular B M is drawn on ID.
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1 (ii). What are centrifugal governors? how do they differ from inertia governor? (4)
The centrifugal governors are based on the balancing of centrifugal force on
the rotating balls by an equal and opposite radial force, known as the controlling
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force
In inertia governors the positions of the balls are affected by the rate of
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change of speed. i.e., angular acceleration or retardation of the governor shaft. The
amount of displacement of governor balls is controlled by suitable springs and the
Fig. 18.12. Proell governor. fuel supply to the engine is controlled by governor mechanism.
Taking moments about I, Though the sensitiveness of the inertia governors is more, there is a practical
difficulty of balancing the inertia forces caused by the revolving parts of the
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governor to the controlling force. Hence these governors are not preferred when
compared with the centifugal governors.
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2. . A Proell governor has equal arms of length 300 m m. The upper and
lower ends of the arms are pivoted on the axis of the governor. The extension
arms of the lower links are each 80 mm long and parallel to the axis when the
radii of rotation of the balls are 150 mm and 200 m m. The mass of each ball is
10 kg and the mass of the central load is 100 kg. Determine the range of speed of
the governor.
Solution. Given : PF = DF = 300 mm ; BF = 80 mm ; m = 10 kg ; M = 100 kg
; r1 = 150 mm; r2 = 200 mm
First of all, let us find the minimum and maximum speed of the governor. The
minimum and maximum position of the governor is shown in Fig. 18.13.
Let N1 = Minimum speed when radius of rotation, r1 = FG = 150 mm
; and
N2 = Maximum speed when radius of rotation , r2 = FG =
200 mm. From Fig. (a), we find that height of the governor,

3. The radius of rotation of the balls of a Hartnell governor is 80 mm at the

minimum speed of 300 r.p.m. Neglecting gravity effect, determine the speed
after the sleeve has lifted by 60 m m. Also determine the initial compression of
the spring, the governor effort and the power.
The particulars of the governor are given below:
Length of ball arm = 150 mm ; length of sleeve arm = 100 mm ; mass of
each ball = 4 kg ; and stiffness of the spring = 25 N/m m.
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Solution. Given : r1 = 80 mm = 0.08 m ; N1 = 300 r.p.m. or ω 1 = 2π ×
300/60 = 31.42 rad/s ; h = 60 mm = 0.06 m ; x = 150 mm = 0.15 m ; y = 100 mm =
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0.1 m ; m = 4 kg ; s = 25 N/mm
From Fig. (a), we find that

sin α = sin β = 150 / 300 = 0.5 orα = β = 30°
and MD = FG = 150 mm = 0.15 m
FM = FD cos β = 300 cos 30° = 260 mm = 0.26 m
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IM = FM tan α = 0.26 tan 30° = 0.15 m

BM = BF + FM = 80 + 260 = 340 mm = 0.34 m
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ID = IM + MD = 0.15 + 0.15 = 0.3 m The minimum and maximum position of the governor is shown in Fig. 18.36
We know that centrifugal force, (a) and (b) respectively. First of all, let us find the maximum radius of rotation (r2).
We know that lift of the sleeve,
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Maximum speed of rotation

Let N2 = Maximum speed of rotation, and
S1 and S2= Spring force at the minimum and maximum speed respectively, in
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newtons
.
We know centrifugal force at the minimum speed,
FC1 = m (ω 1)2 r1 = 4 (31.42)2 0.08 = 316 N
Now taking moments about the fulcrum O of the bell crank lever when in
minimum position as shown in Fig 18.36 (a). The gravity effect is neglected, i.e. the
h  PG  ( PF ) 2 – ( FG) 2  (300) 2 – (200) 2  224 mm  0.224 m
moment due to the weight of balls, sleeve and the bell crank lever arms is neglected.
FM = GD = PG = 224 mm = 0.224 m
B M = BF + FM = 80 + 224 = 304 mm = 0.304 m

Fig. 18.8
Let N1 = Minimum speed when r1 = BG = 150 mm ; and
Initial compression of the spring N2 = Maximum speed when r2 = BG = 200 mm.
From Fig. 18.8 (a), we find that height of the governor,
We know that initial compression of the 2 2 2 2
h1  PG  ( BP ) – ( BG)  (250) – (150)  200 mm  0.2 m
spring
BF = BG – FG = 150 – 30 = 120 mm . . . (Œ FG = DH)
2 2 2 2
and DF  ( DB ) – ( BF )  (250) – (120)  219 mm
∴ tan α 1 = BG/PG = 150 / 200 = 0.75
and tan β 1 = BF/DF = 120/219 = 0.548
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Governor power
We know that the governor power
= P × h = 750 × 0.06 = 45 N-m Ans.
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4. A Porter governor has all four arms 250 mm long. The upper arms are attached
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on the axis of rotation and the lower arms are attached to the sleeve at a
distance of 30 m m from the axis. The mass of each ball is 5 kg and the sleeve
has a mass of 50 kg. The extreme radii of rotation are 150 mm and 200 m m.
Determine the range of speed of the governor.
Solution. Given : BP = BD = 250 mm ; DH = 30 mm ; m = 5 kg ; M = 50 kg ;
r1 = 150 mm ; r2 = 200 mm
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minimum and maximum position of the governor is shown in Fig. 18.8 (a) and (b)
respectively.
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5. A spring loaded governor of the Hartnell type has arms of equal length. The
masses rotate in a circle of 130 mm diameter when the sleeve is in the mid
position and the ball arms are vertical. The equilibrium speed for this position
is 450 r.p.m., neglecting friction. The maximum sleeve movement is to be 25
mm and the maximum variation of speed taking in account the friction to be 5

per cent of the mid position speed. The mass of the sleeve is 4 kg and the friction,
friction may be considered equivalent to 30 N at the sleeve. The power of the
governor must be sufficient to over-come the friction by one per cent change of
speed either way at mid-position. Determine, neglecting obliquity effect of
arms ; 1. The value of each rotating mass : 2. The spring stiffness in N/mm ;
and 3. The initial compression of spring.
Solution. Given : x = y ; d = 130 mm or r = 65 mm = 0.065 m ; N = 450 r.p.m.
or ω = 2 π × 450/60 = 47.23 rad/s ; h = 25 mm = 0.025 m ; M = 4 kg ; F = 30 N
1. Value of each rotating mass
Let m = Value of each rotating mass in kg, and
And maximum radius of rotation considering friction,
S = Spring force on the sleeve at mid position in
newtons.
Since the change of speed at mid position to overcome friction is 1 per cent
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either way (i.e. ± 1%), therefore
Minimum speed at mid position,
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ω = ω – 0.01ω = 0.99ω = 0.99 × 47.13 = 46.66 rad/s and

maximum speed at mid-position,
ω 2 = ω + 0.01ω = 1.01ω = 1.01 × 47.13 = 47.6 rad/s
∴ Centrifugal force at the minimum speed,
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FC1 = m (ω 1 ) r = m (46.66) 0.065 = 141.5 m N

and centrifugal force at the maximum speed,
FC2 = m (ω 2)2 r = m (47.6)2 0.0065 = 147.3 6. In an engine governor of the Porter type, the upper and lower arms are 200 m
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m N We know that for minimum speed at mid-position, m and 250 mm respectively and pivoted on the axis of rotation. The mass of the
central load is 15 kg, the mass of each ball is 2 kg and friction of the sleeve
together with the resistance of the operating gear is equal to a load of 25 N at
the sleeve. If the limiting inclinations of the upper arms to the vertical are 30°
and 40°, find, taking friction into account, range of speed of the governor.
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Solution . Given : BP = 200 mm = 0.2 m ; BD = 250 mm = 0.25 m ; M = 15 kg ; m =

2 kg ; F = 25 N ; α 1 = 30°; α 2 = 40°
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First of all, let us find the minimum and maximum speed of the governor.
The minimum and maximum position of the governor is shown Fig. 18.7 (a) and (b)
respectively.
Let N1 = Minimum speed, and N2 = Maximum speed.
From Fig. 18.7 (a), we find that minimum radius of rotation,
r1 = BG = BP sin 30° = 0.2 × 0.5 = 0.1 m Height of the governor,
h1 = PG = BP cos 30° = 0.2 × 0.866 = 0.1732 m
2. Spring stiffness in N/mm

Let s = Spring stiffness in N/mm.
Since the maximum variation of speed, considering friction is ± 5% of the
mid-position
speed, therefore,
Minimum speed considering

We know that range of

speed
= N2 – N1 = 222 – 183.3 = 38.7 r.p.m. Ans.
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7.In a spring loaded governor of the Hartnell type, the mass of each ball is 1kg, length of
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vertical arm of the bell crank lever is 100 mm and that of the horizontal arm is 50 m
m. The distance of fulcrum of each bell crank lever is 80 mm from the axis of rotation
of the governor. The extreme radii of rotation of the balls are 75 mm and 112.5 m m.
The maximum equilibrium speed is 5 per cent greater than the minimum equilibrium
speed which is 360 r.p.m. Find, neglecting obliq-uity of arms, initial compression of
We know that when the sleeve moves downwards, the frictional force (F) acts upwards and
the minimum speed is given by, the spring and equilibrium speed corresponding to the radius of rotation of 100 m m.
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We know that when the sleeve moves upwards, the frictional force (F) acts
downwards and the maximum speed is given by,

initial ball radius of 200 mm is 240 r.p.m. ; and 2. the stiffness of the spring required to
permit a sleeve movement of 4 mm on a fluctuation of 7.5 per
cent in the engine speed. [Ans. 556 N ; 23.75 N/mm]
3. A four wheel trolley car of total mass 2000 kg running on rails of 1 m gauge, rounds a
curve of 25 m
radius at 40 km / h. The track is banked at 10°. The wheels have an external diameter
of 0.6 m and each pair of an axle has a mass of 200 kg. The radius of gyration for each
pair is 250 mm. The height of C.G. of the car above the wheel base is 0.95 m. Allowing
for centrifugal force and gyroscopic couple action, determine the pressure on each rail.
[Ans. 4328 N ; 16 704 N]
4. Each paddle wheel of a steamer have a mass of 1600 kg and a radius of gyration of 1.2
m. The steamer turns to port in a circle of 160 m radius at 24 km / h, the speed of the
paddles being 90 r.p.m. Find the
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magnitude and effect of the gyroscopic couple acting on the steamer. [Ans.
905.6 N-m]
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5. The rotor of the turbine of a yacht makes 1200 r.p.m. clockwise when viewed from
stern. The rotor has
a mass of 750 kg and its radius of gyration is 250 mm. Find the maximum gyroscopic
couple transmit-ted to the hull (body of the yacht) when yacht pitches with maximum
angular velocity of 1 rad /s. What is the effect of this couple ? [Ans. 5892 N-m]
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5.20 REVIEW QUESTIONS
(1) What are the effects of friction and of adding a central weight to the sleeve of a Watt
governor ?
(2) What is stability of a governor ? Sketch the controlling force versus radius diagrams
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for a stable, unstable and isochronous governor. Derive the conditions for stability.
(3) Prove that the sensitiveness of a Proell governor is greater than that of a Porter governor
(4) When the sleeve of a Porter governor moves upwards, the governor speed
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(5) When the relation between the controlling force (FC ) and radius of rotation (r) for a
spring controlled governor is FC = a.r + b, then the governor will be
5.21 TUTORIAL PROBLEMS

1. In a governor of the Hartnell type, the mass of each ball is 1.5 kg and the lengths of the
vertical and horizontal arms of the bell crank lever are 100 mm and 50 mm
respectively. The fulcrum of the bell crank lever is at a distance of 90 mm from the axis
of rotation. The maximum and minimum radii of rotation of balls are 120 mm and 80
mm and the corresponding equilibrium speeds are 325 and 300 r.p.m. Find the stiffness
of the spring and the equilibrium speed when the radius of rotation is 100 mm.
[Ans. 18 kN/m, 315 r.p.m.]
2. A governor of the Hartnell type has equal balls of mass 3 kg, set initially at a radius of
200 mm. The arms of the bell crank lever are 110 mm vertically and 150 mm
horizontally. Find : 1. the initial compressive force on the spring, if the speed for an

UNIT-I FORCE ANALYSIS 7. Define piston effort and crank effort. (AU-NOV/DEC-2012)
• Piston effort is defined as the net or effective force applied on the piston, along the
Part-A(2 Marks) line of stroke. It is also known as effective driving force (or) net load on the
1. Write D€Alembert€s principle. What is the use of it? (AU - APRIL/MAY-2011) gudgeon pin.
D'Alembert's principle states that the inertia forces and torques, and the external forces and • Crank effort is the net effort (force) applied at the crank pin perpendicular to the
torques acting on a body together result in statical equilibrium. crank, which gives the required turning moment on the crankshaft.
Use (or) Application (or) significance: 8. Define crank pin effort. (AU-NOV/DEC-2006)
By applying D€Alembert€s principle to a dynamic analysis problem, we can reduce it into an The component of force acting along connecting rod perpendicular to the crank is known
equivalent problem of static equilibrium. as crank-pin effort.
2. Distinguish between static force and inertia force. (AU - MAY /JUNE -2013) 9. What are the requirements of an equivalent dynamical system? (or) Write the conditions
• While analyzing the mechanism, if mass of the body and inertia force are not for any disturbed mass have the same dynamical properties.
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considered, then it is called static force. (AU-NOV/DEC-2013)
• The inertia force is an imaginary force, which when acts upon a rigid body, brings it in • The mass of the rigid body must be equal to the sum of masses of two
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an equilibrium position. concentrated masses.
i.e. m1 + m2 = m
Inertia force = - Acceleration force = - m. a
• The centre of gravity of the two masses must coincide with the centre of gravity of the
3. What are the conditions for a body to be in equilibrium under the action of (a) two rigid body.
forces, (b) two forces and torque (AU - MAY /JUNE -2012) i.e. m1 l1 = m2 l2
a) Condition for two forces: • The sum of mass moment of inertia of two masses about their centre of gravity
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• The forces are of the same magnitude. is equal to the mass moment of inertia of the rigid body.
• The forces act along the same line. i.e. l1 . l2 = (kG)2
• The forces are in opposite direction.
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b) Condition for two forces & Torque: 10. What is the function of a flywheel? how does it differ from that of a governor?
• The forces are equal in magnitude, parallel in direction and opposite in sense. (AU-NOV/DEC-2012)
• The forces from a couple, which is equal and opposite to the applied torque. • The function of flywheel is to reduce the fluctuations of speed during a cycle
above and below the mean value for constant load from prime mover. The
4. What is engine shaking force? (AU - MAY /JUNE -2013) function of governor is to control the mean speed over a period for output load
The force produces in an engine due to the mass of piston, and mass of the connecting variations.
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rod is called engine shaking force. • Flywheel works continuously from cycle to cycle. Governor works intermittently, i.e.
only when there is change in the load.
5. Differentiate between static & dynamic equilibrium. (or) What are the conditions for a • Flywheel has no influence on mean speed of the prime mover. Governor has no
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body to be in static and dynamic equilibrium? (AU-NOV/DEC-2007) influence over cyclic speed fluctuations.
Necessary and sufficient conditions for static and dynamic equilibrium are:
1.Vector sum of all the forces acting on a body is zero. 11. Differentiate between the usage of flywheel in engines and punching presses with turning
2. The vector sum of all the moments of all the forces acting about any arbitrary point or axis moment diagrams. (AU- APRIL/MAY -2011)
is zero. • In the engines, the output of the flywheel was constant and input torque was varying
First conditions are sufficient conditions for static equilibrium together with second condition during each cycle.
is necessary for dynamic equilibrium. • In case of punching press, the input of the flywheel is constant and output torque is
varying cyclically.
6. What is free body diagram? (AU- APRIL/MAY -2005)
A free body diagram is a sketch of the isolated or free body which shows all the
pertinent weight force, the externally applied loads, and the reaction from its supports
&connections acting upon it by the removed elements.
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12. Define coefficient of fluctuation of energy. (AU-NOV/DEC-2010) We know that acceleration of the reciprocating parts,
It is the ratio of maximum fluctuation of energy to the work done per cycle.
CE=Maximum fluctuation of energy/Work done per cycle.
Accelerating force or inertia force of the reciprocating parts,
13. Why flywheels are needed in forging and pressing operations? (AU- APRIL/MAY -2005)
In both forging and pressing operations, f l y w h e e l s a r e required to control the
variations in speed during each cycle of an engine.
14. Define unbalance and spring surge? (AU- APRIL/MAY -2003) 2.
Unbalance: A disc cam produces unbalance because its mass is not symmetrical with
the axis of rotation.
Spring surge: Spring surge means vibration of the retaining spring.
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15. Define windup. What is the remedy for camshaft windup?
• Twisting effect produced in the camshaft during the raise of heavy load follower is
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called as windup
• Camshaft windup can be prevented to a large extend by mounting t he flywheel as
close as possible to the cam.
Part – B
1. (i) Derive the equation of forces on the reciprocating parts of an engine, neglecting
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the weight of the connecting rod. (12) (AU-NOV/DEC-2013) Force acting along the connecting rod. It is denoted by FQ in Fig. 15.8. From the geom-etry of
The various forces acting on the reciprocating parts of a horizontal engine are shown in Fig. the figure, we find that
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The expressions for these forces, neglecting the weight of the connecting rod, may be derived as FP
discussed below : FQ =
cos φ
1. Piston effort. It is the net force acting on the piston or crosshead pin, along the line of
stroke. It is denoted by FP in Fig.
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F = FQ sin φ = FP
N Q
⋅ sinφ = FP tanφ
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... i.e., FQ =
Q
FP
cos φ cos φ
Fig. Forces on the reciprocating parts of an engine.
Let mR = Mass of the reciprocating parts, e.g. piston, crosshead pin or 4. Crank-pin effort and thrust on crank shaft bearings.
gudgeon pin etc., in kg, and The force acting on the connecting rod FQ may be resolved into two components, one
WR = Weight of the reciprocating parts in Newton = mR.g
perpendicular to the crank and the other along the crank. The component of FQ perpendicular to the
pin effort and it is denoted by FT in Fig. 15.8. The component of FQ along
crank is known as crank-pin
es a thrust on the crank shaft bearings and it is denoted by FB in Fig. 15.8.
the crank produces
Resolving FQ perpendicular to the crank,
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F = F sin (θ + φ )= FP ⋅ sinθ (+ φ)
T Q
cos φ
and resolving FQ along the crank,
F
F = F cos (θ + φ )= P
⋅ cosθ (+ φ )
B Q
cos φ
5. Crank effort or turning moment or torque on the crank shaft. The product of the crank-
pin effort (FT) and the crank pin radius (r) is known as crank effort or turning moment or torque on
the crank shaft. Mathematically,
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Fig. Turning moment diagram for a four stroke cycle internal combustion engine.
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2. The crank and connecting rod of a petrol engine, running at 1800 r.p.m.are 50 mm and
200 mm respectively. The diameter of the piston is 80 mm and the mass of the reciprocat-
ing parts is 1 kg. At a point during the power stroke, the pressure on the piston is 0.7
N/mm2, when it has moved 10 mm from the inner dead centre. Determine : 1. Net load on
the gudgeon pin, 2. Thrust in the connecting rod, 3. Reaction between the piston and
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cylinder, and 4. The engine speed at which the above values become zero. (AU--
NOV/DEC-2011)
2011)
Solution. Given : N = 1800 r.p.m
r.p.m. or ω = 2π × 1800/60 = 188.52 rad/s ; r = 50 mm = 0.05 m; l =
200 mm ; D = 80 mm ; mR = 1 kg ; p = 0.7 N/mm2 ; x = 10 mm
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1 (ii) What is turning moment diagram and draw it€s for four stroke IC engine? (AU-
NOV/DEC-2013)
The turning moment diagram is the graphical representation of the turning moment (T) for
various position of the crank (θ).
A turning moment diagram for a four stroke cycle internal combustion engine is shown in
Fig. We know that in a four stroke cycle internal combustion engine, there is one working stroke
after the crank has turned through two revolutions, i.e. 720° (or 4 π radians).
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Now, draw the Klien€s acceleration diagram OCQN, as shown in Fig, in the same manner as
already discussed. By measurement,
NO = 90 mm = 0.09 m
Acceleration of the piston,
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aP = ω 2 × NO = (62.84)2 × 0.09 = 355.4 m/s Ans.
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2. The magnitude, position and direction of inertia force due to the mass of the connecting rod
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The magnitude, postition and direction of the inertia force may be obtained as follows:
(i) Replace the connecting rod by dynamical equivalent system of two masses, assuming that one of
3. The crank and connecting rod lengths of an engine are 125 mm and 500 mm
the masses is placed at P and the other mass at D.
respectively. The mass of the connecting rod is 60 kg and its centre of gravity is 275 mm (ii) Locate the points G and D on NC which is the acceleration image of the connecting rod. Let these
from the crosshead pin centre, the radius of gyration about centre of gravity being 150 points are g and d on NC. Join gO and dO. By measurement,
mm.
gO = 103 mm = 0.103 m
If the engine speed is 600 r.p.m. for a crank position of 45° from the inner dead centre,
determine, using Klien€s or any other construction 1. the acceleration of the piston; 2. the Acceleration of G, aG = ω 2 × gO, acting in the direction from g to O.
magni-tude, position and direction of inertia force due to the mass of the connecting rod. (iii) From point D, draw DE parallel to dO. Now E is the point through which the inertia force of the
(AU-APR/MAY-2011) connecting rod passes. The magnitude of the inertia force of the connecting rod is given by
FC = mC × ω 2 × gO = 60 × (62.84) 2 × 0.103 = 24 400 N = 24.4 kN Ans.

(iv) From point E, draw a line parallel to gO, which shows the position of the inertia force of the 4(ii) The turning moment diagram for a multicylinder engine has been drawn to a scale 1
connecting rod and acts in the opposite direction of gO. m m = 600 N-m vertically and 1 m m = 3° horizontally. The intercepted areas between the
output torque curve and the mean resistance line, taken in order from one end, are as follows :
4 (i) A connecting rod is suspended from a point 25 mm above the centre of small end, and + 52, – 124, + 92, – 140, + 85, – 72 and + 107 m m2, when the engine is running at a speed
650 mm above its centre of gravity, its mass being 37.5 kg. When permitted to oscil-late, the of 600 r.p.m. If the total fluctuation of speed is not to exceed ± 1.5% of the mean, find the
time period is found to be 1.87 seconds. Find the dynamical equivalent system constituted of necessary mass of the flywheel of radius 0.5 m. (AU-MAY/JUNE-2012)
two masses, one of which is located at the small end centre. Solution. Given : N = 600 r.p.m. or ω = 2 π × 600 / 60 = 62.84 rad / s ; R = 0.5 m
(AU-APR/MAY-2010)
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Since the total fluctuation of speed is not to exceed ± 1.5% of the mean speed,
therefore ω 1 – ω 2 = 3%, ω = 0.03 ω
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shaft fitted with a flywheel rotates at 250 r.p.m. and drives a machine. The torque of machine
varies in a cyclic manner over a period of 3 revolutions. The torque rises from 750 N-m to 3000
N-m uniformly during 1/2 revolution and remains constant for the following revolution. It then
falls uniformly to 750 N-m during the next 1/2 revolution and remains constant for one
revolution, the cycle being repeated thereafter.
Determine the power required to drive the machine and percentage fluctuation in speed,
if the driving torque applied to the shaft is constant and the mass of the flywheel is 500 kg with
radius of gyration of 600 m m. (AU-MAY/JUNE-2013)
Solution. Given : N = 250 r.p.m. or ω = 2π × 250/60 = 26.2 rad/s ; m = 500 kg ; k = 600 mm =
0.6 m
The turning moment diagram for the complete cycle is shown in Fig.
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6. A single cylinder, single acting, four stroke gas engine develops 20 kW at 300 r.p.m. The
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work done by the gases during the expansion stroke is three times the work done on the
gases during the compression stroke, the work done during the suction and exhaust
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strokes being negligible. If the total fluctuation of speed is not to exceed ± 2 per cent of the
mean speed and the turning moment diagram during compression and expansion is
assumed to be triangular in shape, find the moment of inertia of the flywheel.
(AU-NOV/DEC-2013)

The turning moment-crank angle diagram for a four stroke engine is shown in Fig. It is assumed
to be triangular during compression and expansion strokes, neglecting the suction and exhaust
strokes.
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7. The turning moment curve for an engine is represented by the equation, T = (20 000 + 9500
sin 2θ – 5700 cos 2θ ) N-m, where θ is the angle moved by the crank from inner dead centre. If
the resisting torque is constant, find: 1. Power developed by the engine ; 2. Moment of inertia of
flywheel in kg-m2, if the total fluctuation of speed is not exceed 1% of mean speed which is 180
r.p.m; and 3. Angular acceleration of the flywheel when the crank has turned through 45° from
inner dead centre. (AU-NOV/DEC-2012)
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Solution. Given : T = (20 000 + 9500 sin 2θ – 5700 cos 2θ ) N-m ; N = 180 r.p.m. or
ω = 2π × 180/60 = 18.85 rad/s
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We know that excess torque at any instant,

T
excess = T – Tmean
= 20000 + 9500 sin 2θ – 5700 cos 2θ – 20000
= 9500 sin 2θ – 5700 cos 2θ
∴ Excess torque at 45° = 9500 sin 90° – 5700 cos 90° = 9500 N-m . . . (i)
We also know that excess torque
= I.α = 3121 × α . . . (ii)
From equations (i) and (ii),
α = 9500/3121 = 3.044 rad /s2 Ans.
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8(i) A punching press is driven by a constant torque electric motor. The press is provided with a
flywheel that rotates at maximum speed of 225 r.p.m. The radius of gyration of the flywheel is
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0.5 m. The press punches 720 holes per hour; each punching operation takes 2 second and
requires 15 kN-m of energy. Find the power of the motor and the minimum mass of the
flywheel if speed of the same is not to fall below 200 r. p. m.
(AU-MAY/JUNE-2012)
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fluctuation of energy (∆
We know that maximum fluc ∆ E),
),
ω 2.CS = I × (18.85) 2 × 0.01 = 3.55 I
11 078 = I.ω
I =11078/3.55 = 3121 kg-m-m2 Ans.
3. Angular acceleration of the flywheel
Let α = Angular acceleration of the flywheel, and
θ = Angle turned by the crank from inner dead centre = 45°
The angular acceleration in the flywheel is produced by the excess torque over the mean torque.
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Part-A(2 Marks)
8 (ii) A punching press is required to punch 40 mm diameter holes in a plate of 15 mm
thickness at the rate of 30 holes per minute. It requires 6 N-m of energy per mm2 of sheared 1. Write the importance of balancing?
area. If the punching takes 1/10 of a second and the r.p.m. of the flywheel varies from 160 to If the moving part of a machine are not balanced completely then the inertia forces are set
140, determine the mass of the flywheel having radius of gyration of 1 metre.
(AU-APR/MAY-2011)2011) up which may cause excessive noise, vibration, wear and tear of the system. So
balancing of machine is necessary.
Solution. Given: d = 40 mm; t = 15 mm; No. of holes = 30 per min.; Energy required = 6 N-
2 2. Why rotating masses are to be dynamically balanced? (or) Why balancing of dynamic
m/mm ; Time = 1/10 s = 0.1 s; N1 = 160 r.p.m.; N2 = 140 r.p.m.; k = 1m
We know that sheared area per hole forces is necessary? (AU-NOV/DEC-2008)
= π d .t= π ⋅ 40⋅ 15= 1885 mm2 If the rotating masses are not dynamically balanced, the unbalanced dynamic forces will
∴ Energy required to punch a hole, cause worse effects such as wear and tear on bearings and excessive vibrations on machines. It
E1 = 6 ×1885 = 11 310 N-m and energy is very common in cam shafts, steam turbine rotors, engine crank shafts, and centrifugal
required for punching work per second pumps, etc.
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= Energy required per hole × No. of holes per second 3. Differentiate: static and dynamic balancing. (AU-NOV/DEC-2012)
= 11 310 × 30/60 = 5655 N-m/s
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S.No Static Balancing Dynamic Balancing
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Since the punching takes 1/10 of a second, therefore, energy supplied by the motor in 1/10
second, The net dynamic force and the net
The net dynamic force acting on
E2 = 5655 × 1/10 = 565.5 N-m 1 couple due to the dynamic force is
the shaft is equal to zero
∴ Energy to be supplied by the flywheel during punching a hole or maximum fluctuation of equal to zero.
energy of the flywheel, It deals with balancing of dynamic
It deals only with balancing of
∆ E = E1 − E2 = 11 310− 565.5
565.5= 10 744.5 N-m 2 force and balancing of couple due to
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dynamic forces.
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dynamic forces.
4. Why is only a part of the unbalanced force due to reciprocating masses balanced by
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revolving mass? (Or) Why complete balancing is not possible in reciprocating engine?
(AU-NOV/DEC-2009)
Balancing of reciprocating masses is done by introducing the balancing mass opposite to
the crank. The vertical component of the dynamic force of this balancing mass gives rise to
“Hammer b low”. In order to reduce the Hammer blow, a part of the reciprocating mass is
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balanced. Hence complete balancing is not possible in reciprocating engines.
5. Can a single cylinder engine be fully balanced? Why? (AU-NOV/DEC-2011)
No. A single cylinder engine can‚t be fully balanced. Because the unbalanced forces due
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to reciprocating masses remains constant in magnitude (because of variation in Ө).
6. What are the effects of hammer blow and swaying couple?
• The effect of hammer blow is to cause the variation in pressure between the wheel and
the rail, such that vehicle vibrates vigorously.
• The effect of swaying couple is to make the leading wheels sway from side to side.
7. List the effects of partial balancing of locomotives? (AU-NOV/DEC-2010)

• Variation in tractive force along the line of stroke,
• Swaying couple, and
• Hammer blow
8. Define tractive force. (AU-APR/MAY-2010)
The resultant unbalanced force due to the two cylinders along the line of stroke is
known as tractive force.
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9. What is swaying couple? PART-B

B
The unbalanced force acting at a distance between the line of stroke of two
cylinders, constitute a couple in the horizontal direction. This couple is known as 1. A shaft has three eccentrics, each 75 mm diameter and 25 mm thick, machined in one
swaying couple. piece with the shaft. The central planes of the eccentric are 60 mm apart. The distance of the
centres from the axis of rotation are 12 mm, 18 mm and 12 mm and their angular positions are
10. Define hammer blow with respect to locomotives? (AU-NOV/DEC-2013) 120° apart. The density of metal is 7000 kg/m3. Find the amount of out-of-balance force and
The maximum magnitude of the unbalanced force along the perpendicular to the line of couple at 600 r.p.m. If the shaft is balanced by adding two masses at a radius 75 mm and at
stroke is known as hammer blow. distances of 100 mm from the central plane of the middle eccentric, find the amount of the
11. State the conditions for static and dynamic balancing? (or) Write the condition for masses and their angular positions. (AU-MAY/JUNE-2013)2013)
complete balancing? (AU-NOV/DEC-2013)
• The net dynamic force acting on the shaft is zero. This is called as conditions for static
balancing.
• The net couple due to dynamic force acting on the shaft is zero.
12. What are the condition to be satisfied for complete balance of in- line engine?
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• The algebraic sum of the primary and secondary forces must be zero, and
• The algebraic sum of the couples due to primary and secondary forces must be zero.
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Let L and M be the planes at distances of 100 mm from the central plane of middle eccentric. The
13. Whether grinding wheels are balanced or not? If so why? position of the planes and the shown in Fig. 21.12 (a) and (b))
he aangular position of the three eccentrics is show
Yes, the grinding wheels are properly balanced by inserting some low density respectively. Assuming L as the reference plane and mass of the eccentric A in the vertical direction,
materials. If not the required surface finish won‚t be attained and the vibration will cause the data may be tabulated as below :
much noise.
14. Differentiate between the unbalanced force caused due to rotating and reciprocating
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masses?
• Complete balancing of revolving mass can be possible. But fraction of reciprocating
mass only balanced.
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• The unbalanced force due to reciprocating mass varies in magnitude but constant in
direction. But in the case of revolving masses, the unbalanced force is constant in
magnitude but varies in direction.
15. Unbalanced effects of shafts in high speed machines are to be closely looked into –
Why? (AU-MAY/JUNE-2013)
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The dynamic forces of centrifugal forces or a result of unbalanced masses are a function
the angular velocity of rotation.
i.e., FC = mω 2 r
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 ω =2π N
60
16. Write a note on the effect of firing order on balancing of reciprocating mass in multi-
cylinder engines. (AU-APR/MAY-2011)
In multi-cylinder engines, there are several possibilities of the order in which firing takes place.
To overcome the problem of vibrations, fuel distribution, exhaust distribution, etc., the
designers are selecting different firing orders.
17. Two masses in different planes are necessary to correct the dynamic unbalance – Justify.
(AU-MAY/JUNE-2012)
• If the balancing mass and disturbing mass lie in different planes, disturbing mass cannot be
balanced by a single mass as there will be a couple left unbalanced.
• In such cases, at least two balancing masses are required for complete balancing and the
three masses are arranged in such a way that the resultant force and couple on the shaft are
zero. Since the centrifugal for
force is proportional to the product of mass and
nd radius (i.e. m.r), therefore
by measurement.


Out-of-balance force = vector oc = 4.75 × 10–3 kg-m Solution. Given : rA = 100 mm = 0.1 m ; rB = 125 mm = 0.125 m ; rC = 200 mm = 0.2 m ; rD =
= 4.75 × 10–3 × ω 2 = 4.75 × 10–3 (62.84)2 = 18.76 N Ans. 150 mm = 0.15 m ; mB = 10 kg ; mC = 5 kg ; mD = 4 kg
1. The position of planes is shown in Fig. 21.10 (a). Assuming the plane of mass A as the
reference plane (R.P.), the data may be tabulated as below :
First of all, the angular setting of masses C and D is obtained by drawing the couple polygon
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from the data given in Table 21.4 (column 6). Assume the position of mass B in the horizontal
direction OB as shown in Fig. 21.10 (b). Now the couple polygon as shown in Fig.(c) is drawn as
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discussed below :
1. Draw vector o′ b′ in the horizontal direction (i.e. parallel to OB) and equal to 0.75 kg-
m2, to some suitable scale.
Out-of-balance couple 2. From points o′ and b′, draw vectors o′ c′ and b′ c′ equal to 1.2 kg-m2 and 1.08 kg-m2
The out-of-balance couple is obtained by drawing the couple polygon from the data given in Table 21.6 (column respectively. These vectors intersect at c′.
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6), as shown in Fig. 21.12 (d). The resultant o ′ c′ represents the out-of-
balance couple. Since the couple is proportional to the product of force and distance (m.r.l), there-fore by measurement,
3. Now in Fig. 21.10 (b), draw OC parallel to vector o′ c′ and OD parallel to vector b′ c′.
CO
By measurement, we find that the angular setting of mass C from mass B in the anticlockwise
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direction, i.e. ∠ BOC = 240° Ans.
and angular setting of mass D from mass B in the anticlockwise direction, i.e. ∠ BOD = 100°
Amount of balancing masses and their angular positions
Ans.
The vector c ′ o′ (in the direction from c′ to o′ ), as shown in Fig. 21.12 (d) represents the In order to find the required mass A (mA) and its angular setting, draw the force polygon to
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balancing couple and is proportional to 15 × 10–3 mM, i.e. some suitable scale, as shown in Fig. 21.10 (d), from the data given in Table 21.4 (column 4).
15 × 10–3 mM = vector c ′ o′ = 1.1 × 10–3 kg-m2 Since the closing side of the force polygon (vector do) is proportional to
or mM = 0.073 kg Ans. 0.1 mA, therefore
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by measurement,
Draw OM in Fig. 21.12 (b) parallel to vector c ′ o′ . By measurement, we find that the angular
position of balancing mass (mM) is 5° from mass A in the clockwise direction. Ans. 0.1 m = 0.7 kg-m2 or mA= 7 kg Ans.
In order to find the balancing mass (mL), a force polygon as shown in Fig. 21.12 (e) is drawn.
The closing side of the polygon i.e. vector do (in the direction from d to o) represents the balancing Now draw OA in Fig. 21.10 (b ), parallel to vector do. By measurement, we find that the
force and is proportional to 75 × 10–3 mL. By measurement, we find that, angular setting of mass A from mass B in the anticlockwise direction, i.e.
75 × 10–3 mL = vector do = 5.2 ×10–3 kg-m or mL = 0.0693 kg Ans. ∠ BOA = 155° Ans.
Draw OL in Fig. 21.12 (b), parallel to vector do.
By measurement, we find that the angular position of mass (mL) is 124° from mass A in the
clockwise direction. Ans.
2.(i) A, B, C and D are four masses carried by a rotating shaft at radii 100, 125, 200
and 150 mm respectively. The planes in which the masses revolve are spaced 600 mm apart and
the mass of B, C and D are 10 kg, 5 kg, and 4 kg respectively.Find the required mass A and the
relative angular settings of the four masses so that the shaft shall be in complete balance.
(AU-NOV/DEC-2012) (8)

We know that unbalanced force along the line of stroke for cylinder 1
Swaying couple.
The unbalanced forces along the line of stroke for the two cylinders constitute a couple about
the centre line YY between the cylinders as shown in Fig. 22.5.
This couple has swaying effect about a vertical axis, and tends to sway the engine alternately in
All dimensions in mm clockwise and anticlockwise directions. Hence the couple is known as swaying couple.
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P
(a) Position of planes. (b) Angular position of masses. a = Distance between the centre lines of the two cylinders.
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(c) Couple polygon. (d) Force polygon.

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Fig. 21.10
2(ii) Derives the expressions for the following: (i) Variation in tractive force and (ii) Swaying
couple. (8) (AU-NOV/DEC-2009)
Variation in tractive force
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The resultant unbalanced force due to the two cylinders, along the line of stroke, is known as
tractive force. Let the crank for the first cylinder be inclined at an angle θ with the line of stroke, as
shown in Fig. 22.4.
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Since the crank for the second cylinder is at right angle to the first crank, therefore the angle of
inclination for the second crank will be (90° + θ ).
Let m = Mass of the reciprocating parts per cylinder, and 3. A shaft carries four masses A, B, C and D of magnitude 200 kg, 300 kg, 400 kg and 200
c = Fraction of the reciprocating parts to be balanced. kg respectively and revolving at radii 80 mm, 70 mm, 60 mm and 80 mm in planes measured
from A at 300 mm, 400 mm and 700 mm. The angles between the cranks measured
anticlockwise are A to B 45°, B to C 70° and C to D 120°. The balancing masses are to be placed
in planes X and Y. The distance between the planes A and X is 100 mm, between X and Y is 400
mm and between Y and D is 200 mm. If the balancing masses revolve at a radius of 100 mm,
find their magnitudes and angular positions. (AU-MAY/JUNE-2012)
Solution. Given : mA = 200 kg ; mB = 300 kg ; mC = 400 kg ; mD = 200 kg ; rA = 80 mm =0.08m
;
rB = 70 mm = 0.07 m ; rC = 60 mm = 0.06 m ; rD = 80 mm = 0.08 m ; rX = rY = 100 mm = 0.1 m
Let mX = Balancing mass placed in plane X, and mY = Balancing mass placed in
plane Y.
The position of planes and angular position of the masses (assuming the mass A as horizontal)

are shown in Fig. 21.8 (a) and (b) respectively. (i.e. 200 kg ). Ans.
Assume the plane X as the reference plane (R.P.). The distances of the planes to the right of 2. Now draw the force polygon from the data given in Table 21.2 (column 4) as shown in Fig.
plane X are taken as + ve while the distances of the planes to the left of plane X are taken as – ve. The 21.8 (d). The vector eo represents the balanced force. Since the balanced force is proportional to 0.1
data may be tabulated as shown in Table 21.2. mX, therefore by measurement,
0.1 mX = vector eo = 35.5 kg-m or mX = 355 kg Ans.
The angular position of the mass mX is obtained by drawing OmX in Fig. 21.8 (b), parallel to vector eo.
By measurement, the angular position of mX is θ X = 145° in the clockwise direction from mass mA
(i.e. 200 kg ). Ans.
The balancing masses mX and mY and their angular positions may be determined graphi-cally 4. Four masses A, B, C and D as shown below are to be completely balanced.
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as discussed below : A B C D
Mass (kg) — 30 50 40
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1. First of all, draw the couple polygon from the data given in Table 21.2 (column 6) as shown in Radius (mm) 180 240 120 150
Fig. 21.8 (c) to some suitable scale. The vector d ′ o′ represents the balanced couple. Since the The planes containing masses B and C are 300 mm apart. The angle between planes containing
balanced couple is proportional to 0.04 mY, therefore by measurement, B and C is 90°. B and C make angles of 210° and 120° respectively with D in the same sense.
2
0.04 m Y = vector d ′ o′ = 7.3 kg-m or m Y = 182.5 kg Ans. Find :
1. The magnitude and the angular position of mass A ; and
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2. The position of planes A and D. (AU-NOV/DEC-2011) 2011)
Solution. Given : rA = 180 mm = 0.18 m ; mB = 30 kg ; rB = 240 mm = 0.24 m ;
mC = 50 kg ; rC = 120 mm = 0.12 m ; mD = 40 kg ; rD = 150 mm = 0.15 m ;
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∠ BOC = 90° ; ∠ BOD = 210° ; ∠ COD = 120°
1. The magnitude and the angular position of mass A
Let mA = Magnitude of Mass A,
x = Distance between the planes B and D, and y = Distance between the planes A and B.
The position of the planes and the angular position of the masses is shown in Fig. 21.9 (a) and (b)
respectively.
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All dimensions in mm. Assuming the plane B as the reference plane (R.P.) and the mass B (mB) along the horizon-tal line as
(a) Position of planes. (b) Angular position of masses. shown in Fig. 21.9 (b), the data may be tabulated as below :
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The magnitude and angular position of mass A may be determined by drawing the force polygon from
the data given in Table 21.3 (Column 4), as shown in Fig. 21.9 (c), to some suitable scale. Since the
(c) Couple polygon. (d) Force polygon
masses are to be completely balanced, therefore the force polygon must be a closed figure. The closing
side (i.e. vector do) is proportional to 0.18 mA. By measurement,
0.18 mA = Vector do = 3.6 kg-m or mA = 20 kg Ans.
The angular position of the mass mY is obtained by drawing OmY in Fig. 21.8 (b), parallel to vector d ′
In order to find the angular position of mass A, draw OA in Fig. 21.9 (b) parallel to vector do.
o′ . By measurement, the angular position of mY is θ Y = 12° in the clockwise direction from mass mA By measurement, we find that the angular position of mass A from mass B in the anticlockwise


direction is ∠ AOB = 236° Ans.

5. An inside cylinderr llocomotive has its cylinder centre lines 0.7 m apart and has a stroke
of 0.6 m. The rotating masses per cylinder are equivalent to 150 kg at the crank pin, and the
reciprocating masses per cylinder to 180 kg. The wheel centre lines are 1.5 m apart. The cranks
are at right angles.
otating and 2/3 of the recipro-cating
The whole of the rotat cating masses are to be balanced by
masses placed at a radius of 0.6 m. Find the magnitude and direction of the balancing masses.
Find the fluctuation in rail pressure under one wheel, variation of tractive effort and the
magnitude of swaying couple at a crank speed of 300 r.p.m. (AU-NOV/ V/DEC-2008)
2008)
Solution. Given : a = 0.7 m; lB = lC = 0.6 m or
rB = rC = 0.3 m; m1 = 150 kg; m2 = 180 kg; c = 2/3; rA = rD = 0.6 m; N = 300 r.p.m. or
ω = 2 ⋅ 300 / 60 = 31.42 rad/s
We know that the equivalent mass of the rotating parts to be balanced per cylinder at the crank
(a) Position of planes. (b) Angular position of masses. pin,
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m = mB = mC = m1 + c.m2 = 150 + 23 × 180 = 270 kg
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Magnitude and direction of the balancing masses

Let mA and mD = Magnitude of the balancing masses
θ A and θ D = Angular position of the balancing masses mA and mD from the first crank B.
The magnitude and direction of the balancing masses may be determined graphically as
discussed below :
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1. First of all, draw the space diagram to show the positions of the planes of the wheels and the
cylinders, as shown in Fig. 22.7 (a). Since the cranks of the cylinders are at right angles,
All dimensions in mm. therefore assuming the position of crank of the cylinder B in the horizontal direc-tion, draw OC
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(c) Force polygon. (d) Couple polygon. and OB at right angles to each other as shown in Fig. 22.7 (b).
Fig. 21.9. Tabulate the data as given in the following table. Assume the plane of wheel A as the reference plane.
2. Position of planes A and D
The position of planes A and D may be obtained by drawing the couple polygon, as shown in
Fig. 21.9 (d), from the data given in Table 21.3 (column 6). The couple polygon is drawn as discussed
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below :
1. Draw vector o′ c′ parallel to OC and equal to 1.8 kg-m2, to some suitable scale.
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2. From points c′ and o′ , draw lines parallel to OD and OA respectively, such that they intersect
at point d′ . By measurement, we find that
6 x = vector c′ d′ = 2.3 kg-m2 or x = 0.383 m 3. Now, draw the couple poly

polygon from the data
given in Table 22.1 (columnn 66), to some suitable
We see from the couple polygon that the direction of vector c ′ d′ is opposite to the scale, as shown in Fig 22.7 (c) ). The closing side c ′o′′ represents the balanc
(c). balancing
direction of mass D. Therefore the plane of mass D is 0.383 m or 383 mm towards left of plane B and couple and it is proportionall to 0.9 mD. Therefore, by measurement,
not towards right of plane B as already assumed. Ans.
Again by measurement from couple polygon,
– 0.18 mA.y = vector o′ d′ = 3.6 kg-m2
– 0.18 × 20 y = 3.6 or y = – 1 m
The negative sign indicates that the plane A is not towards left of B as assumed but it is 1 m or
1000 mm towards right of plane B. Ans.


Swaying couple
We know that maximum swaying couple
6. The following data apply to an outside cylinder uncoupled locomotive :

Mass of rotating parts per cylinder = 360 kg ; Mass of reciprocating parts per cylinder = 300 kg
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; Angle between cranks = 90° ; Crank radius = 0.3 m ; Cylinder centres = 1.75 m ; Radius of
balance masses = 0.75 m ; Wheel centres = 1.45 m. If whole of the rotating and two-thirds of
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reciprocating parts are to be balanced in planes of the driving wheels, find :
1. Magnitude and angular positions of balance masses,
2. Speed in kilometres per hour at which the wheel will lift off the rails when the load on
each driving wheel is 30 kN and the diameter of tread of driving wheels is 1.8 m, and
3. Swaying couple at speed arrived at in (2) above. ((AU-NOV/DEC-2013)
Solution : Given : m1 = 360 kg ; m2 = 300 kg ; ∠ AOD = 90° ; rA = rD = 0.3 m ; a = 1.75 m ; rB
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4. To determine the angular position of the balancing mass D, draw OD in Fig. 22.7 (b) = rC = 0.75 m ; c = 2 / 3.
parallel to vector c ′o′ . By measurement, We know that the equivalent mass of the rotating parts to be balanced per cylinder,
θ D = 250° Ans.
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5. In order to find the balancing mass A, draw the force polygon from the data given in
Table 22.1 (column 4), to some suitable scale, as shown in Fig. 22.7 (d), The vector do
represents the balancing force and it is proportional to 0.6 mA. Therefore by measurement, 1. Magnitude and angular position of balance masses
0.6mA = vector do = 63 kg-m or mA = 105 kg Ans. Let mB and mC = Magnitude of the balance masses, and
6. To determine the angular position of the balancing mass A, draw OA in Fig. 22.7 (b)
parallel to vector do. By measurement, θ B and θ C = angular position of the balance masses mB and mC from the crank A.
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θ A = 200° Ans.
The magnitude and direction of the balance masses may be determined, graphically, as
Fluctuation in rail pressure
discussed below :
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We know that each balancing mass105 kg 1. First of all, draw the positions of the planes of the wheels and the cylinders as shown in Fig.
∴ Balancing mass for rotating masses, 22.11 (a). Since the cranks of the two cylinders are at right angles, therefore assum-ing the
position of the cylinder A in the horizontal direction, draw OA and OD at right angles to each
other as shown in Fig. 22.11 (b).
Variation of tractive effort

We know that maximum variation of tractive effort
2. Assuming the plane of wheel B as the reference plane, the data may be tabulated as be-low:


3. Now draw the couple polygon with the data given in Table 22.4 column (6), to some ∴ Balancing mass for reciprocating parts,
suitable scale as shown in Fig. 22.11(c). The closing side d ′o′ represents thebalancing couple
and it is proportional to 1.08 mC. Therefore, by measurement,
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7. The three cranks of a three cylinder locomotive are all on the same axle and are set at 120°.
The pitch of the cylinders is 1 meter and the stroke of each piston is 0.6 m. The reciprocating
masses are 300 kg for inside cylinder and 260 kg for each outside cylinder and the planes of
rotation of the balance masses are 0.8 m from the inside crank. If 40% of the reciprocating
parts are to be balanced, find :
1. the magnitude and the position of the balancing masses required at a radius of 0.6 m ;
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And
2. the hammer blow per wheel when the axle makes 6 r.p.s. (AU-MAY/JUNE-2013)
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Solution. Given : ∠ AOB = ∠ BOC = ∠ COA = 120° ; lA = lB = lC = 0.6 m or rA = rB

= rC = 0.3 m ; mI = 300 kg ; mO = 260 kg ; c = 40% = 0.4 ; b1 = b2 = 0.6 m ; N = 6 r.p.s.
= 6 × 2 π = 37.7 rad/s
Since 40% of the reciprocating masses are to be balanced, therefore mass of the reciprocat-ing
parts to be balanced for each outside cylinder,
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mA = mC = c × mO = 0.4 × 260 = 104 kg and mass of the

reciprocating parts to be balanced for inside cylinder,
4. To determine the angular position of the balancing mass C, draw OC parallel to vector d′o ′ as mB = c × m1 = 0.4 × 300 = 120 kg
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1. Magnitude and position of the balancing masses

shown in Fig. 22.11 (b). By measurement, θ C = 275° Ans. Let B1 and B2 = Magnitude of the balancing masses in kg,
5. In order to find the balancing mass B, draw the force polygon with the data given in Tablecolumn θ 1 and θ 2 = Angular position of the balancing masses B1 and B2 from crank A.
(4), to some suitable scale, as shown in Fig. 22.11 (d). The vector co represents
The magnitude and position of the balancing masses may be determined graphically as
the balancing force and it is proportional to 0.75 mB. Therefore, by measurement, 0.75
discussed below :
mB = 186.75 kg-m or mB = 249 kg Ans.
4. To determine the angular position of the balancing mass B, draw OB parallel to vector oc as
1. First of all, draw the position of planes and cranks as shown in Fig. 22.8 (a) and (b)
shown Fig. 22.11 (b). By measurement, θ B = 174.5° Ans. respectively. The position of crank A is assumed in the horizontal direction.
2. Tabulate the data as given in the following table. Assume the plane of balancing mass B1 (i.e.
2. Speed at which the wheel will lift off the rails
plane 1) as the reference plane.
Given : P = 30 kN = 30 × 103 N ; D = 1.8 m
Let ω = Angular speed at which the wheels will lift off the rails in rad/s,
and v = Corresponding linear speed in km/h.
We know that each balancing mass, mB = mC = 249 kg

ME6505- DYNAMICS OF MACHINES
ME8594- III YEAR/V SEMESTER MECHANICAL ENGINEERING ME6505- DYNAMICS OF MACHINES
8. The following data refer to two cylinder locomotive with cranks at 90° :
Reciprocating mass per cylinder = 300 kg ; Crank radius = 0.3 m ; Driving wheel diameter = 1.8
m ; Distance between cylinder centre lines = 0.65 m ; Distance between the driving wheel central
planes = 1.55 m.
Determine : 1. the fraction of the reciprocating masses to be balanced, if the hammer blow is not
to exceed 46 kN at 96.5 km. p.h. ; 2. the variation in tractive effort ; and 3. the maximum
swaying couple. (AU-MAY/JUNE-2009)
Solution. Given : m = 300 kg ; r = 0.3 m ; D = 1.8 m or R = 0.9 m ; a = 0.65 m ; Hammer blow
= 46 kN = 46 × 103 N ; v = 96.5 km/h = 26.8 m/s
3. Now draw the couple polygon with the data given in Table 22.2 (column 6), to some 1. Fraction of the reciprocating masses to be balanced
suitable scale, as shown in Fig. 22.8 (c). The closing side c ′o′ represents the balancing couple Let c = Fraction of the reciprocating masses to be balanced, and
P
and it is proportional to 0.96 B2. Therefore, by measurement, B = Magnitude of balancing mass placed at each of the driving wheels at radius b.
0.96 B2 = vector c ′o′ = 55.2 kg-m2 or B2 = 57.5 kg Ans. We know that the mass of the reciprocating parts to be balanced = c.m = 300c kg
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4. To determine the angular position of the balancing mass B2, draw OB2 parallel to vector c ′o′ as
θ 2 = 24° Ans.
5. In order to find the balance mass B1, draw the force polygon with the data given in Table
22.2(column 4 ), to some suitable scale, as shown in Fig. 22.8 (d). The closing side co
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R
represents the balancing force and it is proportional to 0.6 B1. Therefore, by measurement,
0.6 B1 = vector co = 34.5 kg-m or B1 = 57.5 kg Ans.
6. To determine the angular position of the balancing mass B1, draw OB1 parallel to vector co, as
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θ 1 = 215° Ans.
(a) Position of planes. (b) Position of cranks.
Fig. 22.9
The position of planes of the wheels and cylinders is shown in Fig. 22.9 (a), and the position of
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cranks is shown in Fig 22.9 (b). Assuming the plane of wheel A as the reference plane, the data may
be tabulated as below :
Now the couple polygon, to some suitable scale, may be drawn with the data given in Table
22.3 (column 6), as shown in Fig. 22.10. The closing side of the polygon (vector c′o′ ) represents the
balancing couple and is proportional to 1.55 B.b.
2. Hammer blow per wheel From the couple polygon,
We know that hammer blow per wheel 1.55 B.b = (40.5c) 2 + (99 c) 2 = 107c
= B1.ω 2.b1 = 57.5 (37.7)2 20.6 = 49 035 N Ans. ∴ B.b = 107 c / 1.55 = 69 c
We know that angular speed,
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218 C.RAVINDIRAN-AP/MECH R2017R2017R2017 38

ME8594- III YEAR/V SEMESTER MECHANICAL ENGINEERING ME8594- DYNAMICS OF MACHINES III YEAR/V SEMESTER MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
ω = v/R = 26.8/0.9 = 29.8 rad/s ∴ Hammer UNIT-III SINGLE DEGREE FREE VIBRATION
blow,
3 2
Part-A(2 Marks)
46 × 10 = B. ω .b
= 69 c (29.8)2 = 61 275 c 1. How will you classify vibration? (Or) what are the different type f vibratory
Fig. motions? (AU-MAY/JUNE-2009)
∴ c = 46 × 103/61 275 = 0.751 Ans. 22.10 • Free vibrations
2. Variation in tractive effort
• Longitudinal vibration,
We know that variation in tractive effort, • Transverse vibration, and
• Torsional vibration.
• Forced vibrations, and
• Damped vibration.
2. What are the causes and effect of vibration?
3.Maximum swaying couple The causes of vibration are unbalanced forces, elastic nature of the system, self
We know the maximum swaying couple excitation, wind and earthquakes.
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The existence of vibration elements in any mechanical system produces unwanted
noise, high stress, poor reliability and premature failure of one or more of the parts.
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3. What do you mean by a degree of freedom or movability? (AU-NOV/DEC-2007)

The number of independent coordinates required to completely define the motion
of a system is known as degree of freedom of the system.
4. What is the limit beyond which damping is detrimental and why? (MAY/JUNE-2013)
When damping factor ξ > 1, the aperiodic motion is resulted. That is, aperiodic
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motion means the system cannot vibrate due to over damping. Once the system is
disturbed, it will take infinite time to come back to equilibrium position.
5. What is meant by critical damping? (AU-MAY/JUNE-2012)
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The system is said to be critically damped when the damping factor Ϛ = 1. If the
system is critically damped, the mass moves back very quickly to its equilibrium
position within no time.
6. Define critical or whirling or whipping speed of a shaft? Give one application of
critical damping. (AU-NOV/DEC-2012)
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The speed at which resonance occurs is called critical speed of the shaft . In other
words, the speed at which the shaft runs so that the additional deflection of the shaft
from the axis of rotation becomes infinite is known as critical speed.
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The property of critical damping is used in designing elecrical instruments,

hydraulic door closers and large guns.
7. What are the factors that affect the critical speed of a shaft? (AU-NOV/DEC-2007)
The critical speed essentially depends on:
• The eccentricity of the C.G of the rotating masses from the axis of rotation of the
shaft,
• Diameter of the disc,
• Span of the shaft, and
• Type of supports connections at its ends.
8. What is the effect of inertia on the shaft in longitudinal and transverse vibrations?
In longitudinal vibrations, he inertia effect of the shaft is equal to the that of a mass
one third of the mass of the shaft concentrated at its free end.
39
221 C.RAVINDIRAN-AP/MECH R2017

9. Define logarithmic decrement. (AU-APR/MAY-2010) PART-B

B
Logarithmic decrement is defined as the natural logarithm of the amplitude
reduction factor. The amplitude reduction factor is the ratio of any two successive 1. A machine of mass 75 kg is mounted on springs and is fitted with a dashpot to damp out
amplitudes on the same side of the mean position. vibrations. There are three springs each of stiffness 10 N/mm and it is found that the
amplitude of vibration diminminishes from 38.4 mm to 6.4 mm in two co complete oscillations.
ions.
10. Define damping factor and damping co-efficient. (AU-NOV/DEC-2013)
Assuming that the damping force varies as the velocity, determine : 1. the resistance of the
• The damping factor or damping ratio is defined as the ratio of actual damping coefficient pot at unit velocity ; 2. the ratio of the frequency of the damped vibration to the
dash-pot
(c) to the critical damping co-efficient(cc). frequency of the undamped vibration ; and 3. the periodic time of the damped vibration.
c c
Mathematically, Damping ratio, ζ = = (AU-MAY/JUNE-2013) 2013)
cc 2mωn Solution. Given : m = 75 kg ; s = 10 N/mm = 10 ×103 N/m ; x1 = 38.4 mm = 0.0384 m ; x3
• The damping force per unit velocity is known as damping co-efficient. = 6.4 mm = 0.0064 m
Since the stiffness of each spring is 10 × 103 N/m and there are 3 springs, therefore total
11. Define node in torsional vibration. (or) what is nodal section in two rotor system. stiffness,
(AU-NOV/DEC-2013)
Node is the point or the section of the shaft at which amplitude of the torsional
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vibration is zero. At nodes, the shaft remains unaffected by the vibration.
12. What is difference between damping, viscous damping and Coloumb damping?
(AU-NOV/DEC-2012)
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• Damping: The resistance against the vibration is called damping.
• Viscous Damping is the damping provided by fluid resistance.
• Coloumb damping is the dampin results from two dry or unlubricated surfaces
1. Resistance of the dashpot at unit velocity
rubbing together.
13. Define torsional equivalent shaft?
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A shaft having diameter for different lengths can be theoretically replaced by
an equivalent shaft of uniform diameter such that they have the same total angle of
twist when equal opposing torques are applied at their ends. Such a theoretically
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replaced shaft is known as torsion ally equivalent shaft.
14. Determine the natural frequency of mass of 10kgsuspended at the bottom of two
springs of stiffness: 5 N/mm and 8 N/mm in series. (AU-MAY/JUN-2013)
Natural Frequency ,fn=1/2π√ /
fn=1/2π√13000/10
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=.74 Hz
15. State natural frequency of torsional vibration of a simple system?

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Natural frequency of torsional vibration,
1 CJ
fn =
2π Il
Where C = Rigidity modulus of shaft, I = Mass M.I. of rotor, 2. 2. Ratio of the frequency of the damped vibration to the frequency of undamped vibration
J = polar M.I of shaft, and
l = Length of node from rotor.


3(i) The measurements on a m mechanical vibrating system show that it has a mass of 8 kg and
that the springs can be combined stiffne 5.4 N/mm. If the
bined to give an equivalent spring of stiffness
ashpot attached which exerts a force of 40 N w
vibrating system have a dashp whenn the mass has a
2.The mass of a single degree damped vibrating system is 7.5 kg and makes 24 free velocity of 1 m/s, find : 1. critical damping coefficient, 2. damping factor, 3. logarithmic
oscillations in 14 seconds when disturbed from its equilibrium position. The amplitude of decrement, and 4. ratio of two consecutive amplitudes. (AU-MAY/JUN-2012)
2012)
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vibration reduces to 0.25 of its initial value after five oscillations. Determine : 1. stiffness of Solution. Given : m = 8 kg ; s = 5.4 N/mm = 5400 N/m
the spring, 2. logarithmic decrement, and 3. damping factor, i.e. the ratio of the system Since the force exerted by dashpot is 40 N, and the mass has a velocity of 1 m/s , therefore
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damping to critical damping. ((AU-NOV/DEC-2012)

2012)
Damping coefficient (actual),
Solution. Given : m = 7.5 kg
Since 24 oscillations are made in 14 seconds, therefore frequency of free vibrations,
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224

3 (ii) An instrument vibrates with a frequency of 1 Hz when there is no damping. When the We know that natural circular frequency of motion,
damping is provided, the frequency of damped vibrations was observed to be 0.9 Hz. Find 1.
the damping factor, and 2. logarithmic decrement.
Solution. Given : fn = 1 Hz ; fd = 0.9 Hz

1. Damping factor
Let m= Mass of the instrument in kg,
c= Damping coefficient
or damping force per unit
velocity in N/m/s, and
cc= Critical damping coefficient in
N/m/s.
We know that natural circular frequency of undamped vibrations,
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4(ii) Derive an expression for the natural frequency of single degrees of freedom system.
(AU-MAY/JUNE-2009) 2009)
We know that the kinetic energy is due to the motion of the body and the potential energy
4(i) A coil of spring stiffness 4 N/mm supports vertically a mass of 20 kg at the free
is with respect to a certain datum position which is equal to the amount of work required to move
end. The motion is resisted by the oil dashpot. It is found that the amplitude at the
the body from the datum position. In the case of vibrations, the datum position is the mean or
vibration. Determine
beginning of the fourth cyclee is 0.8 times the amplitude of the previouss vi ermine
equilibrium position at which the potential energy of the body or the system is zero.
the damping force per unit velocity. Also find the ratio of the frequency of damped and
In the free vibrations, no energy is transferred to the system or from the system. Therefore
undamped vibrations. (AU-AP APR/MAY-2010))
the summation of kinetic energy and potential energy must be a constant quantity which is same
Solution. Given : s = 4 N/mm = 4000 N/m ; m = 20 kg
at all the times. In other words,
Damping force per unit velocity
Let c = Damping force in newtons per unit velocity i.e. in N/m/s
xn = Amplitude at the beginning of the third cycle, We know that kinetic energy,
xn+1 = Amplitude at the beginning of the fourth cycle = 0.8 xn
226

Since the shaft is supported in long bearings, it is assumed to be fixed at both ends. We
know that the static deflection at the centre of the shaft due to a mass of 50 kg,
Maximum bending stress

Let σ = Maximum bending stress in N/m2, and
N = Speed of the shaft = 75% of critical speed = 0.75 Nc . . . (Given)
P
P
When the shaft starts rotating, the additional dynamic load (W1) to which the shaft is
subjected, may be obtained by using the bending equation,
AP
AP
We know that for a shaft fixed at both ends and carrying a point load (W1) at the centre, the
Comparing equations, maximum bending moment
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5. A vertical shaft of 5 mm diameter is 200 mm long and is supported in long bearings at its
ends. A disc of mass 50 kg is attached to the centre of the shaft. Neglecting any increase in
stiffness due to the attachment of the disc to the shaft, find the critical speed of rotation and
the maximum bending stress when the shaft is rotating at 75% of the critical speed. The
centre of the disc is 0.25 mm from the geometric axis of the shaft. E = 200 GN/m 2. (AU-
MAY/JUN-2013)
Solution. Given : d = 5 mm = 0.005 m ; l = 200 mm = 0.2 m ; m = 50 kg ; e = 0.25 mm = 0.25 ×
10–3 m ; E = 200 GN/m2 = 200 × 109 N/m2
Critical speed of rotation
228
47 C.RAVINDIRAN-AP/MECH R2017R2017 229

6.(i) A shaft 50 mm diameter and 3 metres long is simply supported at tthe ends and carries
er an whirling speed of a shaft 20 mm diameter and 0.6 m long carrying
6.(ii) Calculate the whir
three loads of 1000 N, 1500 N and 750 N at 1 m, 2 m and 2.5 m from the left support. The Mg/m3, and Young€s
oint. The density of the shaft material is 40 M
a mass of 1 kg at its mid-poin
Young's modulus for shaf aft material is 200 GN/m2. Find the frequency of transverse modulus is 200 GN/m2. Assum me the shaft to be freely supported.
Assume
vibration. (AU-NOV/DEC-2011C-2011)
2011) (AU-MAY/JUNE-2009) 2009)
Solution. Given : d = 50 mm = 0.05 m ; l = 3 m, W1 = 1000 N ; W2 = 1500 N ; W3 = 750 N;
E = 200 GN/m = 200 × 10 N/m2
2 9
The shaft carrying the loads is shown in Fig. 23.13

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V ANICAL ENGINEERING
MECHANICAL
UNIT-IV FORCED VIBRATION 10. Whatt iss meantt byy dyna namicc magnifierr orr magnification n factor?? WWhat are the
Part-A(2 Marks) factorss on n which h itt dep
epend?? (AU-NOV/DEC-2010))
1. What is meant by forced vibrations ? Give Examples of forced vibrations. (NOV/DEC- Itt iss thee ratioo of maxi
aximum m displacementt off thee forced vibration
on ((Xma x) to thee
2011) deflectionn duee too thee statstaticc forcee F (x0)
When the body vibrates under the influence of external force, then the body is
said to be under forced vibrations.
Examples:
• Ringing of electrical bell
• The vibrations of air compressors, internal combustion engines, machine tools and
Itt dependss on:: (i)) thee rat
ratioo of circularr frequenciess
various other machinery.
(ii)) Thee ddampingg factorr ( ζ )
2. What are the types of external excitation? (NOV/DEC-2011)
• Periodic forces 11. Write down the expressi
expression
ession for amplitude of forced vibration. ? (AU
(AU-NOV/DEC-2012))
• Impulsive forces and vibration,
Amplitude of forced vibr
P
P
• Random forces.
12. List out the materialss u
used for vibration isolation. Laso which mat
material is most
3. What is the vibration isolation? (AU-MAY/JUNE-2009) suitable for compressiv
ssive loads? (AU-MAY/JUN-2012))
compressive
AP
AP
The term vibration isolation refers to the prevention or minimization of vibrations

and their transmission due to the unbalanced machines. • Rubber
4. Specify the importance of vibration isolation? (AU-NOV/DEC-2009) • Felt
When an unbalanced machine is installed on the foundation, it produces vibration • Cork
in the foundation. So, in order to prevent these vibrations or to minimize the transmission • Metallic Springs
of forces to the foundation, vibration isolation is important. Cork is suitable for compressive loads because it is not perfectly elastic. At high
R
loads it becomes more flexible.

5. When does resonance takes place in a system?(AU-NOV/DEC-2010)
When the frequency of external force is equal to the natural frequency of a ve isolation of vibration, frequency ratio r >√2.
13. Show that for effective √2.
(AU-MAY/JUN-2013) 13))
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vibrating body, the resonance occurs. At resonance, the amplitude of vibration becomes
exclusively large. When r >√2,√2, then transmissibility is less than one for all values of damping factor.
nsmitted force is always less than the excited for
This means that the trans
transmitted force.
6. Define transmissibility? (AU-NOV/DEC-2013)
When a machine is supported by a spring, the spring transmits the force applied 14. Sketch the graph for
or (ω/
(ω/ωn) Vs Transmissibility for different valu
values of damping
on the machine to the fixed support or foundation. This is called as transmissibility. factor.
U
7. What is meant by harmonic forcing? (AU-NOV/DEC-2013)

The term harmonic refers to a spring-mass system with viscous damping,
excited by a sinusoidal harmonic force.
ST
ST
F = F0sin ωt
8. Define transmissibility ratio or isolation factor? (AU-NOV/DEC-2012)

The ratio of force transmitted (FT) to the force applied (F) is known as
transmissibility ratio
2
FT 1 +(2ζr )
ε = =
F0 2
(1 − r ) + ( 2ζ r )
2 2
9. What is the role of transmission ratio?

Transmission ratio, also known as transmissibility, is a measure of the
effectiveness of the vibration isolation material.


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15. Whatt aree thee methodsdss off isolating

g thee vibration?? now find the value of particular integral as discussed below :
• Highgh speedd eng
engines/machiness mounted d onn foundationon and d supportss causee Let the particular integral of equation (i) is given by
vibrationss off ex
excessivee amplitudee becausee of thee unbalanced ced
d forces.. Itt can
n bee
minimizedd byy prproviding g “spring-damper”” , etc..
• Thee materialss us usedd for
or vibration
on isolation
on aree rubber,, feltt cor
cork,, etc.. Thesee aree
placedd betweenn thee foundation on and d vibrating
g body..
PART-B B
equilibrium position of
the displacement of mass from the equilib
1. Derive the relation forr th
the damped vibration system with harmonic forcing. ? (AU-NOV V/DEC-2013)
2013)
Consider a system consisting of spring, mass and damper as shown in Fig. 23.19. Let
the system is acted upon by an external periodic (i.e. simple harmonic) disturbing force,
P
Fx = F cos ω .t
where F = Static force, and
AP
AP
ω = Angular velocity of the periodic disturbing
force.
When the system is constrained to move in vertical guides, it has only one degree of
freedom. Let at sometime t, the mass is displaced downwards through a distance x from its
mean position.
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The equation of motion may be written as,
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U
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This equation of motion may be solved either by differential equation method or by
graphi-cal method as discussed below :
1. Differential equation method
The equation (i) is a differential equation of the second degree whose right hand side is
some function in t. The solution of such type of differential equation consists of two parts ; one
part is the complementary function and the second is particular integral. Therefore the solution
may be written as
x = x1 + x2
where x1 = Complementary function, and x2 = Particular integral.
The complementary function is same as discussed in the previous article, i.e.

x1 = Ce−at cos (ω d t− θ ) . . . (ii) where C and θ are constants. Let us
53

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2. A mass of 10 kg is suspende
suspended other end being fixed.
ded from one end of a helical spring, the oth
The stiffness of the spring is 10 N/mm. The viscous damping causes the amplitude to
initial value in four complete oscillations.
decrease to one-tenth of the in s. If a periodic
riodic force of
150 cos 50 t N is applied at the mass in the vertical direction, find the amplitude of the
forced vibrations. What is its value of resonance ? ? (AU-NOV/DEC-2014) 014))
P
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55

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4. What do you understand and by transmissibility? Describe the meth

method of finding the
3. The mass of an electric mot
motor
otor is 120 kg and it runs at 1500 r.p.m. Th
The armature mass is transmissibility ratio from unbalanced machine supported with foundation.
found (AU-NOV/DEC--
35 kg and its C.G. lies 0.5 mm from the axis of rotation. The motor is mounted on five 2012))
amping so that the force transmitted is one
springs of negligible damping one-eleventh
on eleventh of the A little consideration will show that when an unbalanced machine is installed on the
impressed force. Assume that the mass of the motor is equally distributed among the foundation, it produces vibration in the foundation. In order to prevent these vibrations or to
minimize the transmission of forces to the foundation, the machines are mounted on springs and
five springs.
dampers or on some vibration isolating material, as shown in Fig. 23.22. The arrangement is
Determine : 1. stiffness of each spring; 2. dynamic force transmitted to the base at the assumed to have one degree of freedom, i.e. it can move up and down only.
operating speed; and 3. natural frequency of the system. ? (AU-MAY Y/JUN-2013)
2013)
It may be noted that when a periodic (i.e. simple harmonic) disturbing force F cos ω t is
P
applied to a machine of mass m supported by a spring of stiffness s, then the force is transmitted
by means of the spring and the damper or dashpot to the fixed support or foundation.
The ratio of the force transmitted (FT) to the force applied (F) is known as the isolation
AP
AP
factor or transmissibility ratio of the spring support.
We have discussed above that the force transmitted to the foundation consists of the fol-
lowing two forces :
1.Spring force or elastic force which is equal to s. xmax, and
2.Damping force which is equal to c. ω .xmax.
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Since these two forces are perpendicular to one another, as shown in Fig.23.23, therefore
the force transmitted,
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ass of 100 kg and unbalanced reciprocating parts of mass 2 kg

5. A machine has a mass
which move through a vertical stroke of 80 mm with simple harmonic motion. The
machine is mounted on four springs, symmetrically arranged with respect to centre of
mass, in such a way that the machine has one degree of freedom and can undergo vertical
displacements only.
Neglecting damping, cal late the combined stiffness of the spring in order that the
calculate
force transmitted to the foundation is 1 / 25 th of the applied force, when the speed of
chine crank shaft is 1000 r.p.m.
rotation of ma-chine
When the machine is actually supported on the springs, it iss found that the
damping reduces the amplitude of successive free vibrations by 25%. Find : 1. the force
transmitted to foundation at 1000 r.p.m., 2. the force transmitted to the foundation at
resonance, and 3. the amplitude of the forced vibration of the machine at resonance. (AU--
MAY/JUN-2012)
2012)
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6.(i)
(i) Derive the relation for magn
magnification factor in case of forced vibration
vibration. ? (NOV/DEC-2013)
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6.(ii) A single cylinder vertical petrol engine of total mass 300 kg is mounted upon a steel UNIT-V MECHANISMS FOR CONTROL
chassis frame and causes a vertical static deflection of 2 mm. The reciprocating parts of the Part-A(2 Marks)
engine has a mass of 20 kg and move through a vertical stroke of 150 mm with simple
harmonic motion. A dashpot is provided whose damping resistance is directly proportional
to the velocity and amounts to 1.5 kN per metre per second.. 1. What is meant by sensitiveness of governors? (AU-NOV/DEC-2013)
The sensitiveness is defined as the ratio of the mean speed to the
Considering that the steady state of vibration is reached ; determine : 1. the amplitude of
difference between the maximum and minimum speeds. A governor is said to
forced vibrations, when the driving shaft of the engine rotates at 480 r.p.m., and 2.. the be sensitive, when it really to a small change of speed.
speed of the driving shaft at which resonance will occur.
2. What is meant by hunting? (AU-NOV/DEC-2012)
Solution : Given. m = 300 kg; δ = 2 mm = 2 × 10–3 m ; m1 = 20 kg ; l = 150 mm
The phenomenon of continuous fluctuations of the engine speed
= 0.15 m ; c = 1.5 kN/m/s = 1500 N/m/s ; N = 480 r.p.m. or ω = 2 ⋅ 480 / 60 = 50.3 rad/s
above and below the mean speed is termed as hunting. This occurs in over-
sensitive governors.
3. What is meant by isochronous condition in governors? (AU-MAY/JUNE-2013)
A governor with zero range of speed is known as an isochronous
P
P
governor. Actually the isochronism is the stake of Infinite sensitivity.
AP
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4. What are centrifugal governor? How do they differ from inertia

governor?
• The centrifugal governor controls the fuel supply by means of the
centrifugal forces on the governor balls.
• Inertia governor work s based on the inertia forces caused by an angular
acceleration or retardation of the shaft.
R
5. Explain the term stability of the governor? (AU-NOV/DEC-2010)

A governor is said to be stable if there is only one radius of rotation
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for all equilibrium speeds of the balls within the working range. If the
equilibrium speed increases the radius of governor ball must also increase.
6. Derive an expression for the height in the case of a Watt governor.
(AU-APR/MAY-2010)
FC × h = w × r = m.g.r
2 2
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m. ω .r.h = m.g.ror h=g/ω

2
When g is expressed in m/s and ω in rad/s, then h is in metres. If N is the speed in r.p.m., then
ω = 2 π N/60
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9.81 895
2 2
h = (2 π N / 60) = N
7. Define steering, pitching and rolling. (Or) list some of the terms related
to motion of ships using gyroscopic principle. (AU-NOV/DEC-2013)
• Steering is the turning of a complete ship in a curve towards left or
right, while it moves forward.
• Pitching is the movement of a complete ship up and down in a
vertical plane about transverse axis.
• Rolling is the movement of a ship in a linear fashion.
8. Write the expression for gyroscopic couple?
Gyroscopic couple, C = I • ω • ωP
Where I = Moment of inertia of the disc,
ω = Angular velocity of the engine, and ωP = Angular velocity of precession.
63
244 C.RAVINDIRAN-AP/MECH R2017R2017R2017 245 C.RAVINDIRAN-AP/MECH R2017

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MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
9. What will be the effect of gyroscopic couple on a disc fixed at a certain

angle to a rotating shaft? (AU-MAY/JUNE-2013)
The gyroscopic couple is applied through the bearings which support
the shaft. The bearings will resist equal and opposite couple.
10. What is the effect of gyroscopic couple on an automobile taking a turn?
(AU-NOV/DEC-2012)
While an automobile will move in a straight line, there will not be any
gyroscopic effect on it; but when it takes a turn (towards left or right), it will be
subjected to gyroscopic couple. The tendency of this couple is to overturn the
vehicle.
11. What is gyroscopic torque?
Whenever a rotating body changes its axis of rotation, a torque is
P
applied on the rotating body. This torque is known as gyroscopic torque.
12. Which part of the automobile is subjected to the gyroscopic couple? Fig. 18.12. Proell governor.
AP
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The rotating parts of automobile such as engine rotor, wheels and
bearings are subjected to the gyroscopic couple.
Taking moments about I,
13. What is meant by reactive gyroscopic couple? (AU-NOV/DEC-2011)
When the axis of spin itself moves with angular velocity ωp, the disc
is subjected to reactive couple whose magnitude is same but opposite in
direction to that of active couple.
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The reactive couple to which the disc is subjected when the axis of
spin rotates about the axis of precession is known as reactive gyroscopic
couple.
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14. What is meant by applied torque and reaction torque?( MAY/JUN-2012)
The torque exerted by one body on another is called applied torque.
When one body exerts torque on another body, then the opposite torque
exerted by the second body on the first is called reaction torque.
15. What is the effect of gyroscopic couple on rolling of ship? Why?
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We know that, for the effect of gyroscopic couple to occur, the axis of
precession should always be perpendicular to the axis of spin. In case of
rolling of a ship, the axis of precession is always parallel to the axis of spin
ST
ST
for all positions. Hence there is no effect of the gyroscopic couple acting on
the body of the ship during rolling
PART-B
1.(i) Explain the function of the proell governor with the help of a neat sketch.
Derive that relationship among the various forces acting on the link. (12)
(AU-NOV/DEC-2013)
The Proell governor has the balls fixed at B and C to the extension of the
links DF and EG, as shown in Fig. 18.12 (a). The arms FP and GQ are pivoted at P
and Q respectively.
Consider the equilibrium of the forces on one-half of the governor as shown in
Fig. 18.12 (b). The instantaneous centre (I) lies on the intersection of the line PF
produced and the line from D drawn perpendicular to the spindle axis. The
perpendicular B M is drawn on ID.


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1 (ii). What are centrifugal governors? how do they differ from inertia and MD = FG = 150 mm = 0.15 m
governor? (4) (AU-NOV/DEC-2013) FM = FD cos β = 300 cos 30° = 260 mm = 0.26 m
The centrifugal governors are based on the balancing of centrifugal force on IM = FM tan α = 0.26 tan 30° = 0.15 m
the rotating balls by an equal and opposite radial force, known as the controlling BM = BF + FM = 80 + 260 = 340 mm = 0.34 m
force. In inertia governors the positions of the balls are affected by the rate of ID = IM + MD = 0.15 + 0.15 = 0.3 m
change of speed. i.e., angular acceleration or retardation of the governor shaft. The We know that centrifugal force,
amount of displacement of governor balls is controlled by suitable springs and the
fuel supply to the engine is controlled by governor mechanism.
Though the sensitiveness of the inertia governors is more, there is a practical
difficulty of balancing the inertia forces caused by the revolving parts of the
governor to the controlling force. Hence these governors are not preferred when
compared with the centifugal governors.
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2. . A Proell governor has equal arms of length 300 m m. The upper and
lower ends of the arms are pivoted on the axis of the governor. The extension
AP
AP
arms of the lower links are each 80 mm long and parallel to the axis when the
radii of rotation of the balls are 150 mm and 200 m m. The mass of each ball is
10 kg and the mass of the central load is 100 kg. Determine the range of speed of h = PG = ( PF ) 2 – ( FG) 2 = (300) 2 – (200) 2 = 224 mm = 0.224 m
the governor. (AU-MAY/JUNE-2013) FM = GD = PG = 224 mm = 0.224 m
Solution. Given : PF = DF = 300 mm ; BF = 80 mm ; m = 10 kg ; M = 100 kg B M = BF + FM = 80 + 224 = 304 mm = 0.304 m
R
; r1 = 150 mm; r2 = 200 mm

minimum and maximum position of the governor is shown in Fig. 18.13.
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Let N1 = Minimum speed when radius of rotation, r1 = FG = 150 mm

; and
N2 = Maximum speed when radius of rotation , r2 = FG =
200 mm. From Fig. (a), we find that height of the governor,
3. The radius of rotation of the balls of a Hartnell governor is 80 mm at the

U
minimum speed of 300 r.p.m.. Neglecting gravity effect,, determine the speed
after the sleeve has lifted by 60 m m.. Also determine the initial compression of
the spring,, the governor effort
ort and the power.The
The particulars of the governor
ST
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are given below::

Length of ball arm = 150 mm ; lengthength of sleeve arm = 100 mm ; mass oof each
ball = 4 kg ; and stiffness of tthe spring = 25 N/m m.. (AU-NOV/DEC-2012)
2012)
Solution. Given : r1 = 80 mm = 0.08 m ; N1 = 300 r.p.m. or ω 1 = 2π ×
300/60 = 31.42 rad/s ; h = 60 mm = 0.06 m ; x = 150 mm = 0.15 m ; y = 100 mm =
0.1 m ; m = 4 kg ; s = 25 N/mm
From Fig. (a), we find that

sin α = sin β = 150 / 300 = 0.5 orα = β = 30°


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The minimum and maximum position of the governor is shown in Fig. 18.36 4. A Porter governor has all four arms 250 mm long. The upper arms are
(a) and (b) respectively. First of all, let us find the maximum radius of rotation (r2). attached on the axis of rotation and the lower arms are attached to the sleeve at
We know that lift of the sleeve, a distance of 30 m m from the axis. The mass of each ball is 5 kg and the sleeve
has a mass of 50 kg. The extreme radii of rotation are 150 mm and 200 m m.
Determine the range of speed of the governor. (AU-MAY/JUNE-2012)
Maximum speed of rotation Solution. Given : BP = BD = 250 mm ; DH = 30 mm ; m = 5 kg ; M = 50 kg ;
r1 = 150 mm ; r2 = 200 mm
Let N2 = Maximum speed of rotation, and
S1 and S2= Spring force at the minimum and maximum speed respectively, in First of all, let us find the minimum and maximum speed of the governor. The
newtons minimum and maximum position of the governor is shown in Fig. 18.8 (a) and (b)
. respectively.
We know centrifugal force at the minimum speed,
FC1 = m (ω 1)2 r1 = 4 (31.42)2 0.08 = 316 N
Now taking moments about the fulcrum O of the bell crank lever when in
minimum position as shown in Fig 18.36 (a). The gravity effect is neglected, i.e. the
P
moment due to the weight of balls, sleeve and the bell crank lever arms is neglected.
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Fig. 18.8
Let N1 = Minimum speed when r1 = BG = 150 mm ; and
Initial compression of the spring N2 = Maximum speed when r2 = BG = 200 mm.
From Fig. 18.8 (a), we find that height of the governor,
We know that initial compression of the h1 = PG = ( BP )
2
– ( BG)
2
= (250)
2
– (150)
2
= 200 mm = 0.2 m
spring
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BF = BG – FG = 150 – 30 = 120 mm . . . ((Œ FG = DH)
2 2 2 2
and DF = ( DB ) – ( BF ) = (250) – (120) = 219 mm
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∴ tan α 1 = BG/PG = 150 / 200 = 0.75
and tan β 1 = BF/DF = 120/219 = 0.548
Governor power
We know that the governor power
= P × h = 750 × 0.06 = 45 N-m Ans.
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ω 2 = ω + 0.01ω = 1.01ω = 1.01 × 47.13 = 47.6 rad/s

∴ Centrifugal force at the minimum speed,
2 2
FC1 = m (ω 1 ) r = m (46.66) 0.065 = 141.5 m N
and centrifugal force at the maximum speed,
FC2 = m (ω 2)2 r = m (47.6)2 0.0065 = 147.3
m N We know that for minimum speed at mid-position,
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2. Spring stiffness in N/mm

5.. A spring loaded governor of the Hartnell type has arms of equal length. The Let s = Spring stiffness in N/mm.
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masses rotate in a circle of 130 mm diameter when the sleeve is in the mid Since the maximum variation of speed, considering friction is ± 5% of the
position and the ball arms are vertical. The equilibrium speed for this position mid-position
is 450 r.p.m., neglecting friction. The maximum sleeve movement is to be 25 speed, therefore,
mm and the maximum variation of speed taking in account the friction to be 5 Minimum speed considering
friction,
per cent of the mid position speed. The mass of the sleeve is 4 kg and the
friction may be considered equivalent to 30 N at the sleeve. The power of the
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governor must be sufficient to over-come the friction by one per cent change of
speed either way at mid-position. Determine, neglecting obliquity effect of
arms ; 1. The value of each rotating mass : 2. The spring stiffness in N/mm ;
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and 3. The initial compression of spring. ( AU-NOV/DEC-2011)

Solution. Given : x = y ; d = 130 mm or r = 65 mm = 0.065 m ; N = 450 r.p.m.
or ω = 2 π × 450/60 = 47.23 rad/s ; h = 25 mm = 0.025 m ; M = 4 kg ; F = 30 N
1. Value of each rotating mass
Let m = Value of each rotating mass in kg, and And maximum radius of rotation considering friction,
S = Spring force on the sleeve at mid position in
newtons.
Since the change of speed at mid position to overcome friction is 1 per cent
either way (i.e. ± 1%), therefore
Minimum speed at mid position,
ω = ω – 0.01ω = 0.99ω = 0.99 × 47.13 = 46.66 rad/s and

maximum speed at mid-position,
71

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6. In an engine governor of the Porter type, the upper and lower arms are 200 m
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m and 250 mm respectively and pivoted on the axis of rotation. The mass of the
central load is 15 kg, the mass of each ball is 2 kg and friction of the sleeve
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together with the resistance of the operating gear is equal to a load of 25 N at
the sleeve. If the limiting inclinations of the upper arms to the vertical are 30°
and 40°, find, taking friction into account, range of speed of the governor.
(AU-APR/MAY-2011) 2011) We know that when the sleeve moves downwards, the frictional force (F) acts upwards and
Solution . Given : BP = 200 mm = 0.2 m ; BD = 250 mm = 0.25 m ; M = 15 kg ; m = the minimum speed is given by,
R
R
2 kg ; F = 25 N ; α 1 = 30°; α 2 = 40°
First of all, let us find the minimum and maximum speed of the governor.
The minimum and maximum position of the governor is shown Fig. 18.7 (a) and (b)
CO
CO
respectively.
Let N1 = Minimum speed, and N2 = Maximum speed.
From Fig. 18.7 (a), we find that minimum radius of rotation,
r1 = BG = BP sin 30° = 0.2 × 0.5 = 0.1 m Height of the governor,
h1 = PG = BP cos 30° = 0.2 × 0.866 = 0.1732 m
U
U
ST
ST
We know that when the sleeve moves upwards, the frictional force (F) acts
downwards and the maximum speed is given by,
73

ME8594- III /V
V MECHANICAL
MECH ENGINEERING ME6505- DYNAMICS OF MACHINES
ME8594- III /V
V MECHANICAL
MECH ENGINEERING
We know that range of

speed
= N2 – N1 = 222 – 183.3 = 38.7 r.p.m. Ans.
P
P
7.In a spring loaded governor of the Hartnell type, the mass of each ball is 1kg, length of
AP
AP
vertical arm of the bell crank lever is 100 mm and that of the horizontal arm is 50 m
m. The distance of fulcrum of each bell crank lever is 80 mm from the axis of rotation
of the governor. The extreme radii of rotation of the balls are 75 mm and 112.5 m m.
The maximum equilibrium speed is 5 per cent greater than the minimum equilibrium
speed which is 360 r.p.m. Find, neglecting obliq-uity of arms, initial compression of
the spring and equilibrium speed corresponding to the radius of rotation of 100 m m.
R
(AU-APR/MAY-2010)
CO
CO
U
U
ST
ST
75

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DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP

2.7 BALANCING OF RECIPROCATING MASSES 66

S.NO TOPIC PAGE NO S.NO TOPIC PAGE NO

1.16 COEFFICIENT OF FLUCTUATION OF SPEED 37 2.11 BALANCING OF INLINE ENGINES 72

1.19 FLYWHEEL IN PUNCHING PRESS 50 2.14 REVIEW QUESTIONS 90

1.21 REVIEW QUESTIONS 55 UNIT – 3 SINGLE DEGREE FREE VIBRATION

3.3.1 Effects of vibration 93

vi C.RAVINDIRAN-AP/MECH vii C.RAVINDIRAN-AP/MECH

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S.NO TOPIC PAGE NO 4.6 ROTATING UNBALANCE FORCED VIBRATION 127

3.9.2 Energy Method 99 S.NO TOPIC PAGE NO

3.10 EQUIVALENT STIFFNESS OF SPRING 100 4.7.1 Vibration Isolators 129

3.11 DAMPING 101 4.8 RESPONSE WITHOUT DAMPING 130

3.11.2 Damping Coefficient 102 4.10 REVIEW QUESTIONS 143

3.12 DAMPED VIBRATION 102 UNIT -5 MECHANISMS FOR CONTROL

3.12.1 Damping factor 102 5.1 INTRODUCTION TO GOVERNOR 144

3.13 TRANSVERSE VIBRATION 104 5.3 CLASSIFICATION OF GOVERNORS 144

3.14 TORSIONAL VIBRATION 106 5.5 CHARACTERISTICS AND QUALITIES OF 146

3.15 SOLVED ROBLEMS 111 5.9 HARTNELL GOVERNOR 150

3.16 REVIEW QUESTIONS 120 5.10 HARTUNG GOVERNOR 150

3.17 TUTORIAL PROBLEMS 120 5.11 WILSON HARTNELL GOVERNOR 152

UNIT – 4 FORCED VIBRATION 5.12 PICKERING GOVERNOR 153

4.1 INTRODUCTION 121 5.13 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A FLYWHEEL AND A 153

4.3 FORCED VIBRATION OF A SINGLE DEGREE-OF- 122 5.15 E F F E C T OF T H E G Y R O S C O P I C C O U P L E O N A 156

viii C.RAVINDIRAN-AP/MECH ix C.RAVINDIRAN-AP/MECH

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1.2 NEWT ON• S LAW :

and −F the "reaction"

1.3 TYPES OF FORCE ANALYSIS:

 Equilibrium of members with two forces

x C.RAVINDIRAN-AP/MECH DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP

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where m = Mass of the body, and

a = Linear acceleration of the centre of gravity of the body.

Similarly, the inertia torque is an imaginary torque, which when applied

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This forms the quadrilateral CQNO, which is known as Klien’s acceleration

oc1  op1  c1 p1 ω (a constant)

1.5.2 Klien’s acceleration diagram

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1.6 SOLVED PROBLEMS

1.7 APPROXIMATE ANALYTICAL METHOD FOR VELOCITY AND

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1.8 ANGULAR VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION OF THE CONNECTING ROD

Acceleration of the piston

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1.9 FORCES ON THE RECIPROCATING PARTS OF AN ENGINE,

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Solution. Given: r = 300 mm = 0.3 m ; mR = 250 kg; θ = 60°; p1 – p2 = 0.35 N/mm2; l =

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3. Thrust on the cylinder walls

FN  FP tan φ  2256.8 tan 4.7  185.5 N Ans.

Solution. Given: D = 100 mm = 0.1 m ; L = 120 mm = 0.12 m or