Chapter 2- Structure of Atom

As discussed in the previous chapter, according to Dalton’s atomic theory,

atoms are the building blocks of matter. In the year 1808, John Dalton
proposed the atomic theory saying that the atom is an indivisible particle of
matter. By the end of the nineteenth century, experiments proved that atoms
comprise three particles viz protons, neutrons, and electrons. Therefore, the
discovery of sub-atomic particles gave rise to various atomic models to
explain the structure of an atom.

Discovery of Electron—Discharge Tube Experiment

In 1879, William Crooks studied the conduction of electricity through gases at low pressure. He
performed the experiment in a discharge tube which is a cylindrical hard glass tube about 60 cm
in length. It is sealed at both the ends and fitted with two metal electrodes as shown in Fig. 2.1.

The electrical discharge through the gases could be observed only at very low pressures and at
very high voltages.
The pressure of different gases could be adjusted by evacuation. When sufficiently high voltage
is applied across the electrodes, current starts flowing through a stream of particles moving in the
tube from the negative electrode (cathode) to the positive electrode (anode). These were called
cathode rays or cathode ray particles.
• Properties of Cathode Rays
(i) Cathode rays travel in straight line.
(ii) Cathode rays start from cathode and move towards the anode.
(iii) These rays themselves are not visible but their behaviour can be observed with the help of
certain kind of materials (fluorescent or phosphorescent) which glow when hit by them.
(iv) Cathode rays consist of negatively charged particles. When electric field is applied on the
cathode rays with the help of a pair of metal plates, these are found to be deflected towards the
positive plate indicating the presence of negative charge.
(v) The characteristics of cathode rays do not depend upon the material of electrodes and the
nature of gas present in the cathode ray’tube.

• Determination of Charge/Mass (elm) Ratio for Electrons

J. J. Thomson for the first time experimentally determined charge/mass ratio called elm ratio for
the electrons. For this, he subjected the beam of electrons released in the discharge tube as
cathode rays to influence the electric and magnetic fields. These were acting perpendicular to
one another as well as to the path followed by electrons.
According to Thomson, the amount of deviation of the particles from their path in presence of
electrical and magnetic field depends upon following factors:
(i) Greater the magnitude of the charge on the particle, greater is the interaction with the electric
or magnetic field and thus greater is the deflection.
(ii) The mass of the particle — lighter the particle, greater the deflection.
(iii) The deflection of electrons from their original path increases with the increase in the voltage
across the electrodes or strength of the magnetic field.
By carrying out accurate measurements on the amount of deflections observed by the electrons
on the electric field strength or magnetic field strength, Thomson was able to determine the value
of
e/me = 1.758820 x 1011 C kg-1 where me = Mass of the electron in kg
e = magnitude of charge on the electron in coulomb (C).

• Charge on the Electron

R.A. Millikan devised a method known as oil drop experiment to determine the charge on the
electrons.
• Discovery of Proton—Anode Rays
In 1886, Goldstein modified the discharge tube by using a perforated cathode. On reducing the
pressure, he observed a new type of luminous rays passing through the holes or perforations of
the cathode and moving in a direction opposite to the cathode rays. These rays were named as
positive rays or anode rays or as canal rays. Anode rays are not emitted from the anode but from
a space between anode and cathode.
• Properties of Anode Rays
(i) The value of positive charge (e) on the particles constituting anode rays depends upon the
nature of the gas in the discharge tube.
(ii) The charge to mass ratio of the particles is found to depend on the gas from which these
originate.
(iii) Some of the positively charged particles carry a multiple of the fundamental unit of
electrical charge.
(iv) The behaviour of these particles in the magnetic or electric field is opposite to that observed
for electron or cathode rays.
• Proton
The smallest and lightest positive ion was obtained from hydrogen and was called proton. Mass
of proton = 1.676 x 10-27 kg
Charge on a proton = (+) 1.602 x 10-19 C
• Neutron
It is a neutral particle. It was discovered by Chadwick (1932).
By the bombardment of thin sheets of beryllium with fast moving a-particles he observed • that
highly penetrating rays consist of neutral particles which were named neutrons.

• Thomson Model of Atom

(i) J. J. Thomson proposed that an atom may be regarded as a sphere of approximate radius 1CT8
cm carrying positive charge due to protons and in which negatively charged electrons are
embedded.
(ii) In this model, the atom is visualized as a pudding or cake of positive charge with electrons
embedded into it.
(iii) The mass of atom is considered to be evenly spread over the atom according to this model.
Drawback of Thomson Model of Atom
This model was able to explain the overall neutrality of the atom, it could not satisfactorily,
explain the results of scattering experiments carried out by Rutherford in 1911.

• Rutherford’s a-particle Scattering Experiment

Rutherford in 1911, performed some scattering experiments in which he bombarded thin foils of
metals like gold, silver, platinum or copper with a beam of fast moving a-particles. The thin gold
foil had a circular fluorescent zinc sulphide screen around it. Whenever a-particles struck the
screen, a tiny flash of light was produced at that point.
From these experiments, he made the following observations:
–

(i) Most of the a-particles passed through the foil without undergoing any deflection,
(ii) A few a-particles underwent deflection through small angles.
(iii) Very few mere deflected back i.e., through an angle of nearly 180°.
From these observations, Rutherford drew the following conclusions:
(i) Since most of the a-particles passed through the foil without undergoing any deflection, there
must be sufficient empty space within the atom.
(ii) A small fraction of a-particles was deflected by small angles. The positive charge has to be
concentrated in a very small volume that repelled and deflected a few positively charged a-
particles. This very small portion of the atom was called nucleus.
(iii) The volume of nucleus is very small as compared to total volume of atom.
• Rutherford’s Nuclear Model of an Atom
(i) The positive charge and most of the mass of the atom was densely concentrated in an
extremely small region. This very small portion of the atom was called nucleus by Rutherford.
(ii) The nucleus is surrounded by electrons that move around the nucleus with a very high speed
in circular paths called orbits.
(iii) Electrons and nucleus are held together by electrostatic forces of attraction.

• Atomic Number
The number of protons present in the nucleus is equal to the atomic number (z). For example, the
number of protons in the hydrogen nucleus is 1, in sodium atom it is 11, therefore, their atomic
numbers are 1 and 11. In order to keep the electrical neutrality, the number of electrons in an
atom is equal to the number of protons (atomic number, z). For example, number of electrons in
hydrogen atom and sodium atom are 1 and 11 respectively.
Atomic Number (z) = Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
= Number of electrons in a neutral atom.

• Mass Number
Number of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus are collectively known as nucleons. The
total number of nucleons is termed as mass number (A) of the atom.
Mass Number (A) = Number of protons (p) + Number of neutrons (n).

• Isotopes
Atoms with identical atomic number but different atomic mass number are known as Isotopes.
Isotopes of Hydrogen:

These three isotopes are shown in the figure below:

Characteristics of Isotopes
(i) Since the isotopes of an element have the same atomic number, but different mass number,
the nuclei of isotopes contain the same number of protons, but different number of neutrons.
(ii) Since, the isotopes differ in their atomic masses, all the properties of the isotopes depending
upon the mass are different.
(iii) Since, the chemical properties are mainly determined by the number of protons in the
nucleus, and the number of electrons in the atom, the different isotopes of an element exhibit
similar chemical properties. For example, all the isotopes of carbon on burning give carbon
dioxide.
• Isobars

• Drawbacks of Rutherford Model

(i) When a body is moving in an orbit, it achieves acceleration. Thus, an electron moving around
nucleus in an orbit is under acceleration.
According to Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory, charged particles when accelerated must emit
electromagnetic radiations. Therefore, an electron in an orbit will emit radiations, the energy
carried by radiation comes from electronic motion. Its path will become closer to nucleus and
ultimately should spiral into nucleus within . 10-8 s. But actually this does not happen.
Thus, Rutherford’s model cannot explain the stability of atom if the motion of electrons is
described on the basis of classical mechanics and electromagnetic theory.
(ii) Rutherford’s model does not give any idea about distribution of electrons around the nucleus
and about their energies.

• Developments Leading to the Bohr’s Model of Atom

Two developments played a major role in the formulation of Bohr’s model of atom. These were:
(i) Dual character of the electromagnetic radiation which means that radiations possess both
wave like and particle like properties.
(ii) Experimental results regarding atomic spectra which can be explained only by assuming
quantized electronic energy levels in atoms.

• Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation (Electromagnetic Wave Theory)

This theory was put forward by James Clark Maxwell in 1864. The main points of this theory are
as follows:
(i) The energy is emitted from any source (like the heated rod or the filament of a bulb through
which electric current is passed) continuously in the form of radiations and is called the radiant
energy.
(ii) The radiations consist of electric and magnetic fields oscillating perpendicular to each other
and both perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the radiation.
(iii) The radiations possess wave character and travel with the velocity of light 3 x 10 8 m/sec.
(iv) These waves do not require any material medium for propagation. For example, rays from
the sun reach us through space which is a non-material medium.

• Characteristics of a Wave
Wavelength: It is defined as the distance between any two consecutive crests or troughs. It is
represented by X and its S.I. unit is metre.

Frequency: Frequency of a wave is defined as the number of waves passing through a point in
one second. It is represented by v (nu) and is expressed in Hertz (Hz).
1 Hz = 1 cycle/sec.
Velocity: Velocity of a wave is defined as the linear distance travelled by the wave in one
second.
It is represented by c and is expressed in cm/sec or m/sec.
Amplitude: Amplitude of a wave is the height of the crest or the depth of the through. It is
represented by V and is expressed in the units of length.
Wave Number: It is defined as the number of waves present in 1 metre length. Evidently it will
be equal to the reciprocal of the wavelength. It is represented by bar v (read as nu bar).

Electromagnetic Spectrum: When electromagnetic radiations are arranged in order of their

increasing wavelengths or decreasing frequencies, the complete spectrum obtained is called
electromagnetic spectrum.

• Limitations of Electromagnetic Wave Theory

Electromagnetic wave theory was successful in explaining properties of light such as
interference, diffraction etc; but it could not explain the following:
(i) The phenomenon of black body radiation.
(ii) The photoelectric effect.
(iii) The variation of heat capacity of solids as a function of temperature.
(iv) The line spectra of atoms with reference to hydrogen.
• Black Body Radiation
The ideal body, which emits and absorbs all frequencies is called a black body and the radiation
emitted by such a body is called black body radiation. The. exact frequency distribution of the
emitted radiation from a black body depends only on its temperature.
At a given temperature, intensity of radiation emitted increases with decrease of wavelength,
reaches a maximum value at a given wavelength and then starts decreasing with further decrease
of wavelength as shown in Fig .

• Planck’s Quantum Theory

To explain the phenomenon of ‘Black body radiation’ and photoelectric effect, Max Planck in
1900, put forward a theory known as Planck’s Quantum Theory.
This theory was further extended by Einstein in 1905. The main points of this theory was as
follows: ,
(i) The radiant energy emitted or absorbed in the form of small packets of energy. Each such
packets of energy is called a quantum.
(ii) The energy of each quantum is directly proportional to the frequency of the radiation

where h is a proportionality constant, called Planck’s constant. Its value is equal to 6.626 x 10 -
34
Jsec.
• Photoelectric Effect
Hertz, in 1887, discovered that when a beam of light of certain frequency strikes the surface of
some metals, electrons are emitted or ejected from the metal surface. The phenomenon is called
photoelectric effect.

Observations in Photoelectric Effect

(i) Only photons of light of certain minimum frequency called threshold frequency (v0) can cause
the photoelectric effect. The value of v0 is different for different metals.
(ii) The kinetic energy of the electrons which are emitted is directly proportional to the frequency
of the striking photons and is quite independent of their intensity.
(iii) The number of electrons that are ejected per second from the metal surface depends upon the
intensity of the striking photons or radiations and not upon their frequency.

Explanation of Photoelectric Effect

Einstein in (1905) was able to give an explanation of the different points of the photoelectric
effect using Planck’s quantum theory as under:
(i) Photoelectrons are ejected only when the incident light has a certain minimum frequency
(threshold frequency v0)
(ii) If the frequency of the incident light (v) is more than the threshold frequency (v0), the excess
energy (hv – hv0) is imparted to the electron as kinetic energy.
K.E. of the ejected electron

energy of the emitted electron.

(iii) On increasing the intensity of light, more electrons are ejected but the energies of the
electrons are not altered.

• Dual Behaviour of Electromagnetic Radiation

From the study of behaviour of light, scientists came to the conclusion that light and other
electromagnetic radiations have dual nature. These are wave nature as well as particle nature.
Whenever radiation interacts with matter, it displays particle like properties in contrast to the
wavelike properties (interference and diffraction) which it exhibits when it propagates. Some
microscopic particles, like electrons, also exhibit this wave-particle duality.

• Spectrum
When a ray of white light is passed through a prism the wave with shorter wavelength bends
more than the one with a longer wavelength. Since ordinary white light consists of waves with
all the wavelengths in the visible range, array of white light is spread out into a series of coloured
bands called spectrum. The light of red colour which has longest wavelength is deviated the least
while the violet light, which has shortest wavelength is deviated the most.
Continuous Spectrum
When a ray of white light is analysed by passing through a prism it is observed that it splits up
into seven different wide bands of colours from violet to red (like rainbow). These colours are so
continuous that each of them merges into the next. Hence, the spectrum is called continuous
spectrum.
Emission Spectra
Emission Spectra is noticed when the radiations emitted from a source are passed through a
prism and then received on the photographic plate. Radiations can be emitted in a number of
ways such as:
(i) from sun or glowing electric bulb.
(ii) by passing electric discharge through a gas at low pressure.
(iii) by heating a substance to high temperature.
Line Spectra
When the vapours of some volatile substance are allowed to fall on the flame of a Bunsen burner
and then analysed with the help of a spectroscope. Some specific coloured lines appear on the
photographic plate which are different for different substances. For example, sodium or its salts
emit yellow light while potassium or its salts give out violet light.
Absorption Spectra
When white light is passed through the vapours of a substance and the transmitted light is then
allowed to strike a prism, dark lines appear in the otherwise continuous spectrum. The dark lines
indicate that the radiations corresponding to them were absorbed by the substance from the white
light. This spectrum is called absorption spectrum.
Dark lines appear exactly at the same positions where the lines in the emission spectra appear.

• Line Spectrum of Hydrogen

When electric discharge is passed through hydrogen gas enclosed in discharge tube under low
pressure and the emitted light is analysed by a spectroscope, the spectrum consists of a large
number of lines which are grouped into different series. The complete spectrum is known as
hydrogen spectrum.
On the basis of experimental observations, Johannes Rydberg noted that all series of lines in the
hydrogen spectrum could be described by the following expression:

Rydberg in 1890, and has given a simple theoretical equation for the calculation of wavelengths
and wave numbers of the spectral lines in different series of hydrogen spectrum. The equation is
known as Rydberg formula (or equation).

This relation is valid for hydrogen atom only. For other species,

where Z is the atomic number of the species.

Here RH = constant, called Rydberg constant for hydrogen and n1 , n2 are integers (n2 > n1)
For any particular series, the value of n1 is constant while that of n2 changes. For example,
For Lyman series, n1= 1, n2= 2, 3, 4, 5………..
For Balmer series, n1 = 2, n2 = 3, 4, 5, 6………..
For Paschen series, n1= 3, n2 = 4, 5, 6, 7………..
For Brackett series,n1 = 4, n2 = 5, 6, 7, 8………..
For Pjund series, n1 =5, n2 = 6, 7, 8, 9………..
Thus, by substituting the values of n1 and n2 in the above equation, wavelengths and wave
number of different spectral lines can be calculated. When n1 = 2, the expression given above is
called Balmer’s formula.
• Bohr’s Model of Atom
Niels Bohr in 1913, proposed a new model of atom on the basis of Planck’s Quantum Theory.
The main points of this model are as follows:
(i) In an atom, the electrons revolve around the nucleus in certain definite circular paths called
orbits.
(ii) Each orbit is associated with definite energy and therefore these are known as energy
levels or energy shells. These are numbered as 1, 2, 3, 4……….. or K, L, M, N………..
(iii) Only those energy orbits are permitted for the electron in which angular momentum of the
electron is a whole number multiple of h/2π
Angular momentum of electron (mvr) = nh/2π (n = 1, 2, 3, 4 etc).
m = mass of the electron.
v = tangential velocity of the revolving electron.
r = radius of the orbit.
h = Planck’s constant.
n is an integer.
(iv) As long as electron is present in a particular orbit, it neither absorbs nor loses energy and its
energy, therefore, remains constant.
(v) When energy is supplied to an electron, it absorbs energy only in fixed amounts as quanta
and jumps to higher energy state away from the nucleus known as excited state. The excited state
is unstable, the electron may jump back to the lower energy state and in doing so, it emits the
same amount of energy. (∆E = E2 – E1).

• Achievements of Bohr’s Theory

1. Bohr’s theory has explained the stability of an atom.
2. Bohr’s theory has helped in calculating the energy of electron in hydrogen atom and one
electron species. The mathematical expression for the energy in the nth orbit is,

• Limitations of Bohr’s Model

(i) The theory could not explain the atomic spectra of the atoms containing more than one
electron or multielectron atoms.
(ii) Bohr7s theory failed to explain the fine structure of the spectral lines.
(iii) Bohr’s theory could not offer any satisfactory explanation of Zeeman effect and Stark effect.
(iv) Bohr’s theory failed to explain the ability of atoms to form molecule formed by chemical
bonds.
(v) It was not in accordance with the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.

• Dual Behaviour of Matter (de Broglie Equation)

de Broglie in 1924, proposed that matter, like radiation, should also exhibit dual behaviour i.e.,
both particle like and wave like properties. This means that like photons, electrons also have
momentum as well as wavelength.
From this analogy, de Broglie gave the following relation between wavelength (λ) and
momentum (p) of a material particle.

• Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

It states that, “It is impossible to determine simultaneously, the exact position and exact
momentum (or velocity) of an electron”.

• Significance of Uncertainty Principle

(i) It rules out existence of definite paths or trajectories of electrons and other similar particles.
(ii) The effect of Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle is significant only for microscopic objects
and is negligible for macroscopic objects.

• Reasons for the Failure of Bohr Model

(i) The wave character of the electron is not considered in Bohr Model.
(ii) According to Bohr Model an orbit is a clearly defined path and this path can completely be
defined only if both the position and the velocity of the electron are known exactly at the same
time. This is not possible according to the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.

• Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom

Quantum mechanics: Quantum mechanics is a theoretical science that deals with the study of the
motions of the microscopic objects that have both observable wave like and particle like
properties.
Important Features of Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom
(i) The energy of electrons in atom is quantized i.e., can only have certain values.
(ii) The existence of quantized electronic energy level is a direct result of the wave like
properties of electrons.
(iii) Both the exact position and exact velocity of an electron in an atom cannot be determined
simultaneously.
(iv) An atomic orbital has wave function φ. There are many orbitals in an atom. Electron occupy
an atomic orbital which has definite energy. An orbital cannot have more than two electrons. The
orbitals are filled in increasing order of energy. All the information about the electron in an atom
is stored in orbital wave function φ.
(v) The probability of finding electron at a point within an atom is proportional to square of
orbital wave function i.e., |φ2|at that point. It is known as probability density and is always
positive.
From the value of φ2 at different points within atom, it is possible to predict the region around the
nucleus where electron most probably will be found.

• Quantum Numbers
Atomic orbitals can be specified by giving their corresponding energies and angular momentums
which are quantized (i.e., they have specific values). The quantized values can be expressed in
terms of quantum number. These are used to get complete information about electron i.e., its
location, energy, spin etc.
Principal Quantum Number (n)
It is the most important quantum number since it tells the principal energy level or shell to which
the electron belongs. It is denoted by the letter V and can have any integral value except zero,
i.e., n = 1, 2, 3, 4……….. etc.
The various principal energy shells are also designated by the letters, K, L, M, N, O, P ….. etc.
Starting from the nucleus.

The principal quantum number gives us the following information:

(i) It gives the average distance of the electron from the nucleus.
(ii) It completely determines the energy of the electron in hydrogen atom and hydrogen like
particles.
(iii) The maximum number of electrons present in any principal shell is given by 2n2 where n is
the number of the principal shell.

Azimuthal or Subsidiary or Orbital Angular Quantum Number (l)

It is found that the spectra of the elements contain not only the main lines but there are many fine
lines also present. This number helps to explain the fine lines of the spectrum.
The azimuthal quantum number gives the following information:
(i) The number of subshells present in the main shell.
(ii) The angular momentum of the electron present in any subshell.
(in) The relative energies of various subshells.
(iv) The shapes of the various subshells present within the same principal shell.
This quantum number is denoted by the letter T. For a given value of n, it can have any value
ranging from 0 to n – 1. For example,
For the 1st shell (k), n = 1, l can have only one value i.e., l = 0 For n = 2, the possible value of l
can be 0 and 1.
Subshells corresponding to different values of l are represented by the following symbols:
value of l 0 1 2 3 4 5 ……………..
Notation for subshell s p d f g h ………………..
Magnetic Orbital Quantum Number (m or m1)
The magnetic orbital quantum number determines the number of preferred orientations of the
electrons present in a subshell. Since each orientation corresponds to an orbital, therefore, the
magnetic orbital quantum number determines the number of orbitals present in any subshell.
The magnetic quantum number is denoted by letter m or ml and for a given value of l, it can have
all the values ranging from – l to + l including zero.
Thus, for energy value of l, m has 2l + 1 values.
For example,
For l = 0 (s-subshell), ml can have only one value i.e., m1 = 0.
This means that s-subshell has only one orientation in space. In other words, s-subshell has only
one orbital called s-orbital.
Spin Quantum Number (S or ms)
This quantum number helps to explain the magnetic properties of the substances. A spinning
electron behaves like a micromagnet with a definite magnetic moment. If an orbital contains two
electrons, the two magnetic moments oppose and cancel each other.

• Shapes of s-orbitals
s-orbital is present in the s-subshell. For this subshell, l = 0 and ml = 0. Thus, s-orbital with only
one orientation has a spherical shape with uniform electron density along all the three axes.
The probability of Is electron is found to be maximum near the nucleus and decreases with the
increase in the distance from the nucleus. In 2s electron, the probability is also maximum near
the nucleus and decreases to zero probability. The spherical empty shell for 2s electron is called
nodal surface or simply node.

• Shapes of p-orbitals
p-orbitals are present in the p-subshell for which l = 1 and m1 can have three possible
orientations – 1, 0, + 1.
Thus, there are three orbitals in the p-subshell which are designated as px, py and pz orbitals
depending upon the axis along which they are directed. The general shape of a p-orbital is dumb-
bell consisting of two portions known as lobes. Moreover, there is a plane passing through the
nucleus along which finding of the electron density is almost nil. This is known as nodal plane as
shown in the fig.
From the dumb-bell pictures, it is quite obvious that unlike s-orbital, a p-orbital is directional in
nature and hence it influences the shapes of the molecules in the formation of which it
participates.

• Shapes of d-orbitals
d-orbitals are present in d-subshell for which l = 2 and m[ = -2, -1, 0, +1 and +2. This means that
there are five orientations leading to five different orbitals.

• Aufbau Principle
The principle states: In the ground state of the atoms, the orbitals are filled in order of their
increasing energies.
In other words, electrons first occupy the lowest energy orbital available to them and enter into
higher energy orbitals only after the lower energy orbitals are filled.
The order in which the energies of the orbitals increase and hence the order in which the orbitals
are filled is as follows:
Is, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, id, 5p, 6s, if, 3d, 6p, 7s, 5f 6d, 7p
The order may be remembered by using the method given in fig. 2.11.

• Pauli Exclusion Principle

According to this principle, no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum
numbers.
Pauli exclusion principle can also be stated as: Only two electrons may exist in the same orbital
and these electrons must have opposite spins.
• Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity
It states that: pairing of electrons in the orbitals belonging to the same subshell (p, d or f) does
not take place until each orbital belonging to that subshell has got one electron each i.e., it is
singly occupied.

• Electronic Configuration of Atoms

The distribution of electrons into orbitals of an atom is called its electronic configuration. The
electronic configuration of different atoms can be represented in two ways.
For example:

• Causes of Stability of Completely Filled and Half Filled Subshells

The completely filled and half filled subshells are stable due to the following reasons:

1. Symmetrical distribution of electrons: The completely filled or half filled subshells have
symmetrical distribution of electrons in them and are therefore more stable.
2. The stabilizing effect arises whenever two or more electrons with same spin are present in the
degenrate orbitals of a subshell. These electrons tend to exchange their positions
and the energy released due to their exchange is called exchange energy. The number of
exchanges that can takes place is maximum when the subshell is either half filled or completely
filled.
-As a result the exchange energy is maximum and so is the stability.