PRACTICAL CLASS №1

THEME: “BIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE, THE SUBJECT-MATTER, MAIN

GOALS AND METHODS OF STUDY.”
INDEPENDENT WORK AT HOME

1. Describe the characteristics of levels of biological organization.

Level of biological Biological system Properties of living- Example of

organization matter, expressed processes,
at the level occurring at the
level

Molecular-genetic DNA and RNA About the chemicals Protein synthesis

elements, inorganic (DNA and RNA
and the hereditary replication)
meterial.

Sub-cellular Plasma membrane The organelles that Transport

suspended at the mechanism across
jelly-like cell Cell membrane
cytoplasm

Cellular Cell of animal The basic unit of life Process of mitosis

and miosis.

Tissue Epithelial tissue, Cell with same The process of

Muscle tissue function arranged Combination of cell
together to form new to become a same
tissue. origin.

Organ animal: Stomach, Same group of tissue Digestion

heart arranged into a
functional structures
Plant: root and leaves. of organs.

Systems of organs Respiratory system Same function of Respiration

organ for one system

Organism Human being The system that Reproduction

functioning together
and form an
organism.
 Population A population of Organism that mortality, migration.
people that live in interacts to form
same area complex level of
biological
organization

Community Group of different Interact with each Generalising

group of species that other to form one process.
live in one area community.

Ecosystem The community of Composed hundreds The world that full

different species, that different lives of living things and
stay together non-living things

Biosphere The ecosystem that Communities that Photosynthesis

consist of living together that form
organism lives on earth
2.

2. Explain the properties of living matter.

Properties Explanation

Structure and form Ability of Living things that has a definite form and structure

Chemical composition Ability of living organism to Composed of chemical substances

in a definite proportions, which forms complex organic
molecules such as ( sugar and proteins.)

Cellular structure Part where contains the organelles such as ( nucleus, ribosomes
and mitochondira.)

Metabolism Ability of a living things to form a Vital chemical changes which

take place constantly in a living organism. Metabolism will
replace old parts of body and build the body.

Growth and development Growth is an increase in height or size of a body part, or for call
it will increase in weight and size.

Development is process of an organism that grows physically and

physiologically.
 Reproduction Ability to duplicate or produce new individuals resembling it in
all essential features. It is a unique property that possessed by the
living.

Heredity Ability to pass the traits from the parents to their offspring. By
going through reproduction process such as assexsual or sexual.

Variability The different person which based on their genotype.

Irritability Organism that react to changes in their environment, the example

of environment is such as ( aquatic or parasitic ).any cages in the
environment will make a respond on a organism which known as
irritability.

Adaptation Ability of An organism taht fits itself to the surrounding it is

adapted to the conditions of life called environment.

Homeostasis The ability to maintenance of a constant in eternal environment in

terms of temperature, PH, water concentrations, etc.

3.
 PRACTICAL CLASS №2

THEME: “MICROSCOPE. MICROSCOPIC TECHNIQUE.”

INDEPENDENT WORK AT HOME

Work №1. Name the structures if light compound microscope.

Structures
1 – eyepiece (ocular)
2- tube
3- arm
4- coarse adjustment screw
5- fine adjustment screw
6- base
7- mirror with concave and flat surfaces
8- sub-stage condenser
9- stage with spring clips and system of screws
10- triple nosepiece
11- objectives
12- screw for the condenser

Work №2. Describe the functions of structures of light microscope.

Structures Functions
Base of support to support the base of the light microscope and stable the
microscope.
Arm of support to support the nosepiece, objectives and the tube which holds the
eyepiece.
Tube to separate the objective lens and the eyepiece lens and assures
continuous alignment of the optics so that the magnification will
be accurate.

Stage to hold the specimen in place

Coarse adjustment screw it serves for the raising and the lowering of the
tube and for the examination of slides under the low power
magnification
Fine adjustment screw it serves for the examination of the slides under
high power magnification
Eyepiece system of lenses which consists of x7, x10 and x15
magnification

Objectives system of lenses which divides into three; low power

magnification (x8), high power magnification (x40) and oil
immersion (x90)
Condenser it serves for regulation of light. If you lower down
it, the light is decreased. If you raise it, the light is increased

Mirror to reflect light from an external light source up through the

bottom of the stage.

Diaphragm it serves for regulation of light

 PRACTICAL CLASS N3
THEME: CELL AS AN ELEMENTARY UNIT OF LIVING MATTER.

Work № 1. Study and label structure of the prokaryotic cell.

1 2 3 4 5 6

1 – Flagella 2 – Ribosome

3 – Capsule 4 – Cell Wall

5 – Bacterial chromosome 6 – Fimbriae

Work № 2. Study and label structure of the eukaryotic cell.

1 – plasma membrane 2 – golgi apparatus

3 – nucleus 4 – endoplasmic reticulum

5 – mitochondria 6 – cytoplasm
Work № 3. To compare structure of the plant and animal cell. To fill the
chart.

Characteristics Plant cell Animal cell

Size larger smaller

Shape fixed shape, rigid irregular shape, flexible
Cell wall Present Absent
Plastids Present Absent
Vacuoles Present Absent
Centrioles Absent Present
Storage of starch glycogen
carbohydrates

Work № 4. Study and label structure of the cell membrane.

1 – hydrophilic head 2 – hydrophobic tail

3 – integral protein 4 – peripheral protein

5 – surface protein 6 – carbohydrate

7 - cholesterol
 PRACTICAL CLASS N4
THEME: ORGANIZATION OF HEREDITARY MATERIAL IN PRO- AND
EUKARYOTES. HUMAN HEREDITARY APPARATUS.

Work № 1. Study and label structure of the cell nucleus.

1– endoplasmic reticulum 2 – nuclear envelope

3– ribosome 4 – chromatin

5– nucleoplasm 6 – nuclear pore 7 - nucleolus

Work № 2. To compare structure and chemical composition of the DNA and

RNA. To fill the chart.

Characteristics DNA RNA

Name deoxyribonucleic acid ribonucleic acid

Sugar deoxyribose ribose
Nitrogen bases adenine, guanine, thymine, cytosine adenine, guanine, uracil, cytosine
Quantity of
two strands single strands
strands
Types of the
molecule with only had one type of DNA t-RNA and m-RNA
their functions
 Work № 3. Solution of the problems in molecular biology.

1) In a research was studied the DNA molecule chain. It was found, that it
consists of 24-nucleotide monomers: 3’- GTG-TAA-CGA-TCT-ATA-CTG-TAC-
ACC -5’. Determine the structure of the second DNA molecule chain (strand)?

Solution:
st
1 DNA strand 3’- GTG-TAA-CGA-TCT-ATA-CTG-TAC-ACC -5’
2nd DNA strand 5’ - CAC-ATT-GCT-AGA-TAT-GAC-ATG-TGG -3’

2) Two strands of DNA molecule are connected by the hydrogen bonds.

Determine the number of adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine nucleotides in
DNA molecule, in which 54 nucleotides are connected by three hydrogen bonds and
48 nucleotides - two hydrogen bonds. Explain the results.
Solution:
C+G=54/3H
A+T=48/2H
A] = 9, [T] = 9, [C] = 18, [G] = 18.

3) In the DNA molecule, the number of thymine nucleotide (T) is 24%.

Determine the number (%) of nucleotides with: guanine (G), adenine (A), cytosine
(C) in the same DNA molecule and explain the results.
Solution:

It is known cytosine is always paired with guanine, adenine with

thymine. So total number of all nucleotides in DNA is 100%.

[A] = 24%, [T] = 24%, [C] = 26%, [G] = 26%.

4) The length of DNA molecule fragment is 850 nm. Determine the number of
nucleotides in a single strand of DNA.
Solution:

one complete turn = 3.4nm

one complete turn = 10.4 nucleotides
total length/length of one complete turn*10.4 = num of nucleotides
num of nucleotides = 2500
 5) The length of DNA molecule fragment is 544 nm. Determine the number of
nucleotides in DNA double strand.
Solution:

one complete turn = 3.4nm

one complete turn = 10.4 nucleotides
total length/length of one complete turn*10.4 = num of nucleotides
num of nucleotides = 3200
 PRACTICAL CLASS N5
THEME: REALIZATION OF BIOLOGICAL INFORMATION IN A CELL.

Work № 1. Solution of the problems in protein synthesis.

1) The strand of DNA molecule has the following sequence of nucleotides:
TATGTTGAACTTCGAAAGTAA. Determine the structure of protein molecule,
encoded by this region of DNA molecule and structure of t RNA anticodons.

Solution:
 1) According to the complementary principle we put down mRNA,
which had copied information from DNA.

DNA TAT GTT GAA CTT CGA AAG TAA

m-RNA AUA CAA CUU GAA GCU UUC AUU

2) According to the system of genetic code we choose amino acids

according to the sequence of mRNA

m-RNA AUA CAA CUU GAA GCU UUC AUU

Protein ILE - GLN–LEU-GLU-ALA-PHE - ILE

3) Complementary to the sequence of mRNA codons, we find system of

anticodons in tRNA

Codons of m-RNA AUA CAA CUU GAA GCU UUC AUU

Anticodons of tRNA UAU, GUU, GAA, CUU, CGA, AAG, UAA

2) The region of DNA molecule, coding the primary structure of β-

neoendorphine, has the following sequence of nucleotides: ATACTTCTT -
GAAGCTTTGATAGGT. Determine the sequence of amino acids in polypeptide.

Solution:

DNA: ATA-CTT-CTT-GAA-GCT-TTG-ATA-GGT
mRNA: UAU-GAA-GAA-CUU-CGA-AAC-UAU-CCA
Anticodon: AUA,CUU,CUU,GAA,GCU,UUG,AUA,GGU
Protein: tyr-glu-glu-leu-arg-asn-tyr-pro

3) The somatostatin is a protein, in which the primary region consists of the

following amino acid sequence: ala - gly - cys - lys - asn - phe - phe - tyr.
Determine the structure of DNA molecule, encoding this polypeptide region.
 Solution:

1) According to the system of genetic code we choose codons of mRNA

which code amino acids (the first in the chart!)

Protein ala - gly - cys - lys - asn - phe - phe - tyr

m-RNA GCU GGU UGU AAA AAU UUU UUU UAU

2) According to the complementary principle to the sequence of mRNA we put

down 1-st strand of DNA, than 2 nd strand of DNA complementary to the 1 -st
DNA strand.

m-RNA GCU GGU UGU AAA AAU UUU UUU UAU

1st DNA strand CGA CCA ACA TTT TTA AAA AAA ATA

2nd DNA strand GCT GGT TGT AAA AAT TTT TTT TAT

4) Enkephalines are the opioid polypeptides. Met-enkephaline is a region

which includes 5 amino acids: tyr - gly - gly - phe - met. Determine the structure of
DNA molecule, encoding this polypeptide.

Solution:

Protein: tyr-gly-gly-phe-met
M-RNA: UAU-GGU-GGU-UUU-AUG

1 DNA : ATA-CCA-CCA-AAA-TAC

2 DNA : TAT-GGT-GGT-TTT-ATG

5) The molecule of β - chain of human hemoglobin A consists of 145 amino

acids. Determine the length of DNA molecule region, encoding this polypeptide.
Solution:
1. 1 AMINO ACID – 3 NUCLEOTIDES
145 Amino acids – X
X= 435 NUCLEOTIDES

2. Length IN THE DNA MOLECULE BETWEEN 2 NUCLEOTIDES - 0,34

NM
435*0,34 =147,9 NM

6) What is the molecular mass of gene, if one strand of DNA molecule

encodes the polypeptide with molecular mass 1500 mg? Molecular mass of one
amino acid is 100 mg, molecular mass of one nucleotide is 345 mg.
Solution:
1. Quantity OF AA IN THE POLYPEPTIDE – 1500/100 = 15 AA
2. Quantity OF NUCLEOTIDES in the DNA gene – 15*3 = 45 nucleotides
3. Molecular mass of gene = 45*345=15 525mg

7) Determine the length of region of DNA molecule, encoding the poly-

peptide, which consists of 20 aminoacids.
Solution:
1. 20 amino acids = 60 nucleotides
2. 60 * 0.34nm = 20.4nm

8) What is the length of DNA region, coding the insulin, if it’s known that it
consists of 51 aminoacids.
Solution:

1. 51 amino acids = 153 nucleotides

2. 153 * 0.34nm = 52.02nm
 9) What is the molecular mass of gene, of one strand of DNA molecule
encodes the polypeptide molecule with molecular mass 4500 mg? Molecular mass
of one amino acid is 100 mg molecular mass of one nucleotide is 345 mg.
Solution:
1. Quantity OF AA IN THE POLYPEPTIDE – 4500/100 = 45 AA
2. Quantity OF NUCLEOTIDES in the DNA gene – 45*3 = 135 nucleotides
3. Molecular mass of gene = 135*345= 46575mg

10) Complete the table, reading from the left to the right. Nangis lu. Dia kata
takyah buat huhu. Saya solat jap, maaf ya semua Lap ar wanna eat wanna sleep .
okie
Solution:

C G T G C C A C T C G T DNA double
G C A C G G T G A G C A helix
G C A A C C U G A G C A m-RNA
transcribed
G C A U G G U G A G C A Appropriate
t-RNA
anticodons
Ala Trp stop Ala Amino acids,
incorporated
into proteins
 PRACTICAL CLASS N6
THEME: CELLULAR METABOLISM.

Work № 1. Study of the mitochondrion structure. Label.

1 –inner membrane
2 –matrix
3 –cristae
4 –outer membrane
5 –inner membrane
6 –inter membrane

Work № 2. Study of the chloroplast structure. Label.

1- stroma
2- granum
3- thylakoid
4- lumen
5-inner membrane
6- inter membrane
7- outer membrane
Work № 3. Complete the chart.

Comparison of eukaryotic photosynthesis and respiration.

Characteristics Photosynthesis Respiration

Used substances carbon dioxide and water glucose and oxygen
Result Glucose and oxygen carbon dioxide and water
Transformation of energy energy storage energy release
The site of ATP synthesis thylakoid mitochondria
Stages 1. light phase 1. Glycolysis
2. dark phase 2. Oxidation of pyruvate
3. Krebs Cycle
4. Electron transport chain

Process location Chloroplast Mitochondria

Conditions
Total equation 6CO2 + 6H2O → 2C3H4O3 + 6O2 +
C6H 12O 6 + 6O 2. 36ADP + 36 P = 36ATP +
6CO2 + 42H2O

Work № 4. Solution of the problems. One glucose molecule produces four ATP
(pyruvate), two NADH, and two pyruvate molecules during glycolysis.

1) During glycolysis, 112 molecules of pyruvic acid (PVA) were formed. How
many glucose molecules were broken down and how many ATP molecules are
formed after complete oxidation of glucose in eukaryotic cells? Explain the
answer.
Solution: 56 glucose, 112 ATP,

38 x 56 = 2128 ATP (1 glucose = 38)

112/2 = 56 glucose (1 glucose broken into 2 pyruvate)

2) During the aerobic stage of catabolism, 1,368 ATP/36= ok tk dpt sorry

molecules were formed. Determine how many glucose molecules were broken
down and how many ATP molecules were formed in the result of glycolysis and
complete oxidation? Explain the answer.
Solution:

Catabolism Aerobic = 1368

Glucose = 1368/36 = 38
ATP = 38x2 = 76
Complete Oxidation = 76 x 38 = 2888
 Aerobic Respiration = 36

3) During glycolysis, 84 molecules of pyruvic acid were formed. How many

glucose molecules have been broken down and how many ATP molecules are
formed after their complete oxidation? Explain the results.
Solution: 42 glucose, 84 ATP

84/2 = 42 glucose
42 x 38 = 1596 ATP nani?
 PRACTICAL CLASS N7
THEME: CELL CYCLE. CELL DIVISIONS.

Work № 1. Study of the mitosis stages in the animal cell. Label.

1, 6 – prophase 2, 7 – metaphase
3, 8 – anaphase 4, 9 – anaphase
5, 10 – telophase 11 - centrosome (Centriole)
12 - chromatin 13 - nucleolus
 14 – nuclear envelope
15 – spindle fibre
16 – aster
17 – chromosomes
18 – sister chromatids
19 – nuclear envelope disintegrate
20 – centromere and kinetochore
21 – polar microtubules
22 – kinetochore microtubules
23 – mitotic spindle
24 – equator
25 – centriole
26 – chromosome
27 – cleavage furrow
28 - nuclear envelope reform

Work № 2. Study of the of the meiosis stages in the animal cell. Label.
 1 – centrosome
2 – chiasmata
3 – spindle fibre
4 – kinetochore microtubule
5 – equator
6 – polar microtubule
7 – nuclear envelope
8 – chromatin
9 – sister chromatid
10 – homologous chromosome
11 – centromere
12 – chromatid
13 – cleavage furrow
14 – sister chromatid

Work № 3. Solution of the problems.

1) The chromosomal set (karyotype) of the wheat somatic cells is 28.

Determine the chromosomal set and the number of DNA molecules in the root
tip cells at the metaphase and the end of mitosis telophase. Explain the results.
Solution:

1- 28 chromosomes, 28 DNA (2n2c)

2- metaphase- 28 chromosomes, 56 DNA (2n4c)
3- telophase- two sets of 28 chromosomes, 28 DNA(2*2n2c)

2n = 28 => n=14, c=14

metaphase of mitosis 2n4c => 28 chromosomes 56 DNA
mitosis telophase 2n2c => 28 chromosomes 28 DNA

2) The chromosomal set of potato somatic cells is 48. Determine the

chromosomal set and the number of DNA molecules in cells during meiosis in
prophase I and metaphase II. Explain the results.
Solution:
1) 48 chromosomes 48 DNA (2n2c).
2) Prophase I - 48 chromosomes, 96 DNA (2n4c).
3) Metaphase II - 24 chromosomes, 48 DNA (n2c).

The chromosomal set of potato somatic cells 2n2c

2n = 38 => n = 34, c = 24
meiosis prophase I 2n4c => 48 chromosomes 96 DNA
meiosis metaphase II n2c => 24 chromosomes 48 DNA
 PRACTICAL CLASS N8
THEME: BIOLOGY OF REPRODUCTION.

Work № 1. Study of morphology of cat (mammalian) ovary (x8). Label.

1- follicular antrum
2- follicular cavity
3- ovum

Work № 2. Study of morphology of frog ovule (x8). Label.

1 – nucleus
2 – cytoplasm
3 – yolk granulas

Work № 3. Study of morphology of guinea-pig spermatozoa (x40). Label.

1- head
2- midpiece
3- flagellum

Work № 4. Study of morphology of rat spermatozoa (x40). Label.

2

1- head
2- midpiece
3- flagellum

Work № 5. Study of process of fertilization in the Ascaris egg (x40; table). Label.
1- egg
2- female pronuclei
3- male pronuclei
4- cytoplasm of ?

Work № 6. Solution of the problems.

1) The total mass of all DNA molecules in 46 chromosomes of one human

somatic cell is 6*10-9 mg. Determine what is the mass of all the DNA molecules in
the sperm and in the somatic cell before and after division. Explain the results.
Solution:

1) there are 23 chromosomes in germ cells, that is, two times less than in
somatic cells, so the mass of DNA in the sperm is two times less and is 6x 10-9 : 2
= 3x 10-9mg.
2) before the start of division (in interphase), the amount of DNA is doubled
and the mass of DNA is 6x 10-9 x2 = 12 x 10-9mg.
3) after mitotic division in a somatic cell, the number of chromosomes does
not change and the mass of DNA is 6x 10-9 mg.

2) The somatic cells of the Drosophila fly contain 8 chromosomes.

Determine the number of chromosomes and DNA molecules in cells during
spermatogenesis in the multiplication zone and at the end of the maturation
zone. What processes occur in these zones? Explain the results.

Solution:
1. Spermatogenesis in the multiplication zone. Mitosis. The beginning of
division is somatic cells with a diploid (2n2c) number of chromosomes = 8, and
when DNA doubles in growth phase (S period of interphase) = 16 (2n4c);
 2. At the end of the maturation zone. Meiosis. The first division is reductive.
Telophase of the first meiotic division — (n2c); at the end of the second meiotic
division — (nc) — chromosomes = 4, DNA = 4 (reduction occurs).
 PRACTICAL CLASS N9
THEME: INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT OF AN ORGANISM.
EMBRYOGENESIS.

Work № 1. Study of cleavage (segmentation) of frog zygote (x8). Label.

2 1 – cleaving egg
2 – cleavage furrow
3 – blastomeres
3

Work № 2. Study of frog blastula (x8). Label.

1 – micromeres
2 – blastocoel
3 – macromeres

Work № 3. Study of frog gastrula (x8). Label.

1 – ectoderm
1
2 – endoderm
2 3 – blastophore
4 – blastomere
3
5 - blastocoel
4

5
Work № 4. Study of frog neurula (x8). Label.
1 1 – neural tube
2 2 – notochord
3 – cavity of secondary intestine
3 4 - mesoderm
5 – ectoderm
4

Work № 5. Solve the problem.

Name the germ layer of a vertebrate animal indicated by a question mark
in the drawing. What types of tissues and organ systems are formed from it?

Solution:

mesoderm - connective tissue - musculoskeletal system, urogenital system

 PRACTICAL CLASS N 10
THEME: POSTEMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT.
POSTNATAL ONTOGENESIS OF A HUMAN BEING.

Work № 1. Plot a graph of age-specific variability of a human being in weight

and height of a body.

Weight of body (kg) Height of body (cm)

0 in birth - 3.37 0 in birth - 51.45
3 months - 6.07 3 months - 61.53
6 months - 8.00 6 months - 66.77
9 months - 9.30 9 months - 71.85
12 months - 10.40 12 months - 76.47
2 years - 12.75 2 years - 86
3 years - 14.60 3 years - 96
4 years - 15.76 4 years - 101
5 years - 17.90 5 years - 108
6 years - 19.63 6 years - 120
7 years - 23.60 7 years - 122

Write conclusion.

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 3 month 6 month 9 month 12 month 2 years 3 years 4 years 5 years 6 years 7 years

Weight Height

The variability of weight and height is the highest between 0-3 months and the
lowest variability is recorded in between 3-4 years or 36-48 months
140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 12 month 2 years 3 years 4 years 5 years 6 years 7 years

Weight Height

GRAPH OF AGE-SPECIFIC VARIABILITY.

Y (weight&height)

X (age)