Equations

Mechanical Engineering
Equation book
Sagar Wilcy Tom

eggsam
Contents
1 Basics and Engineering Mechanics 3
2 Strength of Materials 12
3 Theory of Machines 21
4 Machine design 32
5 Production Engineering 43
6 IM & OR 75
7 Material Science 87
8 Mechatronics and robotics 111
9 Fluid Mechanics 119
10 Fluid Machinery 133
11 Heat Transfer 139
12 Thermodynamics 148
13 Renewable sources of Energy 174
1
www.eggsam.com CONTENTS [2]
Important
This equation book is a compilation of equations I collected during my studies. The
aim of this book is to make revision easier. If you are studying the subjects for the first
time, then please do not use this book. This book is not for first time study.
This book is for both GATE and ESE (IES). It is useful for other Mechanical
Engineering Exams as well. I have tried to include as many topics as possible. Some of
those topics are not required for GATE. So please follow the syllabus of the exam you
are appearing for.
Free GATE online exams

www.eggsam.com
Version 2.1
Chapter 1
Basics and Engineering Mechanics
1.1 Equations of motion

Straight line motion Rotational motion
v = u + at ω = ω0 + αt
1 1
s = ut + at2 θ = ω0 t + αt2
2 2
v 2 − u2 = 2as ω 2 − ω02 = 2αθ
1 1
xn = u + a(2n − 1) θn = ω0 + α(2n − 1)
2 2
dx dθ
v= ω=
dt dt
dv dv dx dv d2 x dω dω dθ dω d2 θ
a= = =v = 2 α= = =ω = 2
dt dx dt dx dt dt dθ dt dθ dt
Linear momentum p~ = m~v Angular momentum = Iω
Tangential velocity ~v = ω~ × ~r
Tangential speed v = rω
Tangential acceleration aT = rα
v2
Radial acceleration= = rω 2
r
=centrifugal acceleration
=centripetal acceleration
u: initial velocity
v: final velocity
a: acceleration
t: time
xn : Displacement in the nth second
θn : Angular displacement in the nth second
ω0 : Initial angular velocity
ω: Final angular velocity
θ: Angular displacement
r: Radius
Projectile motion
v0 =Launching speed
θ= Launching angle w.r.t horizontal plane
3
www.eggsam.com 1.2. MOMENTUM [4]
Horizontal acceleration ax = 0
Vertical acceleration ay = −g
Horizontal velocity vx = v0 cos θ
Vertical velocity vy = v0 sin θ − gt
Horizontal displacement at t x = v0 t cos θ
1
Vertical displacement at t y = v0 t sin θ − gt2
2
2v0 sin θ
Time of flight t=
g
v02 sin2 θ
Maximum height h=
2g
v02 sin 2θ
Range R=
g
o
For maximum range θ = 45
gx2
Path y = x tan α − 2
2u cos2 α
Inclined plane
β: Inclination of plane
θ: launching angle wrt horizontal plane
2u sin(θ − β)
Time of flight t =
g cos β
2u2 sin(θ + β) cos α
Range R =
g cos2 β
Coefficient of restitution
Relative velocity after impact
e=−
Relative velocity before impact
e=0 for perfectly plastic collision
e=1 for perfectly elastic collision
Cylindrical coordinates
Position P~ = rr̂ + θθ̂
Velocity V~ = ṙr̂ + rθ̇θ̂
Acceleration ~a = (r̈ − rθ̇2 )r̂ + (rθ̈ + 2ṙθ̇)θ̂
3/2
[1 + (dy/dx)2 ] [1 + y 02 ]3/2
Radius of curvature r = =
d2 y/d2 x y 00
1.2 Momentum
Momentum P~ = mV~
-Vector
Conservation of momentum: In the absence of external forces, the total momentum
of a system is constant
www.eggsam.com 1.3. COLLISION [5]
1.3 Collision
Elastic collision
Linear momentum and kinetic energy are conserved.
m1 with velocity u1 collides with m 2 with velocity
u2
m1 − m2 2m1
Velocity after collision of m1 , v1 = u1 + u2
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
m2 − m1 2m2
Velocity after collision of m2 , v2 = u2 + u1
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
1.4 Force
Newton’s laws of motion
First law: In an inertial frame of reference, an object either remains at rest or continues
to move at a constant velocity, unless acted upon by a force.
Second law: In an inertial frame of reference, the vector sum of the forces F on an object
is equal to the mass m of that object multiplied by the acceleration a of the object.
F = ma.
Third law: When one body exerts a force on a second body, the second body simulta-
neously exerts a force equal in magnitude and opposite in direction on the first body.
d~v
Force F~ = m = m~a
dt
Torque ~τ = I~
α
mv 2 r̂
Centripetal force F~c = −
r
Force on a spring F = kx
x: extension/compression of the spring
k: spring constant or stiffness of the spring
Gm1 m2
Gravitational force F~ = − r̂
r2
G: 6.67408 × 10−11 m3 kg −1 s−2
r: Distance between the bodies
Lami’s Theorem
P Q R
= =
sin α sin β sin γ
Impulse
Integral of a force over the time interval for which it acts.
Change in momentum
www.eggsam.com 1.5. TRUSS [6]
1.5 Truss
Perfect truss, number of members m=2j-3
m>2j-3: Redundant truss
m<2j-3: Defficient truss
j: number of joints
m: number of members
1.6 Friction
For a stationary body, F~f riction = F
For a moving body, F~f riction = µmg
Angle of friction φ = tan−1 µ
Angle of Repose α = tan−1 µ
α=φ
F: horizontal force acting on the body.
Limiting friction: The maximum friction that can be generated between two static
surfaces in contact with each other. Once a force applied to the two surfaces exceeds the
limiting friction, motion will occur.
Stiction is the static friction that needs to be overcome to enable relative motion of
stationary objects in contact.
Amontons’ First Law: The force of friction is directly proportional to the applied
load.
Amontons’ Second Law: The force of friction is independent of the apparent area of
contact. [As long as there is contact]
Coulomb’s Law of Friction: Kinetic friction is independent of the sliding velocity.
1.7 Work and energy

~
x
R2
Work= F~ · d~x
~
x1
x: displacement
Work done by torque on a rotating body W = T × θ
1
Kinetic energy = mv 2
2
1
Kinetic energy = Iω 2
2
Potential energy due to gravity =mgh
1
Potential energy in a spring = kx2
2
1 2
Work done by a spring W = kx
2
www.eggsam.com 1.8. CONSTANTS [7]
1.8 Constants
π 3.14
Euler’s constant e 2.718
Plank’s constant h 6.625 × 10−34 Js
Universal gas constant 8.314 J/molK
Stefan-Boltzmann constant σ 5.67 × 10−8 Wm −2
K −4
Acceleration due to gravity 9.81 m/s

Atmospheric pressure at MSL 101320 Pa
Density of mercury 13600 kg/m 3
Faraday constant F 96485 C/mol
Water
Density 1000 kg/m 3
Molecular mass 18.015 g/mol
Gas constant 461 J/kgK
Sp. heat of ice 2.108 kJ/kgK
Sp. heat of water 4.187 kJ/kgK
Sp. heat of water vapor 1.996 kJ/kgK
Latent heat of fusion 336k J/kg
Latent heat of vaporization 2264.7 kJ/kg
Air
Density 1.223 kg/m 3
Mean molecular mass 28.9 g/mol
Gas constant 287 J/KgK
Sp. heat at const volume 718 J/kgK
Sp. heat at const pressure 1005 J/kgK
Atomic mass (g)

H 1
He 4
C 12
N 14
O 16
S 32
www.eggsam.com 1.9. UNITS [8]
1.9 Units
101 Deca (da) 10−1 deci (d)
102 Hecto (h) 10−2 centi (c)
103 kilo (k) 10−3 milli (m)
106 Mega (M) 10−6 micro (µ)
109 Giga (G) 10−9 nano (n)
1012 Tera (T) 10−12 pico (p)
1015 Peta (P) 10−15 femto (f)
1018 Exa (E) 10−18 atto (a)
1021 Zetta 10−21 zepto
1024 Yotta 10−24 yocto
Length, Area, Volume Force and pressure

1 in =2.54cm 1 kgf=9.8N
1 foot=30.48cm 1 lbf=4.44N
1 foot=12in 1 bar=100kPa
1 mile=1.6km 1 atm=1.0132bar
1 km2 =147 acres 1 lbf/in2 =6.89kPa
1 Liter=1000 cm3 1 torr=1mmHg
1000 Liter=1 m3 1 kgf/cm2 =0.98 bar
1 gal=3.786L
Energy and Power
Mass 1 Btu=1054J
1 pound=0.453kg 1 cal=4.18J
1 tonne=1000kg* 1 eV=1.6 × 10−19 J
1 US tonne=907kg 1 hp=746W* (Mechanical hp)
1 long tonne=1016kg 1 hp=735.5W (Metric hp)
1 kWh= 3.6MJ
Temperature
C ×9
F = + 32 1 poise=0.1 Ns/m2
5o
Kelvin= C + 273.15 1 stoke =10−4 m2 /s
Tripple point
1 K=1o C = π rad=180o
273.16
1 Gauss= 10−4 Tesla
Refrigeration
1TR= 12000BTU/hr
1TR= 3000kcal/hr
1TR= 3.517kW*
1TR= 3.88kW
* Commonly used
Light year : Distance traveled by light in one year = 9.4607×1012 km

Chandrasekhar limit : 1.4 times the mass of sun = 2.8×1034 kg
Astronomical unit : Average distance between earth and sun = 149.59×106 km
Parsec : 3.26156 light year, distance at which one astronomical unit
subtends an angle of one arcsecond, which corresponds to
astronomical units.
www.eggsam.com 1.9. UNITS [9]
7 Basic units
Quantity Name SI Unit
Mass kilo gram kg M1 L0 T0
Length meter m M0 L1 T0
Time second s M0 L0 T1
Electric current Ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
Luminous intensity candela cd
Amount of substance mole mol
Derived units
Quantity Name Symbol In SI base units
plane angle radian rad (mm−1 )
solid angle steradian sr (m2 m −2 )
frequency hertz Hz s−1
force, weight newton N kgms−2
pressure, stress pascal Pa kgm−1 s−2
energy, work, heat joule J kgm2 s−2
power, radiant flux watt W kgm2 s−3
electric charge coulomb C As
voltage (electrical potential), emf volt V kgm2 s−3 A−1
capacitance farad F kg−1 m−2 s4 A2
resistance, impedance, reactance ohm Ω kgm2 s−3 A−2
electrical conductance siemens S kg−1 m−2 s3 A2
magnetic flux weber Wb kgm2 s−2 A−1
magnetic flux density tesla T kgs−2 A−1
inductance henry H kgm2 s−2 A−2
luminous flux lumen lm cd
illuminance lux lx m−2 cd
radioactivity (decays per unit time) becquerel Bq s−1
absorbed dose (of ionising radiation) gray Gy m2 s−2
equivalent dose (of ionising radiation) sievert Sv m2 s−2
catalytic activity katal kat mol s−1
area m2
volume m3
speed, velocity ms−1
acceleration ms−2
wavenumber m−1
density kgm−3
surface density kgm−2
specific volume m3 kg−1
current density Am−2
magnetic field strength Am−1
concentration molm−3
mass concentration kgm−3
luminance cdm−2
refractive index
relative permeability
www.eggsam.com 1.10. VECTOR [10]
1.10 Vector
P~ = p1 î + p2 ĵ + p3 k̂
Q~ = q1 î + q2 ĵ + q3 k̂
θ: Angle between the vectors
Magnitude P = |P~ |= p21 + p22 + p23

p
Vector ~ ~ ~
p sum R = P + Q = (p1 + q1 )î + (p2 + q2 )ĵ + (p3 + q3 )k̂
R = P 2 + Q2 + 2P Q cos θ
Dot product P~ · Q ~ = (p1 q1 ) + (p2 q2 ) + (p3 q3 ) = P Q cos θ
 
î ĵ k̂
Cross product P~ × Q ~ = det p1 p2 p3 
q1 q2 q3
~ ~
|P × Q| = P Q sin θ
Unit vector: A vector whose magnitude is 1
1.11 Misc
R
x̄dA
Centroid XG = R
dA
m1 m2
Reduced mass µ =
m1 + m2
Parallel axis theorem Id = ICM + md2
Perpendicular axis theorem Izz = Ixx + Iyy
Center of percussion
The point on an extended massive object attached to a pivot where a perpendicular im-
pact will produce no reactive shock at the pivot. Translational and rotational motions
cancel at the pivot when an impulsive blow is struck at the center of percussion.
The same point is called the center of oscillation for the object suspended from the pivot
as a pendulum, meaning that a simple pendulum with all its mass concentrated at that
point will have the same period of oscillation as the compound pendulum.
Varignon’s Theorem
If many concurrent forces are acting on a body, then the algebraic sum of torques of all
the forces about a point in the plane of the forces is equal to the torque of their resultant
about the same point.
Radial run-out is the result of a rotating component running off center, such as a
ball bearing with an offset center. This means that the rotating tool or shaft, instead of
being centrally aligned, will rotate about a secondary axis.
Simple pendulum
www.eggsam.com 1.11. MISC [11]
r
l
T = 2π
g
Compound
r pendulum
I
T = 2π
mgh
Shape Moment of inertia CG from base

bd3
Ixx = b d
Rectangle 12 ( , )
b3 d 2 2
Iyy =
12
bh3
Triangle Ixx = h/3
36
πd4
Ixx = Iyy =
Circle 64 (r,r)
πd4
Izz =
32
a2 + 4ab + b2 3 2a + b h
Trapezium I= h
36(a + b) a+b 3
1 πd4 2d
Semicircle Ixx =
2 64 3π
2
Solid sphere I = mr2 Center
5
2
Hollow sphere I = mr2 Center
3
Slender rod about 1
I = ml2 Center
midpoint 12
1
Slender rod about end I = ml2 Center
3
Izz = mr2
Circular ring 1 2 Center
Ixx = Iyy = mr
2
1
Izz = mr2
Solid disc 2 Center
1 2
Ixx = Iyy = mr
4
Cylinder I = m(r12 + r22 ) Center
3R
Hemisphere
8
Chapter 2
Strength of Materials
2.1 Stress and strain

 
σxx σxy σxz
σ =  σyx σyy σyz 
 σzx νσzy σνzz 
xy xz
xx
 ν 2 ν2 
 yx yz 
= yy
 ν2 ν 2 

zx zy
zz
2 2
Normal stress
Hooke’s law: E = σ/ε
Hooke’s law is valid up to proportionality limit
P
Stress σ =
A
δl
Strain ε =
L
PL
Change in length δl =
AE
Poisson’s ratio
Lateral strain
µ=−
Linear strain
Lies in the range -1.0 to 0.5 (For an isotropic linear elastic materials)
For perfectly isotropic elastic material µ = 0.25
For perfectly incompressible isotropic, µ = 0.5
For rubber µ ≈ 0.5
For cork µ ≈ 0.0
Auxetics: Structures with negative Poisson’s ratio
True stress and strain

Force
σT =
Area at the instant
σT = σ(1 + )
L
T = ln
L0
T = ln( + 1)
12
www.eggsam.com 2.1. STRESS AND STRAIN [13]
Shear stress
F
τ=
A
= P/G
Volumetric stress
ev = ex + ey + ez
4V
ev =
V
v = P/K
1
= (σx + σy + σz ) (1 − 2µ)
E
Bar of uniform
h ρg istrength
Ax = A exp x
P
Tapered rod
PL
δl =
πd1 d2
E
4
Uniformly tapered rectangular bar with constant thickness t
PL a
δl = ln
Et(a − b) b
Rotating bar about one end
1
σx = ρω 2 [l2 − x2 ] (From axis)
2
1 23
δl = ρω l
3
Strain due to self weight
PL ρgL2
δl = =
2AE 2E
Thermal stress, at least one end free
σ=0
δl = Lα∆T
Thermal stress, both ends fixed

δl = 0
σ = Eα∆T
Thermal stress, one support yields by l0

δl = l0
σ = (α∆T − l0 /L)E
Impact load r
2h
Impact factor IF =1 + 1+
δstatic
σ = IF × σstatic
δ = IF × δstatic
www.eggsam.com 2.1. STRESS AND STRAIN [14]
PL
δstatic =
AE
h: Height from where the weight P is dropped.
P
Sudden load: σ = 2
A
Relation between elastic constants
E = 2G (1 + µ)
E = 3K (1 − 2µ)
9KG
E=
3K + G
Lame’s constant
Eµ
λ=
(1 + µ) (1 − 2µ)
Number of independent elastic constants
Isotropic : 2
Orthotropic : 9
Anisotropic : 21
Equivalent Young’s modulus

E1 A1 + E2 A2
E=
A1 + A2
Angle of failure
Ductile Brittle
Tension 45o 90o
Compression 90o 45o
Sign Convention
www.eggsam.com 2.2. COMPLEX STRESS AND STRAIN [15]
2.2 Complex stress and strain

Mohr’s Circle s
2
σx + σy σx − σy 2
σ1 = + + τxy
2 2
s 2
σx + σy σx − σy 2
σ2 = − + τxy
2 2
s 2
σx − σy 2
τ= + τxy
2
σ1 − σ2
τ=
2
σx + σy σx − σy
σθ = + cos 2θ + τxy sin 2θ
2 2
σx − σy
τθ = sin 2θ − τxy cos 2θ
2
2τxy
tan 2α =
σx − σy
−1 τθ
Obliquity φ = tan
σθ
Mohr’s circle for strain
σ→
τ → φ2
x + y x − y φxy
θ = + cos 2θ + sin 2θ
2 2 2
θ = x cos2 θ + y sin2 θ + φxy cos θ sin θ
φθ x − y φxy
= sin 2θ − cos 2θ
2 2 2
E(1 + µ2 )
σ1 =
1 − µ2
E(2 + µ1 )
σ2 =
1 − µ2
2.3 Slopes and deflections

Counter clockwise M negative
Positive bending moment =⇒ sagging
E M σb
= =
R I y
2
dy
EI 2 = M (x) Bending moment
dx
d3 y
EI 3 = S(x) Shear force
dx
d4 y
EI 4 = −w(x) Rate of loading
dx
Beam of uniform strength σb = Constant
www.eggsam.com 2.3. SLOPES AND DEFLECTIONS [16]
www.eggsam.com2.4. SHEAR STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN BEAMS [17]
* [0 ≤ x ≤ L/2]
Conjugate beam method
Beam Conjugate beam
Slope Shear force
Deflection Bending moment
End pin support Pin support
Internal Pin support Hinged joint
Hinged joint Internal pin support
Fixed end Free end
Free end Fixed end
Maxwell’s Reciprocal theorem
In any beam or truss, the deflection at any point D due to load W at any other point C
is the same as the deflection at C due to the same load at D.
Point of contra flexure

Curvature changes from sagging to hogging
Point of inflection
Virtual hinge
2.4 Shear stress distribution in beams

A: Area above PQ
Ȳ : Centroid of the area above the PQ
S: Shear force at the section
I: Moment of inertia of the full section about Neutral axis (NA)
b: Length of PQ
SAȲ
Shear stress at section PQ, τ =
bI
Section type Image τave
3
Rectangular section τmax = τave
2
4
Solid circular section τmax = τave
3
4
Triangular section 4 τmax = τave
3
Diamond section 9
τmax = τave
8
2.5 Torsion
T τ Gθ
= =
J R L
J
Torsional section modulus Z =
R
T GJ
Torsional stiffness = =
θ L
Equivalent Moment and torsion
1 √
Me = M + M2 + T 2
2
www.eggsam.com 2.6. STRAIN ENERGY [18]
√
Te = M 2 + T 2
Pure torsion assumptions
Uniform material
Uniform twist
Shaft is of uniform circular cross section
Cross sections which are plane remains plane
All radii remain straight after twist
Compound shaft
Shafts in series Parallel shafts
θ = θ1 + θ2 θ = θ1 = θ2
T = T1 = T2 T = T1 + T2
2.6 Strain energy

Sudden or impact loading U = P δ
1 P 2L E
Due to direct stress U = Pδ = = Volume
22 2AE 2
τ
Due to shear stress U= Volume
2G2
σ
Due to volumetric stress U= Volume
2K2
T L 1 τ2
Due to torsion U= = T θ = max Volume
2GJ 2 4G
RL 1 Mx2
For a beam U= dx
0 2 EI
Where Mx is the bending moment in the beam as a function of distance x.
Castigliano’s theorem
∂U
yr =
∂Pr
If the strain energy of a linearly elastic structure can be expressed as a function of gen-
eralised force Pr then the partial derivative of the strain energy with respect to Pr gives
the generalised displacement yr in the direction of Pr .
www.eggsam.com 2.7. APPLICATIONS [19]
2.7 Applications
Thin Cylinder
Pd
Hoop stress σh =
2t
Pd
Longitudinal stress σl =
4t
Pd
Longitudinal strain el = (1 − 2µ)
4tE
Pd
Hoop strain eh = (2 − µ)
4tE
Pd
Volumetric strain ev = (5 − 4µ)
4tE
Thin Sphere
Pd
Hoop stress σh =
4t
Pd
Hoop strain eh = (1 − µ)
4tE
Pd
Volumetric strain ev = 3 (1 − µ)
4tE
Thick Cylinder
B
Radial stress at radius r, σr = A − 2
r
B
Hoop stress at radius r, σh = A + 2
r
Thick Spherical shell
2B
Radial stress at radius r, σr = 3 − A
r
B
Hoop stress at radius r, σh = 3 + A
r
Springs
D
Spring index C =
d
Gd4
k=
64R3 n
WR
τmax =
πd3
16
64W R3 n
Maximum deflection δ =
Gd4
4C − 1 0.615
Wahl’s factor = +
4C − 4 C
Columns and struts

π 2 EI
Euler’s formula PE = 2
le
le Effective length
Slenderness ratio λ = =
K Least radius of gyration
Type le
Both ends fixed L/2√
One end fixed other end hinged L/ 2
Both ends hinged L
One end fixed, other end free 2L
Rankine’s formula
1 1 1
= +
PR PC PE
σc A
PR = 2
Le
1+a
k
σc
a = 2 : Rankine’s constant
π E
PC = Crushing load = σc A
PE = Euler’s load
PR = Rankine’s load
2.8 Misc
Axial rigidity = AE
I
Section modulus Z =
Y
J
Torsional section modulus Z =
R
GJ
Torsional stiffness=
l
le Effective length
Slenderness ratio λ = =
K Least radius of gyration
Beam
Transverse load
Bending stress on the beam
Column
Axial load
Vertical member
Compressive stress on the column
Fails by buckling if it is slender
Strut
Vertical, horizontal or inclined
Fails by buckling if it is slender
Chapter 3
Theory of Machines
3.1 Analysis of Planar mechanisms

Kinematics: Deals with motion ignoring forces.
Dynamics: Considers force also
A material body which is common to two or more kinematic pair is called a link
Fluid can also act as a link
Type Contact Example

Gear pairs
Higher pair Point or line contact
Cam and follower
Piston cylinder
Prismatic
Lower pairs Surface contact Revolute pair
Screw pair
Spherical joint
One link is wrapped
Wrapping pair Belt drive
in another
Degree of freedom (Grubler’s criterion)
DOF = 6(m − 1) − 5J1 − 4J2 − 3J3 − 2J4 − J5
For planar mechanism, DOF = 3(m − 1) − 2J1 − J2
Where Jn = Number of joints with n degree of freedom restricted
Completely constrained motion : 1 DOF

Successfully constrained motion : 1 DOF, (The mechanism normally has more than 1
DOF. But the extra DOFs are restricted by some other means)
Incompletely constrained motion : More than one DOF
Structure: DOF=0
Super structure/Preloaded structure: DOF<0
Mechanism: DOF≥1
Statically indeterminate system, DOF ≤ −1
Closed pair : Permanent contact between the links

Force closed/open pairs : Need to apply force to keep links in contact
21
www.eggsam.com 3.1. ANALYSIS OF PLANAR MECHANISMS [22]
Kinematic chain : Last link is connected to first link and no link is fixed
1 Vin Fout Torque output
Mechanical advantage = = = =
velocity ratio Vout Fin Torque input
At Toggle position : infinite mechanical advantage
4 bar mechanism
dµ ls sin θ
=
dθ pq sin µ
µ: Transmission angle
b : Coupler link
c : Output link
Grashoff ’s condition
l+s<p+q Grashoff’s I
l+s>p+q Non-Grashoff’s or Grashoff’s II
l+s=p+q Special Grashoff’s or Grashoff’s III
s: Shortest link
l: longest link
Grashoff ’s I
Shortest link fixed : crank-crank mechanism.
Adjacent link to shortest link fixed : crank-rocker mechanism.
Link opposite to shortest link fixed : rocker-rocker mechanism.
Coriolis Acceleration =2ωV
Motion Rotation Coriolis acceleration

Outwards Clockwise Positive
Outwards Counterclockwise Negative
Inwards Clockwise Negative
Inwards Counterclockwise Positive
Instantaneous center
n(n − 1)
Number of instantaneous centers =
2
Where n is the number of links in relative motion.
Kennedy’s Theorem: When three rigid bodies are in relative motion, the three instan-
taneous centers shared by three bodies all lie on the same straight line.
Fixed instantaneous centers: will not move (Primary instantaneous center)

Permanent instantaneous centers: will move, but always on a point on the link (Primary
instantaneous center)
Neither fixed nor permanent instantaneous centers: Also called secondary instantaneous
centers
Body centrode
Also called moving centrode
Locus of the instantaneous centre of the fixed body relative to the movable body.
Space centrode
Also called fixed centrode
Locus of the instantaneous centre of the moving body with respect to the fixed body.
Universal joint - Hooke’s joint

-used to connect two coplanar intersecting shafts
θ1 , ω1 : Input angle/velocity
θ2 , ω2 : Output angle/velocity
α: Inclination
tan θ1 = tan θ2 cos α
ω2 cos α
=
ω1 1 − sin2 α cos2 θ1
N1
Maximum speed of driven shaft N2 =
cos α
Mechanisms
Hart mechanism Exact straight line motion 6 bar, 7R joints
Scott-Russel mechanism Exact straight line motion 2R 1S
Tusi couple Exact straight line motion 2 Circle
Sarrus linkage Exact straight line motion 6R, 3-Dimensional
PeaucellierLipkin linkage Exact straight line motion 6R
Quadruplanar-Inversor Exact straight line motion
Grass hopper mechanism Approximate straight line mechanism 4 bar
Robert’s mechanism Approximate straight line mechanism 4 bar
Chebyshev Linkage Approximate straight line mechanism 4 bar
Watt’s indicator mech Approximate straight line mechanism Single slider
Hoeckens linkage Approximate straight line mechanism
Drag-link mechanism Quick return mechanism 4 bar
Pantograph mechanism Copying mechanism 4 bar
Geneva mechanism Intermittent motion Indexing milling machine
Ratchet mechanism Intermittent motion Clocks
3.1.1 Steering
w
Equation of correct steering cot φ − cot θ =
L
φ: Angle of outer wheel
θ: Angle of inner wheel
w: Pivot distance of the front stub axles
L: Wheel base
Ackermann steering Only turning pairs

Correct inner turning angle for all positions.
Davis steering mechanism
Turning pairs and spherical joints
Crossed slider mechanism
Rapson’s slide
Used in ships
Bell-Crank
Rack and Pinion
3.1.2 Slider crank mechanism
n = l/r
h i
p
Position x = r (1 − cos θ) + n − n2 − sin2 θ
" #
sin 2θ
Velocity v = rω sin θ + p
" 2 n2 − sin2 θ #
2
cos 2θ sin 2θ
Acceleration a = rω 2 cos θ + p − 3/2
n2 − sin2 θ 4 n2 − sin2 θ
ω cos θ
Angular velocity of connecting rod = p
n2 − sin2 θ
−ω 2 sin θ(n2 − 1)
Angular acceleration of connecting rod = 3/2
n2 − sin2 θ
When n >> 1
sin 2θ
Velocity v = rω sin θ +
2n
cos 2θ
Acceleration a = rω 2 cos θ +
n
ω
Angular velocity of connecting rod = cos θ
n 2
ω
Angular acceleration of connecting rod = − sin θ
n
Pressure force FP = Pressure × Area
FP
Crank effort FCR =
cos φ
Force on cylinder wall FW = FCR sin φ
Force on crank bearing FB = FCR cos(φ + θ)
Tangential Force on crank Ft = FCR sin(φ + θ)
Turning moment T = Ft × r
www.eggsam.com 3.2. GEARS [25]
Inversions
1st inversion Ground is fixed Slider crank mechanism
Whit-worth Quick return
mechanism
2nd inversion Crank is fixed Rotary Engine
Shaping machine
Planning machine
Crank and slotted lever
3rd inversion Rocker is fixed quick return mechanism,
Oscillating cylinder engine
Hand pump, Bull engine,
4th inversion Slider is fixed
pendulum pump
Quick return mechanism
time of cutting 180 + 2α
=
time of return 180 − 2α
Double slider crank mechanism
1st inversion Ground is fixed Elliptical trammel
2nd inversion One slider is fixed Scotch yoke mechanism, SHM
3rd inversion Connecting rod is fixed Oldham coupling
Klien’s construction
Angular acceleration of crank is zero
Green: Velocity
Red: Acceleration
3.2 Gears
Gears are Positive drive (No slip is possible)
(In negative drive, slip is possible)
T: Number of teeth on gear t: Number of teeth on pinion
D,d: Pitch diameter
Ra , ra : Addendum radius
R,r: Pitch radius
www.eggsam.com 3.2. GEARS [26]
φ: Pressure angle
Pitch circle diameter = d
Base circle diameter= d × cos φ (Constant for a gear)
d
module m =
T
πd
Circular pitch =
T
T
Diametral pitch =
d
Addendum = Ra - R
N1 ω1 T2
Gear ratio G= = =
N2 ω2 T1
input speed
Velocity ratio =
output speed
p
Gear path of approach = pRa2 − R2 cos2 φ − R sin φ
Gear path of recess = pra2 − r2 cos2 φ − r p
sin φ
Gear path of contact = Ra − R cos φ + ra2 − r2 cos2 φ − (R + r) sin φ
2 2 2
Path of contact
Arc of contact =
cos φ
Lenght of action arc of contact Angle of action
Contact ratio = = =
mπ cos φ πm Pitch angle
Working depth = Addendum + Dedendum - clearance
Working depth = Sum of addendum of both the gears
To avoid interference
2AG T
T ≥s G=

1 1
t
1+ + 2 sin2 φ − 1
G G
2AP
t≥ p
1 +pG (G + 2) sin2 φ − 1
Ra,max = (R cos φ)2 + (R sin φ + r sin φ)2
In rack and pinion,
2AR
T ≥
sin2 φ
To reduce interference
-add undercutting
-increase pressure angle
-tooth stubbing
-increase number of teeth in gear
-slightly increase centre-centre distance
-decrease gear addendum and increase pinion addendum
In an epicyclic
gear
train
T1 N2 − Na
=−
T2 N1 − Na
Helical or spiral gears
ψ: Spiral angle or helix angle
φ: Pressure angle
θ: angle between axes
www.eggsam.com 3.3. FLY WHEELS [27]
θ = ψ1 + ψ2 , same hand are in contact

θ = ψ1 − ψ2 , opposite hands are in contact
m1 cos ψ1 = m2 cos ψ2
m T
Radius R =
2 cos ψ
Worm Gear
1 − sin φ
Maximum efficiency ηmax =
1 + sin φ
φ = tan−1 µ
Fundamental law of gearing

The angular velocity ratio of all gears of a meshed gear system must remain constant
The common normal at the point of contact must pass through the fixed pitch point.
3.3 Fly wheels

∆ω
Coefficient of fluctuation of speed Cs =
ωave
1
Coefficient of steadiness =
CS
∆E
Coefficient of fluctuation of energy CE =
E
∆E = 2ECs
∆KE = Iω 2 Cs
CE = 2Cs
σ
r
Maximum velocity of flywheel=
ρ
3.4 Governors
Centrifugal Governor
1
h∝ 2
N
N2 − N1
Sensitiveness=
N
Isochronous governor: Speed is constant
Effort of governor: Mean force acting on the governor
Hunting: Speed of engine fluctuates above and below the mean speed.
Spring controlled governors

F=Ar+B
B<0, stable
B>0, unstable
B=0, isochronous
www.eggsam.com 3.5. BALANCING [28]
rω 2
Gravity controlled tan θ =
Watt Governor g
Pendulum type g 895
h= 2 = 2
ω N
Gravity controlled Frictional force f is also present at the
Watt Governor + Mass sleeve
2
2mg + (M g ± f )(1 + tan β
tan θ
)
Porter Governor (M) at the sleeve. ω =
Porter governor can not be 2mh
895 Mg ± f tan β
isochronous. h= 2 1+ (1 + tan θ )
N 2mg
Gravity controlled 895 a Mg ± f tan β
Proell Governor h= 2 1+ (1 + tan θ )
Porter governor + arms N e 2mg
Hartnell Governor Spring controlled
Spring controlled
Mg
Hartung Governor Hartnell + change in spring mrω 2 a = k(r − r0 )a + b
position 2
Hartnell governor with
Wilson Hartnell
extra spring
3 leaf springs
Pickering Governor
Used in gramophone
3.5 Balancing
Static balancing
Center of mass of the system must lie on the rotational axis
Σmr sin θ
tan θc =
pΣmr cos θ
mc rc = (Σmr sin θ)2 + (Σmr cos θ)2
Dynamic Balancing
-If there is a couple
Σmrl + mc rc lc = 0
Slider-crank mass balancing

connecting rod length
n=
crank length
cos 2θ
Acceleration a = rω 2 cos θ +
n
F = ma
www.eggsam.com 3.6. CAM AND FOLLOWER [29]
Primary force balance=cmrω 2 cos θ

Primary force unbalance=(1 − c)mrω 2 cos θ
Primary vertical unbalanced force=cmrω 2 sin θ
Hammer blow: Maximum vertical unbalanced force by the mass used to balance the
reciprocating masses. = cmrω 2 p
Resultant primary unbalanced force = ((1 − c)mrω 2 cos θ)2 + (cmrω 2 sinθ)2
mrω 2 cos 2θ
Secondary unbalanced force =
n
If primary direct is θ clockwise,

Secondary direct is 2θ clockwise,
Secondary reverse is 2θ anticlockwise
3.6 Cam and Follower

dx v
=
dθ ω
d2 x a
2
= 2
dθ ω
d3 x J
=
dθ3 ω3
Pitch point: The point on the pitch curve having the maximum pressure angle.
Tracing point: The point of the follower from which the profile of a cam is determined.
Prime circle: Smallest circle drawn tangent to the pitch curve.
SHM
h πω
Vmax =
2 φa 2
h πω
Acceleration fmax =
2 φa
φa : Angle of ascent
Uniform velocity
ω
V =h
φa
Constant Acceleration
ω
Vθ = 4h 2 θ
φ 2
ω
a = 4h
φ
3.7 Gyroscope
Gyroscopic torque = Iω × ωp
Active gyroscopic couple: Rotate the spin vector through 90o about precession axis to
www.eggsam.com 3.8. VIBRATION [30]
get the direction of gyroscopic torque vector.

Reactive gyroscopic couple: Opposite direction of active gyroscopic couple
(Left turn -ve × CCW from behind -ve = +ve: Dip the nose)
Bow: Front of the boat

Stern: Back of the boat
Port: Left side
Starboard: Right side
3.8 Vibration
Reileigh’s
r method
g
ωn =
deflection
Energy method
d(KE + P E)
=0
dt
Lagrange’s equation
L=KE-PE

d ∂L ∂L
− =0
dt ∂ q̇i ∂qi
Damped vibrations
mẍ +crẋ + kx = 0
k
ωn =
m r
c c 2 k
s1,2 = − ± −
2mh p 2m i m
s1,2 = ωn −ξ ± ξ 2 − 1
x = Xe−ξωn t [sin(ωd t + φ)]
√
Critical damping Cc = 2 mk = 2mωn
C
Damping ratio/factor ξ =
Cc
Degree of damping = ξ 2 p
Damped frequency ωd = ωn 1 − ξ 2
2π 1
Damped time period Td = p
ωn 1 − ξ 2
x1 2πξ
Logarithmic decrement δ = ln = ξωn Td = p
x2 1 − ξ2
Forced oscillation
(F0 /k)
Steady state Amplitude X = v(
u 2 )2 2
t 1− ω ω
u
+ 2ξ
ωn ωn
www.eggsam.com 3.8. VIBRATION [31]

ω
−2ξ
−cω ωn
tan φ = 2
= 2
k − mω ω
1−
ωn
X 1
Magnification factor = v(
Xst u 2 )2 2
t 1− ω ω
u
+ 2ξ
ωn ωn
Transmissivity ratio
s
2
ω
1 + 2ξ
FT ωn
TR = = v(
F u 2 2
) 2
t 1− ω ω
u
+ 2ξ
ωn ωn
Under damped,
ω √
TR increases if < 2
ωn
ω √
TR decreases if > 2
ωn
Force transmitted =F × T R
Vibration isolation
0 < TR√< 1
ω
> 2
ωn
Rotating unbalanced
mass
2
mr ω
M ωn
X = v(
u 2 )2 2
t 1− ω ω
u
+ 2ξ
ωn ωn
Spring,
r rolling disk, horizontal
2k
ωn =
3m
Whirling of shafts
2
ω
e
ωn
r = v(
u 2 )2 2
t 1− ω ω
u
+ 2ξ
ωn ωn
Dunkerly’s method for multiple rotor system
1 1 1
= + + ...
ωn2 ω1 ω22
2
Torsional
r vibration r
Torsional stiffness GJ
ω= =
I Il
Chapter 4
Machine design
4.1 Theories of failure

σy
σy0 =
F OS
4.2 Fatigue failure

Endurance limit: Maximum amplitude of a fully reversed stress that the standard
specimen can sustain for infinite number of cycles without fatigue failure.
32
www.eggsam.com 4.2. FATIGUE FAILURE [33]

2a
Maximum stress σm = σB 1+
b
1
Corrected endurance limit σe0 = σe Ka Kb Kc Kd Ke
Kf
Name Equations
Ka = 1.0 d ≤ 7.6mm
Size factor Ka = 0.85 7.6 ≤ d ≤ 50mm
Ka = 0.75 d ≥ 50mm
Kb = 1.0 For reversed bending load
Loading factor Kb = 0.8 Reversed axial load for steel
Kb = 0.577 Reversed torsional load
Surface factor Kc = 1, for polished surface
Temperature factor Kd
Ke = 1.0 50% Reliability
Reliability factor Ke = 0.89 90% Reliability
Ke = 0.7 99.99% Reliability
Fatigue strength Endurance limit for notch free speciment
Kf =
reduction factor Endurance limit for notched specimen
Kf − 1
q=
Kt − 1
max stress
Stress concentration factor Kt =
avg stress
1 √
Notch sensitivity q = , a = Neuber’s constant
1 + (a/r)2
Endurance limit σe = 0.5σut for steels
Endurance limit σe = 0.4σut for Cast Iron, Cast steels, Al alloys
Endurance limit σe = 0.3σut for Cast Al alloys
Low and high cycle fatigue
n1 n2 n3
Miners approach + + + ... = 1
L1 L2 L3
www.eggsam.com 4.3. KEYS [34]
4.3 Keys
b: width of the key
t: thickness
l: length
Usually b=D/4
Shear design
F
τ=
bl
Crushing design of key
F
σ=
lt/2
Loose fit
Feather Key
permits axial movement
Self aligning
Woodruf Key Used in tapered
curved
Square/Rectangular Normal
Taper sunk key Tapered
Barth key Edges adjusted
Kennedy Key Diamond
two keys
Tangent Keys One key can transmit
power in one dir
4.4 Rivets
√
Unwin’s formula d = 6.04 t
Bearing/crushing failure Fb = σb dt
Least Strength
Efficiency η =
Strength of plate without rivet
Rivet value R=min(Shear strength, Bearing strength, plate strength,... )
No of rivets required=F/R
www.eggsam.com 4.5. THREADED JOINTS [35]
b−d
For diamond riveting, η =
d
Eccentric loading
F A1
F1 =
ΣAi
0 F eA1 r1
F1 =
ΣAi ri2 p
Resultant force F = F12 + F102 + 2F1 F10 cos θ
F1 : Primary shear stress on rivet 1
F10 : Secondary shear stress on rivet 1
F: Force applied
ri : Distance between ith rivet and CG
Ai : Area of ith rivet
e: Distance between CG of rivets and load
4.5 Threaded joints

-Precision threads
-Rounded corners
British association
-47.5o
-Used in micrometer
-For fatigue loads
BSW
-Automobiles
British Standard
-rounded corners
Whitworth
-55o
-VVVVVV
- 60o
ISO metric
-Clearance given
-Very tight
-For power transmission
Square thread
-Screw jack mechanism
-Modified square thread
ACME -Bidirectional power transfer
Trapezoidal -Lathe lead screw
-used in vice
-Unidirectional
Buttress
-Maximum power transmission
ANS
American National -For rough usage
Standard
-Railway carriages
-Water bottle
Knuckle
-Half round
-30o
F
Shear stress in nut/bolt τ =
πdc tn
www.eggsam.com 4.6. WELDED JOINTS [36]
4Fi
Crushing stress σc =
π(d2 − d2c )n
t: pitch
Eccentric loading, Load in plane of bolted joints

F A1
F1 =
ΣAi
F eA1 r1
F10 =
ΣAi ri2
Eccentric loading, load perpendicular to bolt axis
Take moment about bottom point
F A1
Shear force on bolt 1 F11 =
A1 + A2 + ...
F el1
Tensile force on bolt 1 F12 = 2
l1 + l22 + ...
Screw thread designation
Md×pC
M: Metric
d: Normal diameter
p: pitch
C: Coarse diameter
Bolt of uniform strength

Core diameter of the thread = diameter of unthreaded portion
Increases shock absorbing capacity
4.6 Welded joints

Butt weld
P
σt =
hl
Where h is the plate thickness
Parallel Fillet weld

h: weld thickness
t: weld thickness at throat
h
t=
sin θ + cos θ
F
τ = (cos θ + sin θ)
hl
For maximum θ = 45o
F
τmax =
0.707hl
Transverse fillet weld
F
τ= sin θ(cos θ + sin θ)
hl
For maximum θ = 67.5o
www.eggsam.com 4.7. SLIDING CONTACT BEARINGS [37]
F
τmax =
0.828hl
F
For both parallel and transverse welds use the formula
0.707hl
Unsymmetrically welded and Axially loaded
F = F1 + F2
Fb
F1 =
a+b
Fa
F2 =
a+b
Eccentric loading
F
τ1 =
Throat Area
My
σbending =
I
bt3 btd2 d2
I= + ≈ bt
12 4 4
Circular weld Subjected to torsion
Mr
τ=
J
J = 2πtr3
4.7 Sliding contact bearings

Teflon bearing Self lubricating
Carbon bearing High temperature
Hydrodynamic bearing High loads at high speed
Sleeve bearing Bushings are used to reduce friction and wear
e
Eccentricity ratio or attitude =
c
e: eccentricity
c: radial clearance
Petroff ’s equation
r µN
2 s
Coefficient of friction, f = 2π
c P
Ns in rps
Bearing load W = Bearing pressure ×LD
Power loss = f W rω
µN
Bearing characteristic number BCN =
P
N: rpm
min(BCN)=k=Bearing modulus
Sommerfield number
-decides
r film
thickness

2 µNs
S=
c P
Ns in rps
www.eggsam.com 4.8. ROLLING CONTACT BEARING [38]
Film thickness depends on Sommerfeld number

Hydrodynamic Journal bearing Radial load only
Rectangular hydrostatic bearing Thrust load only
Friction circle radius =µr
r: radius of the journal
4.8 Rolling contact bearing

Also called anti-friction bearing
60N L10h
L10 =
106 b
Reliability R = e−(L/a)
1/b
1

L ln
= R 
 
L10 1
ln
R90
For L50 = 5 × L10 ,
a=6.84
b=1.17
F L1/n = C
n=3 for ball bearing
n=3.33 for roller bearing
C= Dynamic load rating
Equivalent bearing load

Fe = S[XV Fr + Y Fa ]
S: service factor
X: Radial load factor
V: Race load factor=1 inner race rotates, 1.2=outer race rotates
Y: Thrust factor 1/n
ΣPin Ni
Mean load Pm =
ΣNi
Bearing designation SKF XDD
X: Bearing series
DD: ×5 = diameter
1DD: Extra light series
2DD: Light load
3DD: Medium load
4DD: heavy load
Stribeck’s Equation
-gives static load capacity of the bearing
Kd2 Z
C0 =
5
Z: number of balls
www.eggsam.com 4.9. CLUTCH [39]
d: ball diameter
K: Constant
Ball bearings Light loads
Anti-friction bearings More accurate centering
Very high radial load
Deep groove bearing
Both radial and axial load
Thrust bearing Only Axial load
Oscillatory motion.
Can be mounted directly on shaft
Needle roller bearing
(piston pin bearing, rocker arms,
universal joint)
Double row roller bearing
Can carry radial and axial loads
Tapered roller bearing Should be preloaded
Spherical roller bearings Self-aligning property
4.9 Clutch
Uniform pressure
3 (new clutch)
2 r1 − r23
T = µW
3 r12 − r22
W = P π (r12 − r22 )
2 r13 − r23

Friction radius =
3 r12 − r22
Uniform wear (old clutches)
Pr = C
r1 + r2
T = µW
2
r1 + r2
Friction radius =
2
W = 2πC(r1 − r2 )
Centrifugal clutch
T = µmrg rb (ω22 − ω12 )× Number of shoes
m: Mass of one shoe
Single-plate clutch : Occupies large space (Trucks)
Multiple clutch : Occupies less space (Scooter)
Centrifugal clutch : Starts after reaching a critical velocity (mopeds)
Jaw clutch : Low speeds only (Rolling mills)
It is more logical and safer to use uniform wear theory in the design of clutches.
www.eggsam.com 4.10. BRAKES [40]
4.10 Brakes
Drum brake Clockwise rotation

b + µC
F =N
a
Drum brake Counter clockwise rotation
b − µC
F =N
a
Band brake
T1
= eµθ
T2
T = (T1 − T2 )r
T1
For V belt = eµθ/sin α
T2
4.11 Gear
Working depth = sum of addendum of gear and pinion
d
module m=
T
πd
Circular pitch=
T
T
Diametral pitch =
d
Addendum = m
Dedendum =1.157m
Ft = bmσb Y (bombaY)
t2
Lewis form factor Y=
6hm
My Ft ht/2
σb = = 3
I bt /12
Max torque
Service factor Cs =
Rated torque
3
Velocity factor kv =
3+v
www.eggsam.com 4.12. POWER SCREW [41]
-surface
-fatigue failure
Pitting
-small cavities
-near pitch surface
Scoring/Scuffing Insufficient lubrication + metal-metal contact
Plastic flow Yielding of surface under heavy loads
Abrasion Erosion due to foreign abrasive particles
Spur gear Connects two parallel coplanar shafts

Bevel gear Connects two non-parallel, intersecting coplanar shafts
Bevel gear with helical teeth
Spiral bevel
Non-intersecting shafts which are perpendicular
Mitre gears Identical bevel gears intersecting at right angles
Skew shafts
Worm gear
Helix angle=90-lead angle
Connects two parallel coplanar gears with teeth inclined to the
Helical gear
axis
Mirror like combination of Helical gears with no thrust load on
Herringbone gear
shaft
Hypoid gear A type of spiral bevel gear, Non-parallel, non-intersecting
Zerol gear an intermediate type between straight and spiral bevel gears.
(contrate gear) teeth project at right angles to the face of the
Crown gear wheel.
-bevel gear with the pitch cone angle = 90 degrees.
4.12 Power screw

Not seen in ESE
D: Nominal diameter:Largest
Dc : Core diameter: smallest diameter
L: lead
Helix angle tan α = L/πDmean
For Lifting
µ cos α + sin α
Force F = W
cos α − µ sin α
Torque T = W tan(φ + α) × D/2
For Lowering
µ cos α − sin α
Force F = W
cos α + µ sin α
Torque T = W tan(φ − α) × D/2
Self locking
tan φ ≥ tan α
WL tan α
Efficiency η = =
2πT tan(φ + α)
π φ
For maximum efficiency α = −
4 2
1 − sin φ
ηmax =
1 + sin φ
ACME threads
µ
µ0 =
cos β
4.13 Misc
To connect two joints in
Cotter Joint
tension/compression
Connects two joints and allows
Knuckle joint
angular movement at the joint
Join two rods having threads with the
Turn buckle
help of coupler nut
Riveted joints Make leak proof joints. (Boilers)
Knuckle joint
-used to transmit axial tensile force.
-unsuitable to connect two rotating shafts, which transmit torque.
flexible shafts
-low rigidity in bending.
-high rigidity in torsion.
Chapter 5
Production Engineering
[The short notes are provided for easy revision. Do not use this for first time study.]
5.1 Metrology
Active inspection or online inspection: Checking when the product is being produced
Passive inspection: Inspecting already produced products
Accuracy: Correctness
Precision: Repeatability
H: hole basis system

h: shaft basis system
Three kinds of fit

Clearance fit
Transition fit
Interference fit
Dimensions of machined parts follows normal distribution
Allowance: either minimum clearance or maximum interference

Fundamental deviation: How far tolerance zone from basic size
i = 0.45D1/3 + 0.001D µm
D in mm
1
Gauge tolerance = Work tolerance
10
1
Wear allowances = Gauge tolerance
10
Workshop gauges: never sell anything bad
Inspection gauge: Never reject anything good
ISO gauges: Go gauge is from work shop gauge and No-go gauge is from Inspection gauge
General purpose gauge
43
www.eggsam.com 5.2. CASTING [44]
Materials for gauges

Hard
Low thermal expansion
Low density
High corrosion resistance
High machinability
En 24 (High carbon steel)
Inver
Elinver 42% Ni
Glass
Interferometry
To measure flatness
5.2 Casting
Mould box
Cope
Cheek
Drag
Pouring basin → Sprue → Splash core → Runner (Trapeziodal) → Skimbob → Ingate
→ mould cavity, Riser
Advantages of casting
-Complex shapes can be made
-Cheaper
-Both ductile and brittle can be produced
-Large sized parts can be made
Disadvantages
-Surface is not smooth
-Time consuming process
-Non-uniform properties due to non-uniform cooling
5.2.1 Allowances
Machining/finish allowance Allowance for finishing operations
Daft/Taper allowance For easy removal of pattern without affecting the mould
Shrinkage/contraction allowance To compensate for solid shrinkage
Shake/rapping allowance For clearance between mould and pattern
Distortion/Camber allowance V or U shape castings
Highest liquid+solidification shrinkage: Aluminum
Highest total shrinkage: Steel
Shrinkage allowance of steel 1mm per 20mm (approx)
5.2.2 Parts
Patterns
Solid or single piece pattern
Split piece pattern
Gated pattern: Gate and runner are included in pattern
Loose piece pattern: For parts with internal webs
Match plate pattern
Sweep pattern
Flowbard pattern
Sprue
Best shape is parabolic tapered
Straight tapered is used
Riser
Compensates shrinkage in liquid phase and shrinkage during solidification
Vents
For easy escape of air
Cores
To produce internal cavities
Chills
To avoid hot tear
Directional solidification
Uniform solidification
Paddings
Avoid Erosion
Maximize heat transfer
Chaplets
To support core
Molding sand
Refractoriness: Ability to withstand high temperature
Green strength: strength of moulding sand with moisture
Collapsibility: Ability of the mould to not to resist the shrinkage of the metal. Adding
saw dust improves collapsibility
Dry strength: Strength of the mould after the mould cavity dries when the molten metal
is poured.
Permeability: Ability to allow gases to escape (up to 8% water, permeability increases
and then decreases.)
VH
Permeability number P N =
P AT
V=2000cc
H=5.08cm
P=10g/cm2
A=20.26cm2
3007.2
PN =
T
Time in minutes
Flowability
Strength
Hardness
Adhesive property
Cohesive property
Conductivity
Thermal expansion
Collapsibility
Additives
Saw dust, wood flour Improves green strength and collapsibility
Organic binders
Starch and dextrin
Improves skin hardness
Iron oxide and
Improves hot strength
aluminum oxide
Coal dust, sea coal, improves surface finish and resistance to metal
silica flour penetration
Solidification
By skin forming or dendritic growth
Casting volume
Casting yield =
Casting volume+ gating volume
Gating system
Ferrous castings
V
Top gate Time for filling t = √m
Ag 2gh
Turbulence and splashing
Non-ferrous castings
Time for filling
Bottom gate Am 1 √ √
t=2 √ ( h − h − hm )
Ag 2g
No splashing or turbulence
Parting gate No splashing or turbulence
Multiple ingates
Step gate Fast
No splashing or turbulence
Gating ratio = AS :AR :AG = Sprue:Runner:Ingate
Non-pressurized: 1:4:4 or 1:2:2 (For highly reactive metals like Al, Mg,...)
Pressurized: 1:2:1
5.2.3 Riser design

Necessary condition: Vriser ≥ Vshrinkage
Sufficient condition: Cooling time riser ≥ cooling time casting
V
M=
A
Chorinov’s equation 2
V
Cooling time t = k
A
V
Shape
A
Cube a/6
Sphere d/6
Caine’s method
Mr
Freezing ratio X =
Mc
a
X= −c
Y −b
Vr
Y =
Vc
Modulus method
Mr = 1.2Mc
Novel research method

5.2.4 Casting defects

open holes/ gas bubbles
Blow holes Scar
pinhole porosity
Blister
Drop/dirt Irregular projection on product due to sand dropping

from cope
Scab Thin layer of Protrusion on roof of product
Rat tail Due to compression failure of moulding sand
Shrinkage cavity Due to the shrinkage of metal
Misrun Non-filling of furthest point in the cavity due to lack of

fluidity and early solidification
Cold shut Two streams of molten metal does not fuse properly
due to cooling
Hot cracking
Hot tear residual stresses in the material causes the casting to
fail as it cools
Mold shift Due to misalignment between two halves
Core shift Core moves from its position
Buckle Sand expands on heating and buckles creating V

shaped notches on product surface.
Swell Metal displaces sand and creates a bulge due to high

pressure
5.2.5 Moulds
Sand moulding
Shell moulding
Expendable moulds Investment moulding
Full moulding
CO2 moulding
Centrifugal
Permanent moulds Die casting
Slush casting
Squeeze casting
Type Key words Application

Metallic pattern
Fine grain silica
Phenol formaldehyde acts as thermosetting Cylinder block of IC engine
resin. Rocker arm
Shell moulding
Alcohol resin Piston rings
good surface finish Valve plates of refrigerators
Expensive process
Difficult for large parts
Pattern: Wax, Rubber, Plastic, mercury
Gas turbine blade
The pattern is dipped into slury of
Jet engine parts
refractory material (fine silica, water, ethyl
Medical implants
Investment Casting silicate and acids)
Dentures
Lost wax process Slurry coating - Stucco coating - Pattern
Gold ornaments
melt out - Shake out
Gears, cam, valves,
Very high accuracy and surface finish
ratchets...
For Complicated and thin parts
Full moulding Expandable pattern
Motor casing
Lost foam process Plastic patterns
Cylinder head
Cavityless moulding Polystyrene patterns
Crank shafts
Evaporative pattern Foam pattern
Aluminum engine blocks
casting Thermocol pattern
Turbine housing
Sodium silicate gearbox housing
CO2 moulding
Very strong Machine tool beds
Gear blank
No core is used
Lighter impurities are collected at the center
Coarse grains ouside and finer grains
towards the center: Jagged surface
Centrifugal casting Hollow cylindrical pipes
Fast cooling
Fine grain structure
Strong and hard
Accurate and good surface finish
Semi-centrifugal
Axis of rotation is vertical
casting
Thin castings
Slush casting Thin hollow castings low MP
ornaments and toys
Hollow Plastic or glass
Air is blown into the plastic/glass to make
Blow moulding Bottles
the shape of it match the mould shape
Bulbs, ..
Mass production
Fast cooling
Gravity die casting Aluminunm Piston in automobile
Fine grain
High strength and hardness
Hot Chamber die High production rate Low melting point
casting High accuracy Lead, Zinc, Tin, Magnesium
High melting point, Non-ferrous
High melting point alloys of Al,
Cu, Brass, Magnesium
Cold chamber
Carburators
Pressure die casting
Crank case and crank shaft
valve bodies
Fuel injection pump parts
Aluminum Brake shoe

Squeeze casting
brass/bronze bushes
Strand casting
Continuous casting Very long rods
Cleaning of castings
Fettling
Shot/ Sand blasting
5.2.6 Cupola
Advantage: Continuous melting
Low cost of melting
Chemical composition can be controlled
Good temperature control
www.eggsam.com 5.3. METAL CUTTING [51]
5.3 Metal Cutting

Chuck Holding workpiece
Tool post Holding tool
Head stock Houses the main spindle, speed change

mechanism, and change gears.
Saddle Tool motion device
Base that connects to the headstock and
Bed Cast Iron
permits the carriage and tailstock to be
Casting
moved parallel with the axis of the spindle.
Brass, stainless steel
Lead screw For feeding the cutting tool parallel to the
Thread rolling, Thread
axis of rotation
machining
Guide ways High carbon steel

For guiding the motion of different parts
Flame hardening
Turning: Process for making external surfaces (Cylindrical)
Boring: Process for making internal surfaces
Facing: Feed motion is radial
5.3.1 Cutting tool materials

Name Properties Components
5-6m/min
High Carbon Steel Vickers Hardness 750HV High Carbon Steel
Preferred for wood working
40-50m/min
18% Tungsten/Molybdenum
High Speed Steel Vickers Hardness 850HV
4%Chromium
HSS Preferred for high carbon steels
1%Vanadium
Power saw blades
150m/min
Powder Technology is used for
Cemented carbides
production
Cannot be regrinded
Tungsten carbide 2000 HV WC
Titanium carbide 3100 HV TiC
Tantalum Carbide 1800 HV TaC
50% Columbium
Nitrogen is diffused to produce a
UCON 30% Titanium
hard surface
20% Tungsten
Sialon 300m/min Si-Al-O-N
400-500m/min
2200HV
Ceramics Aluminum oxide
Lower chance for BUE
For brittle
600-700m/min
4700HV Boron
CBN
Substitute for diamond for Nitrogen
cutting steel
1000-2000m/min
7500HV
Diamond Carbon
High thermal conductivity
Low thermal expansion
Hot hardness: Minimum temperature above which the increase in temperature causes
sudden decreases in hardness
HHS < Borazon < Ceramic < Cermet < Carbide < Diamond
Effect on tool life

Depth of cut < Nose radius < feed < Cutting speed
HSS
W, Mo: To increase hot hardness of material
Cr: Increase strength of resistance to deformation
V: Increase wear resistance
W based HSS has more wear resistance than Mo based
Carbide tools
P type: For ferrous
K type: For non-ferrous, non-metal, cast iron
Low number: Finish machining
High number: Rough machining
Coating: Aluminum and Zirconium
Cermets
Ceramics + Metals
5.3.2 Tool Signature

Lip angle= angle between face and flank
f = Feed
d = Depth of cut
w = width of cut
ASA Tool Signature

BRA-SRA-ERA-SRA-ECEA-SCEA-R
αb − αs − θe − θs − Ψe − ψ − r
Normal or Orthogonal Rake System (ORS)

I − α − θs0 − θe0 − Ψe − λ − r
I: Angle of inclination
αn : Normal Rake Angle
λ: Approach angle
    
tan I cos Ψ − sin Ψ tan αb
 =  
tan αn sin Ψ cos Ψ tan αs
    
0
cot θs cos Ψ sin Ψ cot θs
 =  
0
tan θe − sin Ψ cos Ψ cot θe
For ductile, increasing BRA makes

chip flow easier, reduces diffusion
Angle between line parallel to wear, increases tool life.
Back Rake Angle the tool axis and the rake face Smaller rake angles when machining
αb and measured in a plane stronger or brittle materials.
perpendicular to the base Negative rake angles when machining
ceramics and carbides
Zero rake angle for Brass and CI
Angle between the rake face and
the line passing through the tip
Side Rake Angle αs perpendicular to the too axis 5-15o
and measured in a plane
perpendicular to tool axis
Angle between the minor flank Clearance angle
and the line passing through the Prevents rubbing of the machined part
End Relief Angle
tip perpendicular to the base on the flank
θe
and measured on a plane parallel Larger clearance is required for ductile
to the tool axis materials
Angle between the side flank and
the line passing through the tip 5-15o
Side Relief Angle
perpendicular to the base and To prevent rubbing of the workpiece’s
θs
measured on a plane machined surface in the flank
perpendicular to the base.
Angle between end cutting edge
and line passing through the tip 8-15o
End Cutting Edge
perpendicular to the tool axis Large values of ECEA - large force-
Angle Ψe , Ce
and measured in a plane parallel chatter
to the base
Increase in ψ increases cutting force,
Angle between the side cutting
heat is distributed over large area,
Side Cutting Edge edge and the line extending the
increases tool life (up to a limit)
Angle Ψ, Cs shank measured in a plane
Increase in ψ increases of chatter
parallel to the base
vibrations
Larger nose radius gives better surface
Nose Radius R finish and longer tool life. But
increases chatter and cutting force.
Continuous chips Discontinuous chips Build up edge

Ductile workpiece Brittle material Ductile
High Back Rake Angle Low Back Rake Angle Low Back Rake Angle
High speed Low speed Low speed
Low feed High feed High feed
Low depth of cut High depth of cut High depth of cut
Serrated or segmented chips
Non-homogeneous chips
Semi continuous chips
From metals of low thermal conductivity
Titanium
Surface roughness
f2
Peak to valley height Hmax =
8R
Hmax
Center line average value Ra =
4
True feed = f cos Ψ
f
Hmax =
tan Ψ + cot Ψe
Forces
Thrust/radial force Fy = Ft cos λ
Axial/ feed force Fx = Ft sin λ
Merchant’s Analysis
1 t2 cos(φ − α)
Chip thickness ratio = = ≥
r t1 sin φ
1
r cos α
tan φ =
1 − r sin α
r : Chip reduction ratio
Shear strain =cot φ + tan(φ − α)
wt1
Area of shear plane =
sin φ
wt1
Shear force Fs = τ
sin φ
t1 : Uncut chip thickness
=feed × sin λ (Turning)
=depth of cut (orthogonal machining)
Fs = Fc cos φ − FT sin φ
Ns = FT cos φ + FC sin φ
N = FC cos α − FT sin α
F = FC sin α + FT cos α
    
FS cos φ − sin φ FC
 =  
NS sin φ cos φ FT
    
N cos α − sin α FC
 =  
F sin α cos α FT
FT
+ tan α
F
tan β = C
FT
1− tan α
FC
F
µ = tan β =
N
1
ln
If β > 45o : Classical friction theorem µ = π r
−α
2
For orthogonal cutting FR = 0
Assumptions for Merchant’s circle
Cutting edge is sharp and straight
Rigid, perfectly plastic, homogeneous material
Orthogonal cutting
Shear zone is approximated by a straight line
No BUE
Cutting force 66%

Axial force 27%
Radial force 7%
Radial force 10%
Cutting Power=Fc Vc
FC
Specific cutting power =
wt1
Ernest and Merchant Theory
Minimum power consumption during machining
2φ + β − α = 90O
2φ + β − α = cot−1 K (Modified Merchant’s theory, Mohr’s theory)
K: Machining constant
Lee and Shaffer (Slip line field theory)

φ + β − α = 45O
Stabler Theory
2φ + α − 2β = 90o
Velocity
V Vc Vs
= =
sin(90 − (φ − α)) sin φ sin(90 − α)
VS : Shear velocity
VC : Chip velocity
sin(φ + β − α)
Contact length lf = t1
sin φ sin β
Cutting fluids
Increase heat dissipation and decrease power consumption
Act as lubricant
Properties
-High conductivity
-Should not fume, foam
-Should not react with workpiece or tool
-Low viscosity
Cast iron No cutting fluid
Low speed : Neat oils + EP Additives
Steel Medium speed : 1:10 water emulsion + EP additives
High speed : 1:100 water emulsion
Aluminum Neat oil + EP additives at low speed. No cutting fluid at high speed
Magnesium Only neat oils
brass/Bronze Only neat oils
Tool failure
Diffusion wear
Adhesion wear (Spot welds)
Abrasion wear (Faylite pockets)
Fatigue wear
Plastic deformation: Due to the high temperature (Temperature > Hot hardness tem-
perature)
Mechanical breakage: Due to impact loads
Oxidation wear
Flank wear
Crater wear
Orthogonal cutting Oblique cutting

Cutting edge ⊥ Velocity vector Cutting edge not perpendicular to Velocity
Two components of force Three components of force
2D cutting 3D cutting
Jackplane in carpentry
Parting off in turning
Broaching
Sawing
www.eggsam.com 5.4. MACHINING [58]
Misc √
Maximum temperature on Rake face ∝ f eed
If cutting speed is increased, cutting force remains same. (But due to heating, it can
reduce slightly)
Broaching Super finishing operation, multipoint cutting operation, For making key ways
and internal gears
5.4 Machining
5.4.1 Tool life
Effect on tool life V > f < d
Taylor’s Tool life equation V T n = C

V = cutting velocity in m/min
T = Tool life in minutes
n = Taylor’s tool life exponent
C = Taylor’s constant
n=0.05-0.1 HC steels
0.1-0.2 HSS
0.2-0.4 Carbides
0.4-0.6 Ceramics
0.7-0.9 CBN
πDl
Machining cost: C1 = Cm
fV
Idle cost: C2 = Cm × Tm
1/n
πDl V
Tool cost: C3 = Ce
fV C
1/n
πDl V
Tool changing cost: C4 = Cm Tc
fV C
Total cost =C1 + C2 + C3 + C4
1. Cutting speed for minimum total cost
C
Vopt = n
Ce 1
+ TC −1
Cm n
2. Cutting speed for Maximum productivity
C
Vopt = n
1
− 1 Tc
n
Modified Taylor’s tool life equation
V T n f p dq = C
f = Feed in mm/min
t = Depth of cut in mm
Machinability
Tool life
Surface finish
Cutting forces
MRR
Specific cutting energy
Shear angle (Higher shear angle-¿ Better machinability
Vt
Machinability index = 100
VS
VS : Cutting speed of standard free cutting steel for 60 minute tool life
Vt : Cutting speed of metal for 60 minute tool life
5.4.2 Grinding
• Surface grinding
• Cylindrical grinding
• Center-less grinding
• Form grinding
• Abrasive belt grinding
• Manual grinding
• Creep feed grinding
Structure: Distance between two cutting edges

Open structure: Used for ductile
Closed structure: Used for brittle and hard materials
Volume of material removed
Grinding ratio=
Volume of wheel wear
ISO Designation 45-A-G-H-S-B-20
First and last numbers –

A: Aluminum oxide (Al2 O3 , Soft and tough work pieces)
A: Abrasive type B: Boron Carbide (B4 C)
C: Silicon Carbide (SiC, Hard and brittle work pieces)
D: Diamond
10-24 Roughening
G: Grain size 30-60 Medium
70-180 Finishing
220-600 Super finishing operation
A-H Soft wheels
H: Hardness I-P Medium wheels
Q-Z hard wheels
S: Structure 0 Dense
16 open
V Vitrified
S Silicate
B: Bond type B Resinoid
R Rubber
M Metal bond
Open structure: Ductile workpiece
Closed structure: Brittle workpiece
Wheel Truing: A redressing process by which the wheel is restored to its true shape
Wheel dressing: The process of making new sharp edges on grains. Required due to
grazing.
Grinding wheel wear
Grain wear, grain fracture and bond fracture
Creep feed grinding

-Low feed and high depth of cut
Finishing operations
Honing: To make fine surface finish for holes
Lapping: Finishing operation for flat surfaces
Polishing
Buffing
Deburring
5.4.3 Drilling
Drills are made by forging
HSS is the tool material
Lip angle + Lip relief angle + Helix angle =90o

d
Width of chip W =
2 sin β
2β: Point angle
Rake angle: Angle formed between a plane containing the drill axis and the leading edge
of the land. Positive for right hand flute, negative for left hand flute, zero for parallel
flute.
Point angle or cutting angle. Small point angles are used for cutting ductile materials
and large point angles are used for cutting brittle materials
To make a hole
Drilling Drill is the cutting tool used
Oblique cutting process
HSS
Enlarging an existing hole+Better finish
Boring Accuracy =0.125mm
Cannot increase the length of the hole
Finishing process
Reaming Surface finish ±0.005mm
Negligible change in diameter
Reamer has multiple cutting edges
Pack drilling Multiple pieces in one go

Core drilling Hollow cutting tool, usually cylindrical
Tube shaped drill
Trepanning Periphery is the cutting edge
Used in gun barrel manufacturing
Make hole larger
Counter boring Done by end milling
To make place for bolt heads
Counter sinking Make holes tapered in the beginning
5.4.4 Milling
Peripheral milling
Slab milling
End milling
Gang milling
Straddle milling
Upmilling
No backlash
s
d d
sin θC = 2 1−
D D
s
d d
Mean chip thickness =ft 1−
D D
d: depth of cut
D: Diameter of cutting tool
Plain milling cutter

fm p
Average uncut chip thickness tm = d/D
NZ
2fm p
Maximum uncut chip thickness= d/D
NZ
MRR=tm bfm
Down milling
Also called climb milling
Backlash can affect the process
Better tool life
Face milling
1 p
Compulsory approach = (D − D2 − wi2 )
2
wi = width of work + 2Offset
Slab milling cutter p

Compulsory approach= t(D − t)
5.4.5 Gear manufacture

Gear shaper
Cutter reciprocates rapidly
Rack type or pinion type cutter
Pinion type can cut internal gear
Only spur gears can be cut
Can cut internal gears
Hear hobbing
Fast process
Cylindrical tool with slots and gashes
Looks similar to a worm gear
Rotates continuously. A continuous process
Cannot cut internal gears
Helical, worm and spur gears can be made
Gear milling
5.4.6 Planning
More then one single point cutting tool
Work piece is reciprocating
www.eggsam.com 5.5. METAL FORMING [63]
5.4.7 Shaping
One single point cutting tool
Tool reciprocates
5.4.8 Powder metallurgy

Bulb filament
Cutting tool, grinding wheel
Metal powder → Blending →Compaction →Sintering →Sizing
Powdering
Metal crushing and pulverizing
Atomization
Corrosion
5.4.9 Jigs and fixtures

-Used in mass production
Fixtures: Locate work piece, milling, shaping,...
Jigs: Locate and guides tool, drilling, boring, reaming,
3-2-1
3 pins at bottom arrest 5 dof
2 pins on side arrest 3 dof
1 pin on the third prevents 1 dof
5.4.10 Screw thread manufacturing

Thread chasing
Die threading
Tapping
Thread milling
Thread rolling
Thread grinding
5.5 Metal forming

Ex: Connecting rod
Hot working: metal is worked above the recrystallization temperature
Cold working: metal is worked below the recrystallization temperature
Brittle materials can be hot worked
5.5.1 Rolling
∆h
cos α = 1 −
D
∆h: Reduction in thickness
For unaided entry µ ≥ tan α
∆hmax = µ2 R
σ0 : Flow strength
σyt ≤ σ0 ≤ σut
Maximum bite angle = tan−1 µ
A0
= 2.71
Amin
Rolling defects
Wavy edges
Spread
Crocodile crack
Alligatoring
5.5.2 Forging
Fullering or swaggering, Flattering, Finish, Cut off
Flash: extra material deposited in gutter
Drop forging
Open die forging
Cogging
Press forging (Used for making coins)
Roll forging
Precision forging
Impression forging
Forging defects
Cracks, Fold, Barreling
5.5.3 Extrusion
2
do
Extrusion ratio =
df
Ao
True strain =ln
Af
ho
Extrusion strain =
hf
Ao
Force required =KAo ln
Af
Forward or direct extrusion
Backward extrusion or indirect extrusion
Hydrostatic extrusion
Impact extrusion: Tooth paste tube
Johnson’s
equation
Ainitial
σd = σ0 a + b ln
Af inal
Defects
Pipe defect, tail pipe, Fishtailing
Surface cracking
Internal cracking
5.5.4 Wire drawing

Ainitial
Wire drawing force F = σavg Af inal ln
Af inal
B
1+B A1
σ = σy 1−
B A0
B = µ cot α
α : Half angle
For maximum possible reduction, σ = σy
When µ = 0,
A0
σ = σy ln
A1
Tube drawing
B
1+B h1
σ = σy 1−
B h2
Defects
Center line cracks
seams
residual stresses
5.5.5 Sheet metal operations

Fmax kt
Force F =
kt + I
Fmax = Length of cut × thickness × shear stress
k: penetration
I: shear on the punch or die
Punching
To punch holes
A shearing operation
Shear is given on punch
Punched out material is waste
Punch=Size of hole
Die= punch size + 2 radial clearance
Blanking
Blanked out material is the product
Shear is given on die
Punch= die size - 2 radial clearance
Die=Size of product
www.eggsam.com 5.6. WELDING [66]
Deep drawing
Press working
For making steel tumblers
Defects of drawing
Flange Wrinkle/earing: due to insufficient blank holder pressure.
Earing: due to anisotropy induced by rolling operation or due to non-uniform clearance
between tools.
Wall wrinkles
Fracture
Miss strike
Orange peal
5.6 Welding
Solid state welding Liquid state/fusion Solid/liquid
Autogeneous Homogeneous Heterogeneous
Explosive Resistance Brazing
Ultrasonic Chemical reaction Soldering
Friction -gas
Forge -thermite
Diffusion Arc
SMAW, TIG, MIG, PAW
Hand peening is a stress relieving process and it consists of hammering the weld along
the length with the peen of the hammer while joint is hot.
Weld pool
Weld bead
Reinforcement
Penetration
Root gap
Toe
Root
Throat
Deposition rate
5.6.1 Arc welding

- e− moves from cathode to anode
- -ve cathode
- +ve anode
- 2/3 of heat is generated at anode
- In case of AC arc welding, equal heat on both the sides
DC Straight polarity
- Work piece is positive
- more depth of penetration
- Weld deposition rate is less
DC Reverse polarity
- Workpiece is negative
- Less depth of penetration
- Weld deposition rate is high
- Used for thin sheets
- Constant current type
- Constant voltage type
It Vt
- + =1
IShort circuit VOpen
OCV
- V=OCV- I
SCC
Arc on time
- Duty cycle =
Arc on time + idle time
Arc blow
- Deflection of electric arc due to the magnetic field formed in the material during welding
- Weld Splatter
- Provide flux coating to reduce arc blow
- Less chance in DC
Flux coating
Electrode designation
TFEPSX
T: Type of electrode manufacturing
F: Type of flux coating
E: Position of electrode
P: Polarity
S: Strength of electrode
X: Specific information about electrode
5.6.2 Shielded gas welding

Straight polarity: Workpiece positive (Less penetration)
Reverse polarity: Electrode positive (Deep penetration)
SMAW
Shielded Metal Arc Welding
Most commonly used
Electrode coating provides the shielding gas.
TIG, GTAW
Tungsten Inert Gas
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
Non-consumable tungsten electrode
Carried out in inert atmosphere. (He, Ar, Ne, CO2 , N2 )
Thorium and Beryllium are added to increase the thermal resistance of Tungsten
For Al and Mg alloys, AC welding is used
For all other materials, Direct current straight polarity is used
Used for thin welding
Applications: Aerospace and automobile industries
MIG, GMAW
Metal inert gas
Gas Metal Arc Welding
Consumable electrode (wire) is converted to molten drops
DC reverse polarity or AC are used for welding Al, Mg, Cu,...
Used for thick welding
Can be easily automated
For welding Stainless steels, Al, Mg, Cu, Ni alloys
Application aircraft and automobile industries
5.6.3 Submerged arc welding

Consumable electrode (wire)
Weld arc is shielded by granular flux (Silica, Manganese oxide, calcium fluride,...)
Automated, downhand position welding
Used on flat surfaces
High HAZ
NOT used for Al, Mg, High carbon steel, tool steel,...
Thick plate welding in ship or pressure vessels, nuclear reactors, pipes
Used to make LPG cylinders
5.6.4 Plasma Arc Welding

Non-consumable Tungsten electrode
High depth of penetration
For thick and high MP metals
DCSP or AC are used
Titanium, Ni, Stainless steel
Applications: Aeronautical industry, Jet engine manufacturing, precision instruments
manufacturing.
5.6.5 Gas Welding

Oxy-Acetylene
Type Volume ratio Temp Flame Workpiece
Oxydizing flame 1:1.15-1.5 3300o C Long flame Cu, Zn, Brass, Bronze
Neutral flame 1:1 3200o C Short flame Mild steel, Low C steel, Al alloys
High carbon steel, CI, Ni-alloys
Carburizing flame 1:0.85-0.95 2900o C Medium length Creates hard and brittle weld
bead
Oxygen valves are made of brass
Acetylene valves are made of steel
Acetylene is stored in acetone
C2 H2 + O2 → 2CO + H2 ↑ +heat
2CO + 2H2 + 2O2 → 2CO2 + H2 O ↑ +heat
For complete combustion of 1 unit volume of acetylene, 2.5 unit volume of acetylene
is required
1 part of it is provided from the cylinder and 1.5 is obtained from atmosphere.
Gas cutting
Cutting using oxidation of Iron
Al cannot be cut using gas cutting
5.6.6 Thermite welding

8Al + 3Fe3 O4 → 9Fe + 4Al2 O3 + Heat
>3000o C
Application: rail, pipes, thick steel sections
5.6.7 Atomic Hydrogen Welding

4000o C
5.6.8 Resistance welding

Heat generated = I 2 Rt
Spot welding
Spot welding is adopted to weld two overlapped metal pieces between two electrode
points.
Indentation is created by the force from the electrodes
The lapped pieces of metal√ are heated in a restricted area.
Diameter of nugget d = 6 t
Mainly used for lap welding thin sheets
Automobile and refrigerator bodies
Seam welding
Electrodes are in the form of wheels
Process is similar to spot welding
Wheels roll creating series of spot welds
Creates leak proof joint
Projection welding
There are projections on one plate made by embossing
Copper plates are used instead of electrodes
Can be used to weld nuts and bolts to plates
Used to join a network of wires
Flash welding
Flash butt welding
Arcs form and soften the metal as the members come closer.
Force is applied to weld the parts by plastic deformation
Very high current 10,000A
Mild steel, Medium carbon steel, Alloy steels, Al, Ti
5.6.9 Electroslag welding

Also called Electro gas welding
Starts with electric arc
Welds by Resistance heating effect of slag materials
Welding progresses on vertical direction
Water cooled Cu shoes are provided on the sides to prevent spillage
AC and DC are used
1000A current
Used to weld very thick plates (up to 900mm)
Applications: Nuclear rector vessels, Ship welding
5.6.10 Electron beam welding

Beam of electrons is used to melt the material
Magnetic focusing lenses are used for focusing the beam
Very small heat affected zone and deep penetration
Vacuum is required for the process
Tungsten electrode (cathode) creates electrons
5.6.11 Laser beam welding

Laser beam is used for welding
Used for welding Cu and Al alloys in electronics industry
No need for vacuum
Difficult to weld highly reflective surfaces
Aluminum, Titanium, Ferrous metals, Copper, super alloys, refractory materials.
5.6.12 Explosive welding

Thick plate: Target plate
Thin plate: flyer plate
For welding dissimilar metals
Used in Heat exchanger plug tubes
5.6.13 Friction welding

It is a solid state welding process
Mechanical energy converted to heat energy
5.6.14 Utra-Sonic welding

Heat affected zone is minimum
High frequency is used
Application: Thin sheets/wires same or different material, plastics
5.6.15 Soldering
Solder is an alloy of Lead and tin
Used in electronics industry
Solder melts at relatively low temperature
5.6.16 Brazing
Material is a alloy of Copper, Zinc and silver. It is called Spelter.
Stronger than soldering
Used to connect pipes and make leak proof joints
5.6.17 Defects
Porosity
Due to entrapment of gas bubbles
Can be reduced by proper selection of filler material, preheating the weld area, cleaning
the weld area and reducing the welding speed
Slag inclusion
Caused by materials getting trapped in the weld. (Electrode coating materials, oxides,...)
To prevent slag inclusion, clean the weld surface before next layer is deposited, provide
shield gas
www.eggsam.com 5.7. NON-TRADITIONAL MACHINING [72]
Incomplete fusion or penetration

The melting does not reach till the full thickness of the plates
Due to insufficient heat
Undercut
Incomplete fusion
Overlapping
Weld spatter
Weld cracks
Weld decay
5.7 Non-traditional Machining

5.7.1 Electrochemical Machining
AI
M RR =
ρZF
A: Gram atomic weight of ions
I: Current
ρ: Density
Z: Valency
F: Faraday’s constant= 96500
Material removal by electro chemical process

For extremely hard materials
No wear for the tool
No direct contact between tool and work material so there are no forces and residual
stresses.
The surface finish produced is excellent.
Less heat is generated.
Work piece” +ve terminal, Anode (Erosion happens here) Tool: -ve terminal, cathode.
Electrolyte
-Large electric conductivity
-Good chemical stability
-Inexpensive
-Should not cause corrosion
-Low viscosity
-Non toxic
-Chloride solution in water (salt solution)
Applications
Turbine blades
Large through cavities
Blind complex cavities
5.7.2 Electrochemical Grinding

Same principle as electro chemical machining
Small chance of material loss from the tool
5.7.3 Electro Discharge Machining

Spark
Dielectric fluid
Also known as spark machining, spark eroding, burning, die sinking, wire burning or wire
erosion
Limited to materials that are conducting in nature
Produces very smooth surface
Discharge voltage
Vd = V (1 − e−t/RC )
−t/RC 2
2

V 1 − e
Power P = 12 CV 2 =
2RN
V : Supply voltage
For maximum power, Vd = 0.72V
5.7.4 Electric Discharge Grinding

Same principle as EDM
Spark occurs between a wheel and workpiece
5.7.5 Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

-Almost no noise
-Good surface finish
-High accuracy
-Low MRR
-Used for making dies
-Used for machining hard glasses and precious stones
5.7.6 Abrasive Jet Machining

Uses high velocity stream of abrasive particles
Material removal through erosion
Abrasive water jet machining: Uses water as medium for abrasive particles
5.7.7 Laser Beam Machining

Used for welding, cutting, localized heating and etching.
No need for vacuum
5.7.8 Water Jet machining

A jet of water is used for cutting
For cutting soft materials like plastic, rubber, wood,...
If abrasives are added, then it is called Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM).
5.7.9 Plasma Arc Machining

Plasma arc is used to cut metals
5.7.10 Electron Beam Machining

Magnetic lenses are used to focus the electron beam
Vacuum is required for electron beam to pass through
Chapter 6
IM & OR
Output
Productivity =
Input
6.1 CPM / PERT

CPM PERT
Deterministic Probabilistic
Activity oriented Event oriented
Single time estimate Three times estimate
Usually considers cost Usually ignores cost
Float is used Slack is used
For repetitive jobs For non-repetitive jobs
Ex: construction project Ex: Research projects
β distribution
Critical Path Method

Crash cost − Normal cost
Cost Slope=
Normal time − Crash time
Total Float = (Lj − Ei ) − Tij
Free Float = (Ej − Ei ) − Tij
Independent Float = (Ej − Li ) − Tij
Slack = Li − Ei
Total Float
Extra time without delaying project
Negative: Insufficient resources, activity may not complete on time
Zero: Activity can just finish on time
Positive: Surplus resources, can be distributed to other activities
75
www.eggsam.com 6.1. CPM / PERT [76]
Critical path: Float =0

Super critical path: Highest positive float
Sub-critical path: Highest negative float path
Free float
Amount of time the activity can be delayed without affecting the succeeding activity
Independent float
Time by which an activity can be adjusted without affecting the preceding or succeeding
activity
Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)
Z value Percentage area

on the left side
0 50
1 84.13
1.28 90
2 97.72
3 99.87
To + 4Tm + Tp
Te =
6
To − Tp
Standard Deviation σ =
6
Variance= σ 2 √
Net Standard variation= Σσ 2
Activity on Node: Dummies are not used

Activity on arc: Dummies are used
Resource allocation or loading
-sharing or allocating labour between activities and/or projects
Resource optimization
-Manipulate network to balance resources required and available are in balance.
Resource leveling
-adjust the resource against possible floats wherever possible and modify irregularity in
the histogram
www.eggsam.com 6.2. INVENTORY CONTROL [77]
Resource smoothening Resource leveling

Infinite resources Limited resources
Project completion time does Project completion time may
not vary increase
Activities are shifted to total
Activities are shifted to Total
float, if more resources are
float, extra resources are
needed, the duration of some
provided from outside
activities may increase.
6.2 Inventory control

Lead time: Gap between placing an order and time for inventory on hand to be con-
sumed
Re-order point: The point at which an order must be made
Safety stock: The √
extra inventory to protect against unexpected stock outs
Safety stock = K × Average consumption during lead time.
Seasonal inventory
Anticipatory inventory
Decoupling inventory
Transit or pipeline inventory
Direct inventory: Inventories that are directly a part f production and become a part
of the final product.
Ex: Raw materials, In process inventories, Purchased parts, Finished goods
Inventory review system

P system Q system
Fixed order system Fixed period system
Two bin system Periodic review system
Reorder system
Ordering cost increases Safety stock increases
Qave increases
Holding cost increases
Single order Single order
Single inventory Multiple inventory
For perishable items
Fixed order quantity system Periodic review system

Order quantity is fixed Re-order data is fixed
Order is made when the inventory Re-order quantity depends on the size
reaches re-order point of inventory at the time of order
Suitable when carrying cost is Suitable when carrying cost is
measurable and significant insignificant
Preferred when supplier has a Supplier will supply only on fixed
minimum order quantity restriction dates
Suitable for A class items B and C class items
also called Fixed internal syatem
SS-System: Optimum order
Fixed order system
Fixed Order is placed when inventory falls to a fixed value
-Order size is fixed
-Order time is variable
Fixed period system
Periodically inventory is replenished
-Order size is not fixed
-Order time is fixed
Price break model

DDLT: Demand during lead time
Inventory cost
Order cost = Number of orders × Cost per order (Co )
Setup cost = Number of setups × Cost per setup
Purchase cost = Number of units × Unit cost
Holding/carrying cost = Average inventory level × Carrying cost per piece per unit time
(Cc )
Shortage/stock-out cost = Average shortage × Shortage cost per piece per unit time
6.2.1 Service level model

Number of units supplied without delay
Service level =
Number of units Demanded
Service level = 1-Probability of stock out
CC Q
Service level factor = 1 −
CS D
CU S
Service level =
CU S + COS
COS
Stockout risk=
CU S + COS
CUS=SP-CP
COS=CP-Rebate
6.2.2 Economic Order Quantity / Harris-Wilson model

D D: Annual demand
Ordering cost = Co Co : Ordering cost per order
Q
Q Q: Number of pieces ordered
Carrying cost = Cc Cc : Carrying cost per piece
2
D Q Cu : Unit price
Total Cost= Co + Cc + DxCu
Q 2 TVC: Total Variable cost
D OS: Optimum shortage
Number of orders per year =
Q p: production rate
Avg inventory cost d: depletion rate
Inventory Turnover =
cost of goods sold
Situation Equations
r
Without Shortage 2DCo
Q=
instant production Cc
√
TVC= 2DCo Cc
r
2DCo p
r
Production model Q=
Cc − d)
(p r
√ (p − d)
TVC= 2DCo Cc
p
r r
2DCo (Cc + Cs )
With shortage Q=
Cc rCs
√ Cs
TVC= 2DCo Cc
r r Cs + Cc
2DCo Cc
OS=
Cc (Cc + Cs )
Model sensitivity
Q∗

T V C(Q) 1 Q
= +
T V C(Q∗ ) 2 Q∗ Q
Demand-profit / Static inventory
perishable items
6.2.3 Inventory classification and control

ABC
Always Better Control
A is more important than B than C
A: Small quantity large price, small inventory, frequent review, frequently ordered in
small quantity
C: Large quantity, small price, large inventory, reviewed rarely
www.eggsam.com 6.3. FORECASTING [80]
-70-90-100
-Vital few to Trivial many
-Consumption analysis
HML
High Medium Low
-based on the unit price of the product
VED
Vital Essential Desirable
-Based on importance of the product
SDE
Scarce Difficult Easy
-Based on availability
XYZ
Based on inventory value
X: Items with high inventory value
Z: Items with low inventory value
FNSD
Fast Normal Slow Dead moving items
Based on the speed of usage of items
EOQ : Economic order quantity

EBQ : Economic Batch Quality
Cost of goods sold
Inventory turnover ratio =
Cost of average inventory
6.3 Forecasting
6.3.1 Qualitative methods
Educated Guess
Based on a person’s judgment based on experience and intuition
Delphi method
Panel of experts
Questionnaires are used.
Long range
For new product, technology, changes in society,...
Survey of sale force

Survey of customers
Historical analogy
www.eggsam.com 6.3. FORECASTING [81]
Market research
Market trial
6.3.2 Quantitative methods

SimplePaverage Method
Ft+1 = t1=t+1−n Di
D: Actual demand
Weighted
Pt moving average F: Forecasted demand
Ft+1 = 1=t+1−n Wi Di
Exponential smoothing
Ft = Ft−1 + α(Dt−1 − Ft−1 )
Ft = Ft−1 + α(error)
Linear Regression
Σy = na + bΣx
Σxy = aΣx + bΣx2
y = a + bx
(Yc − Ȳ )2
P
2
Coefficient of determination r = P
(Y − Ȳ )2
Coefficient of correlation =r
Least squares technique

Exponential smoothing with trend
Double moving average method
6.3.3 Error
n
(Dt − Ft )2
P
1
Mean Square Error MSE=
n n
P
|Dt − Ft |
1
Mean Absolute Deviation MAD =
n
n
P
(Dt − Ft )
1
Bias =
n n
P
(Dt − Ft )
Cumulated deviation 1
Tracking signal = =
M AD M AD
Bias × n
Tracking signal =
M AD √
Upper limit for tracking signal =3 M SE
www.eggsam.com 6.4. BREAK EVEN ANALYSIS [82]
6.4 Break even analysis

At break even point,
Fixed cost F
N= =
Selling price - Variable cost per piece S−V
F: Fixed cost
S: Selling price
V: Variable cost per piece
F +P
To get profit P, Np =
S−V
Angle of incidence: Angle at which total sales line cuts total cost line
Contribution margin= Total sales - Total variable cost
Margin of safety= Output at full capacity - BEP output
6.5 Queueing theory

Kendall’s Notation
A/D/N : P/S/C
A : Arrival Pattern (Arrival distribution)
D : Departure Pattern (Service distribution)
N : Number of servers
P : Priority rule
S : System Capacity
C : Calling population
Arrivals are Poisson distributed

Service time is negative exponential distributed
Balking: Some customers leave without joining the queue

Reneging: Leaves the queue after being in the queue for some time due to impatience
or any other reason.
System: Queue + The person being served

www.eggsam.com 6.6. LINEAR PROGRAMMING [83]
Mean arrival rate : λ
Mean service rate : µ

Inter arrival time : a(T ) = λe−λt
1
Mean Inter arrival time :
λ
1
Variance Inter arrival time : 2
λ
Traffic intensity factor / utilization factor / : ρ = λ
channel efficiency µ
Probability of system being empty : P0 = 1 − ρ
Probability of N customers in the system : PN = (1 − ρ)ρN
−λt
ne
Probability of n customers in the queue : P n (t) = (λt)
n
N
Probability of queue size being ≥ N : ρ
λ2
Length of queue : Lq = Ls ρ =
µ(µ − λ)
Ls λ
Time in queue : Wq = = Ws ρ =
λ µ(µ − λ)
ρ λ
Length of system : Ls = = = Lq + ρ
1−ρ µ−λ
Ls 1
Waiting time in system : Ws = =
λ µ−λ
Expected waiting time of one who has to wait : Ws
1
Expected length of non empty queue :
1−ρ
ρ
Variance of queue length :
1−ρ
R∞
Probability of waiting time in queue ≥ W : w λ(1 − ρ)e−(µ−λ)w dw
R∞
Probability of waiting time in queue ≤ W : w λ(1 − ρ)e−(µ−λ)w dw
6.6 Linear Programming

Feasible region is convex
Decision variables: The stuff we want to find
Objective function: Equation that shows relationship between the decision objective and
decision variables
Simplex method
n!
Maximum number of iterations ≤ or n Cm
(n − m)!m!
www.eggsam.com 6.7. TRANSPORTATION [84]
Basic Variables RHS Ratio
Z Entering variable
Basic ↓
variables
Pivot element →Leavingvariable
Feasible solution: Any values of the basic variable that obey the constraints
Unique solution: The number of zeros = number of basic variables
Multiple solution: Number of zeros > number of basic variables
Unbounded solution: All numbers in replacement ratio column is negative or infinite
No solution: Artificial variable remains in the final solution
Degenerate solution: One or more basic variable becomes zero.
6.7 Transportation
Degeneracy: Occupied cells < m+n-1
6.7.1 Initial solution

Northwest corner rule
Least cost cell method
Vogel’s approximation method VAM (Penalty method)
6.7.2 Optimality test

Stepping stone method
Modified Distribution Method MODI

ui + vj = cij , For occupied cells
∆ij = cij − (ui + vj ), For unoccupied cells
If all ∆ij > 0, Optimum unique solution
If ∆ij ≥ 0, Optimum non-unique solution
If any ∆ij < 0, Not Optimum solution
Find the cell with most negative ∆ij value.
Draw te closed loop.
Put + and -, and reallocate
Repeat
6.8 Assignment
Hungarian method
www.eggsam.com 6.9. WORK STUDY [85]
6.9 Work study

Time study and method study
Method study
SREDIM
Select: Select the problem, man to solve the problem, machine to solve the problem,
material, working conditions
Record: Record facts
Examine: Examine recorded facts
Develop: Develop most efficient alternative
Install: Implement the plan and install the alternative
Maintain: Maintain the new system
Operation
Inspection
Transport
D Delay
5 Storage
Micro-motion study
Therbling: Micro-motions
Observed time: Actual time taken

Actual available time
Observed Time OT =
No. of units to be produced
Normal time: Time taken by normal worker in normal time
Normal time = OT × Performance rating factor
For machines, NT = OT
Standard time = NT + Allowances (ST =1.2 NT if data is not available)
6.10 Scheduling and loading

Scheduled date - Today’s date
Critical ratio=
Days needed to finish the job
Earliest Due date (EDD) Reduces mean tardiness
Shortest processing time (SPT)Reduces inventory cost, mean flow time, mean lateness
Tardiness is the positive lateness
Job flow time: Time from starting to end of a job
Make Span Time(MST): Time from first job to the end of the second job
Tardiness or lateness: Delay in the job
www.eggsam.com 6.11. LINE BALANCING [86]
Shortest processing time

SPT Reduces Inventory cost, mean flow
time, mean lateness,
EDD Earliest Due Date

Reduces mean tardiness
Critical ratio rule
CR Due date
CR=
Processing time
STR Slack time remaining
Due date - Processing time
6.11 Line Balancing

To reduce idle time
Task time Ti : Time to complete a work element
Station time TS : Time in a work station
Total work content (TWC): Time to complete one set of job
n: number of workstations
Cycle time TC : Time between two products
Total idle time nTC − T W C
Balance delay(BD): = × 100
Total time in assembly nTC
WTC
Line efficiency/ balance efficiency= × 100=100-BD
nTC
pP
Smoothness index = (max station time − ith station time)2
TWC
Minimum number of work stations required= = Theoretical number of work
TC
stations
time to assemble one unit
ηTheoretical =
Theoretical no of work stations x cycle time
Σti
ηactual = 100
yc
y=actual number of work stations
Balance delay=100-η
6.12 Material Requirement planning

MRP : Materials requirement planning
CRP : Capacity requirement planning
MPS: Complete timetable of future production. Decides which, how much and when to
produce.
Advantages of MRP
Reduce inventory
Decides when and how much to order
help to avoid delay in production
expected delivery time
Chapter 7
Material Science
Strength Strength to resist external load without failure.

Stiffness Stiffness to resist elastic deformation
Toughness Ability to absorb energy before fracture
Resilience Ability to absorb energy without permanent deformation
Proof resilience Energy stored up to elastic limit
Hardness Hardness to resist indentation
Elasticity Ability to regain shape after deformation
Plasticity Ability to stay deformed after deformation
Ductility Ability to elongate under tension (% reduction in area)
Malleability Ability to deform under compressive force. (use a mallet)
Brittleness Ability to break with relatively less plastic deformation
Creep Time dependent increasing deformation under constant load
Fatigue Material behavior under repeated load
Machinability Easiness of machining
87
www.eggsam.com 7.1. TESTS [88]
7.1 Tests
Test name Details
Tensile testing On universal testing machine
Compression
On universal testing machine
test
Measures fracture toughness
Izod Test Sample is fixed at one end and the other end is free
Non-uniform stress
Measures fracture toughness with better accuracy
Charpy Test
Sample is fixed at both the ends
Herbert
A shower of metal balls
cloudburst
To find defects
Hardness test
Spiral test Fluidity
Cupping test Formability
Dye penetrant
To find surface defects
method
To find hardenability
Jominy end
Austenite to martensite
quench test
50% - 50% Pearlite and martensite, Jominy distance
√
Gauge length =5.65 A0
www.eggsam.com 7.1. TESTS [89]
Hardness Tests
Test name Details
A qualitative test
Mho Test/ Scratch
Used as a preliminary test
Test
Used for Low-medium-high hard materials
Used for Medium hard materials
Indenter: Spherical, d=10mm
P=50-120kg
Brinell Hardness Test 2P
BHN = √
πD(D − D2 − d2 )
UTS=3.6 × BHN, for normalized plain carbon steels
UTS=3.2 × BHN, for tempered plain carbon steels
Applicable to all types
Indenter: 120o diamond cone (brail)
Rock Well Test P=1-150kg
1
Hardness ∝
t
For Medium hard materials
Indenter: 136o diamond square pyramid
Vickers Test P=50-120kg
1.854P
V HN =
davg
davg : Average diagonal indentation
For Low hard materials (Si, Ge, Ga, As,...)
Knoop Test / Micro 177o Bi-pyramidal base indenter
Hardness test P=1-1000g
KHN = 14.22P/L2
For soft plastic, thermo plastic, rubber, thin sheets ...
Shore Method
Diamond tipped indenter (hammer) in a glass tube
Shore’s Scleroscope
Height of reboundness ∝ hardness
For hard plastics, thermosets, composites,...
Barcol Method
Spring reading
P : Load at which indentation is produced
D: Diameter of indenter
d: Diameter of indentation
www.eggsam.com 7.2. PLASTICS [90]
Non-destructive testing
Visual inspection
Hang the casting in the air
Hammer test Gently strike with a
hammer and listen to the
sound
Radiography x-rays and γ rays
Defects that are open to
Liquid penetrant test the surface
Die penetrant test
Ultra-Sonic inspection
Hardness
Diamond > Silicon > Quartz > Topaz > Feldspar > Apatite > Fluorite > Calcite >
Gypsum > talcum
Ductility
Al > Cu > Zn > Mild steel
Elastic failure
Necking → Formation of small cavities → Cavities combine together → crack propaga-
tion → Fracture (Cup-cone)
7.2 Plastics
Thermoplastics Thermosetting plastics
Become soft on heating Becomes hard on heating
Recyclable Non-recyclable
Cyclic structure
Linear structure
addition polymerization
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Epoxy
Polypropylene(PP) Polyester
Polyethylene(PE) Phenol formaldehyde(Bakelite)
Polystyrene(PS)
Poly Tetra Fluoro Ethylene
(PTFE, TEFLON)
Acrylic
Molecular mass
Degree of polymerization =
mer mass
www.eggsam.com 7.2. PLASTICS [91]
Volume of crystal region

Degree of crystallization fc =
Total volume of specimen
Conformation:A single polymer chain can take different 3D shapes. Makes polymers soft.
Glass transition temperature: Reversible transition in amorphous materials from
hard and brittle to soft rubbery state.
Thermoset resins
Compression moulding
Transfer moulding
Injection moulding
Linear polymers v/s the other thing
Fiber reinforced plastic

Thermosetting plastics + glass fiber
Anisotropic
Condensation polymerization
Produces water or ammonia as by-product
www.eggsam.com 7.3. CERAMICS [92]
ABS Terpolymer
Polyethyene Addition polymerization
Polycarbonate Addition polymerization
Polystyrene Addition polymerization
Polyamide Natural (proteins) and artificial (Nylon)
Poly propylene Excellent fatigue strength
PTFE Low coefficient of friction
PVC Synthetic polymer, pipes, bottles,...
PMMA Poly Methyl Methacrylate
Polyether ether ketone,
PEEK bearings, piston parts, pumps, High-performance liquid
chromatography columns, compressor plate valves, and electrical
cable insulation.
Nylon Fabrics
Polyurethene Low-density flexible foam
Cyano-acrylate Adhesives
Neoprene Oil seal
Bakelite Electric switches
Araldite Adhesive
SBR Styrene buta diene rubber , Tyres
Kevlar Bullet proof vests
7.3 Ceramics
Extremely brittle
High thermal stability
High chemical stability
Corrosion resistance
High hardness
Silica (SiO2 )
Alumina
www.eggsam.com 7.4. CRYSTAL STRUCTURE AND DEFECTS [93]
Tungsten carbide Drawing dies

Silicon nitride Pipes for conveying liquid metal
Aluminum oxide Abrasive wheels
Silicon carbide Heating elements
Fast cooling of silica gives Glass
Very slow cooling for silica gives quartz
Devitrification of glass: The process of changing from amorphous to crystal over time
Glass transition temperature: The temperature where silica during quenching is neither
liquid nor solid. Depends on cooling rate.
Static fatigue: Fails on the same static load after some time
Crystal structures of ceramics
AX-Type: Number of cations=number of anions (NaCl)
CeCl- Structure: one iron at center like BCC.
Zinc Blende structure: tetrahedral
Metallic glass
Very fast cooling of metal
Used in transformer cores to reduce eddy current loss
Metals
-Has free electrons
7.4 Crystal structure and defects

Natoms Vatoms
Atomics Packing factor AP F =
Vunit call
Crystal Systems
Cubic a=b=c α = β = γ = 90o
Rhombohedral a=b=c α = β = γ 6= 90o
Tetragonal a=b6=c α = β = γ = 90o
Orthorhombic a6=b6=c α = β = γ = 90o
Hexagonal a=b6=c α = β = 90o , γ = 120o
Monoclinic a6=b6=c α = γ = 90o , β 6= 90o
Triclinic a6=b6=c α 6= β 6= γ 6= 90o
Crystal structure Natoms APF CN Example

Simple cube 1 0.52 6 Polonium
BCC 2 0.68 8 Cr, Mo, V, W, Mn, Ta, Nb, Na
FCC 4 0.74 12 Cu, Al, Pb, Ag, Au, α−Fe, Ca, Ni, Pt
HCP 6 0.74 12 Graphite, Be, Mg, Zn, Cd, Ti, Zr
Diamond 8 0.34 4
CN: Coordination number
For an ideal HCP crystal structure, height/side = 1.633

Directions
Plane-()
Line -[] " #
h1 h2 + k1 k2 + l1 l2
Angle between lines θ = cos−1 p 2 p
h1 + k12 + l12 h22 + k22 + l22
Linear density
Number of effective atoms in the unit length in the given direction
Planar density
Number of effective atoms in the unit area of the given plane
Burger’s Vector
|~b| = 0: No defect
|~b| = 1: Point defect
|~b| =>: Line defect
7.4.1 Point Defects

Effect on
Name Reason Notes
strength
Vacancy Atom goes missing Reduces
Atom moves from lattice site to Ex: doping in
Displacement No change
another semiconductors
Foreign atom occupies a lattice
Substitution point.
No change Chromium in steel
inclusion Diameter of foreign atom ≈
Diameter of lattice atom
Foreign atom occupies
interstitial positions.
Interstitial Diameter of foreign atom<< Addition of carbon to
Increases
inclusion Diameter of lattice atom. iron
Valency of impurity > Valency
of lattice atom
Seen in ionic crystals.
Frenkel Lattice atom (cation) goes to Slight
Ex: Silver halides,
defect interstitial position change
CaF2
Schottkey pair of atoms missing. No Seen in ionic crystals
Reduces
defect change in charge of crystal. Ex: Alkali halides
Line defects
Edge dislocation Screw dislocation
Glide and climb Glide
Dislocation lines are perpendicular to
Lies parallel to burger’s vector
Burger’s vector
Direction of movement of edge dislocation is Direction of movement is perpendicular to
in the direction of Burger’s vector Burger’s vector
Movement of edge dislocation is fast Movement of dislocation is slow
Explains plastic deformation and crystal
Explains plastic deformation
growth
Less shear force is required to make this High shear force is required to make this
defect defect
Tensile, compressive and shear stress fields
Only shear stress field is present
can be present
Termination of atomic plane in the middle
Will change surface properties significantly
of a crystal
Whisker
Movement of atomic planes is translation +
rotation
7.4.2 Surface defects

Grain Boundary defect
Tilt boundary defect
Twin boundary defect
7.4.3 Volume defects

Stacking faults
7.4.4 Plastic deformation

Plastic deformation by slip
-Occurs by pure shear stress
-One atomic plane moves with respect to the bottom plane under the effect of a tangential
force.
-Line defect or planar defect
-Usually in BCC or FCC
-Less stress is required to propagate slip
www.eggsam.com 7.5. ALLOYS [97]
-Appear as thin lines in microscope

Ex: Forging
OOOO OOOO
O O O O −→ O O O O
OOOO OOOO
OOOO OOOO
Plastic deformation by twinning

-Surface defect
-Lattice splits
-Force applied at an angle
-Usually in HCP
-Twinned crystal lattice is mirror image of the original
-More stress than slip is required
-Less stress is required to propagate twinning
-Appear as thick lines in microscope
Grain boundaries restricts the motion to dislocation. It makes the material stronger.
Permanent deformation in metal or alloy is caused by movement of dislocations.
Amorphous solids
No regular arrangement of atoms
No sharp melting point
7.5 Alloys
Hume Rothary rules/Conditions
Difference in atomic radius of both atoms must be less than 15%
Valency of both the atoms should be same
Electro-negativity and electron affinity of both the atoms should be compatible
Atoms at grain boundary has more energy. So oxygen attacks there and causes cor-
rosion.
Chromium reacts with oxygen to produce Cr2 O3 , this gets in grain boundaries and pre-
vent corrosion by blocking oxygen
Weld decay: Corrosion at welded parts due to lack of Cr2 O3 , due to formation of
Chromium carbide during welding
Corsing or Miscibility gap: Due to sudden cooling, no time for diffusion, so concen-
tration gradient, causes cracks on hot working
Ni is added to stabilize austenite phase
Cr is added to stabilize ferrite phase
Carbon equivalent = %C + 31 %(Si+P)
Effect of alloying elements in CI

Element Effect
Steels → Cast iron
Carbon Ductility ↓
Brittleness ↑
Chromium Carbide stabilizer, increases strength and wear-resistance
Copper Promotes formation of graphite
Increases ductility
Magnesium Increases strength in tension
Nodular CI can be obtained from Grey CI with addition of Mg
Hardens to CI by promoting carbide formation
To remove the effects of Sulphur
Manganese Produces MnS with high melting point
Increases machinability
Further addition of Mn increases strength of material
12% Mn material called Hadfied steel
Molybdenum Improves tensile strength, toughness, machinability hardenability
Nickel Graphitiser, resists corrosion
Phosphorus Increases fusibility and fluidity

Increases brittleness
Soft and Machinable iron
Kish (Carbon comes out of red hot CI)
Silicon Increases carbon equivalent
Fe-C Phase diagram shifts left
Promotes graphite flake formation, improves machinability
Increases fluidity of molten metal
FeS, Hard and Brittle (0.1%)
Sulphur Causes Brittle failure on hot working
Hot-shortness or Sulphor embrittlement
Mn is added to get ride of sulphur
Vanadium Increases machinability
Iron ores
Magnetite F e3 O4
Hematite F e2 O3
Alloying of steel
Aluminum To make fine grain structure and control growth

De-oxidizer
Boron Increases hardenability
Carbon Increases strength, elasticity and hardness. Reduces ductility and

impact strength
Chromium Increases hardness, corrosion resistance and toughness
Cobalt increases ferrite and increases red hardness
Increases tensile strength
Copper Increases yield strength
Anti-corrosive agent
Lead Machinability
Removes S
Manganese Acts as de-oxidizing agent
Increases strength and hardness
Molybdenum Forms abrasion resistant particles

Improves creep properties, tensile strength and hardenability
Nickel Increases toughness, corrosion resistance, shock resistance and

deep hardening
Reduce toughness
Increases brittleness
Phosphorus coldshortness
Increases tensile strength
Reduces impact strength and ductility
Increase machinability
Removes oxygen to produce killed steel
Silicon reduces chance of becoming porous
Graphitization
Sulphor Improves machinability
Tungsten Increase hot hardness
Deoxidizes
Fine grain structure
Vanadium Increases fatigue strength
Increases tensile strength in MCS
Increases hot hardness
Presence of hydrogen in steel: Embrittlement
High strength low alloy steel

Cu, V, Ni, Mo
Copper improves corrosion resistance by 3 times that of chromium

Vanadium increases hardness and promotes fine grain structure
Ni increases tendency to retain austenite
Mo resists corse grain formation and increases hot hardness
Free cutting steel

High machinability
Sulphur (upto 0.05%) improves surface finish
Phosphorous (upto 0.05%) reduces brittleness
Lead (2-4%) (Adition of Lead beyond 4% reduces melting point)
Tool steel
Steel Alloys
Cr: Reduces scaling
18% W or Mo
V: Abrasion resistance
HSS 4% Cr
Tungston: Hot hardness
1% V
Mo: Hardenability
0.67% C
Co: Hot hardness and wear resistance
High wear resistance
Hadfield Manganese steel ≈13% Ma High toughness
Bulldozer blades
Magnet steel 15-40% Co

Magnets
0.4-10% W
18/8 Stainless steel 18% Cr

Knives, Forks, spoons
8% Ni
Admiralty metal Cu,Zn, Sn Corrosion-resistant

Used in brass/bronze bearing to increase wear
Babbit 88% Sn
resistance
Cu, Pb, Sb
Good embedability
Bronze 88% Cu
Utensils, bearings, bushes, wires,...
12% Tin
Brass Cu
Musical instruments
Zn
Catridge brass 70% Cu

Ductile
30% Zn
Chromel 90% Ni
Thermocouple
10% Cr
Constantan 55% Cu
Thermocouple
45% Ni
Duralumin 94% Al
Cooking utensils, tubes, rivets, sheets,...
4% Cu
German silver nickel, zinc,

and copper.
88% Cu
Gun metal 10% Sn Bearings, Bushes, beam glands,...
2% Zn
75% Ni Oxidation and corrosion resistant
Inconel 15% Cr Suited for in extreme environments subjected to
9% Fe pressure and heat.
Invar Ni Negligible thermal expansion

Fe Clocks and scientific instruments.
Imitation gold Aluminum Bronze
Lead/Solder Lead, Tin Soldering
63-70% Ni
Monel metal 2.5% Fe Corrosion resistance in salt water, valve parts for super
2% Mn heated stream, turbine blades, pumps,...
Si, C, S, Cu
>50% nickel
Nimonic alloy >20% Cr Gas turbine blades
Ti, Al
Phosphor Bronze P < 0.1% Bearings
Sialon Si,Al,O,N Cutting tool
Stellite Mo, Co, Cr Saw teeth, Valves
www.eggsam.com 7.6. PHASE DIAGRAMS [102]
7.6 Phase diagrams

System: the portion of the universe that is being studied
Phase: Chemically uniform, physically distinct and mechanically separable portion of s
system.
Allotropy: Property of some chemical elements to exist in two or more different forms
in the same physical state
Isomorphism: The existence of same phase in Liquid and solid
Invariant points
At these points, the physical variables like temperature, pressure, concentration, etc are
fixed
Ex: Triple point, Eutectic point,...
Triple point of water: 0.006atm and 0.01o C
Unary phase diagram: Has only one component. Example: water

Binary phase diagram: Has two components
Binary phase of first kind

Completely soluble in liquid and solid phase
Ex: Ni-Cu
Binary phase diagram of type 2

Completely soluble in liquid phase, partially soluble in solid phase
Ex: Pb-Sn
Liquidus: The line between Mushy zone and liquid

Solidus: the line between Mushy zone and solid
Lever rule
cs − c0
ml =
cs − cl
c0 − cl
ms =
cs − cl
Phase rule F=C-P+2
P: Number of phases
C: Number of components
F: DOF
1150o C
Eutectic Liquid *
) Solid1 +Solid2 Liquid 4.3%C *
) γ + Fe3 C
1493o C Due to large
Peritectic Liquid + Solid1 *
) Solid2 L + δ0.18%C *
) γ
difference in MP
723o C
Eutectoid Solid *
) Solid1 +Solid2 γ0.8%C *
) α + Fe3 C
Peritectoid Solid1 +Solid2 *
) Solid3
Monotectic Liquid *
) Liquid1 +Solid2
Curie Point
-no change in crystal structure.
-Magnetic properties are changing
Ferro magnetism
Sometimes paramagnetic and sometimes diamagnetic
Name Properties
FCC
Solid solution of Ferrite+Iron carbide
non-magnetic
Austenite (γ) in gamma iron
soft
Mn, Ni, Si are austenitic stabilizers
Not stable below 725o C
BCC
Highly magnetic
Ferrite δ, α 0.02% Carbon
soft
Ductile
BCC
δ 0.1% Carbon
1410o - 1540o
Orthorhombic
Cementite Extremely hard and brittle Fe3 C , 6.67% Carbon,
Magnetic below 200o C
α +Fe3 C
Pearlite Ferrite(87%)+Cementite Phase mixture
(13%)
Ledeburite Austenite+Cementite 4.3% carbon Mix
cooled slower than the rate required to
Hard form martensite but faster than the
Bainite
Brittle rate that would be required to form
pearlite.
Ferrite + Cementite
Martensite Hardest and brittle
Rapid cooling of HCS
Lower hardness and Formed by heat treatment of
Troosite
brittleness than martensite martensite
Lower hardness and
Sorbite Formed by heating martensite
brittleness than troosite
> 6.67%C or slightly less Machine beds, Piston

But actually 2.4-4% rings, Ingots, moulds,
Gray Cast Iron Brittle Obtained by Slow cooling pistons, machine
Carbon in graphite flake form acts castings, automobile
as lubricants and damper cylinders
6.67%C
Very hard Carbon in form of cementite Rolls, dies wearing
White cast iron
Brittle Obtained by rapid cooling plates, stamping shoes
Does not rust easily
valve bodies, hinges,
Malleable CI Hard, Brittle Carbon in combined form
machine castings
Rapid cooled to be white instead of Camshafts, crankshafts,
Chilled CI Hard
gray railway wheel
Produced through heat treatment. parts subjected to
Spheroidal CI Heat treat chilled CI in presence of vibration and bending,
Ductile
Ductile iron Mg or Ce just below 1150o C and Pipe fittings(elbow, tee,
slow cooling union,...)
Nodular CI Carbon in rosette form
Mechanite CI High strength
Easily machinable camshaft, crankshaft
Meehanite CI Ductile
99% iron
Tough,
Wrought iron Does not melt on heating Gates, Eiffel tower
malleable
Becomes soft on heating
Low carbon steel <0.3% C

Medium carbon steel 0.3%<0.7% C
High carbon steel >0.7% C
Mild steel Screw driver
Tool steel Blanking dies, Ball bearings
Medium carbon steel Crane hooks
High carbon steel Commercial beams
www.eggsam.com 7.7. HEAT TREATMENT [106]
Weakly attracted in external magnetic

Paramagnetic Colourful field
Unpaired electrons Small positive magnetic susceptibility
Ex: Alkalies, Alkaline earths,...
Weakly repelled in external magnetic
Diamagnetic Colourless field
Paired electrons Small negative magnetic susceptibility
Ex: Cu, Ag, Au, Bi
All dipoles in same direction
Strong attraction to magnetic fields
Ferromagnetic Dipoles in same
Strongly magnetized in external fields
direction
Large positive magnetic susceptibility
Ex: Fe, Co, Ni
Anti-ferromagnetism Dipoles in alternate

Colombium
directions
Ferrimagnetic Ferromagnetic+
Anti-ferromagnetic
7.7 Heat treatment

Time Temperature Transformation (TTT)
C-curve
S-curve
Bain’s curve
For stability ∆G > 0
All lines on TTT diagram shows decomposition of austenite into some other structure.
It cannot be reconverted.
Adding impurity shifts TTT diagram towards right
CCR: critical cooling rate, it just touches the nose of TTT diagram
Any cooling rate ≥ CCR will not produce pearlite
But produces martensite
colloidal solution of carbon or ferrite in iron
hardest phase of iron
Quench below nose of TTT Austenite → Bainite (100%)

Austempering but above martensite start Ductility, impact strength and
line (220o C ), hold it toughness increases
Quench below nose of TTT
but above martensite start
Martempering line, hold it, move to room Austenite → Martensite
temperature
Quenching in two medium
Reduce Hardness
Increase ductility
Annealing Heat austenite temperature and cool slowly
Improve machinability
in furnace
Relieve internal stresses
Refine grain size
Heat steel to 50o C to 70o C above the upper
critical temperature, Hold there, Slowly
Reduce
cool in furnace.
Full Annealing Hardness/brittleness
In hypoeutectoid steels, Austenite becomes
Increase
coarse pearlite and ferrite structures.
ductility/toughness
In hyper eutectoid steels, Austenite →
Pearlite+Cementite
To remove effects of cold
Process Annealing Heating below lower critical temperature,
working (relieve stress)
usually used in low carbon steels
Make soft
To increase machinability
Spheroidise annealing Heat near lower critical temperature, slow
in MC or HC steels
cooling in furnace
Increases ductility
To make uniform
Diffusion annealing 1150o C and slow cooling
composition
homogenizing
Usually done after welding
Final heat treatment process

Normalizing 40-50o C above Austenite is To make hard surface and tough core
stable, Hold it, cool in air
Heat to austenite temperature,
hold, quench in water, oil, or
molten salt baths. (Equal to or Martensite formed
Hardening
greater than critical cooling rate) Very hard, brittle
30-50o C above critical
temperature
Hardening is followed by
Relieve residual stresses
tempering.
Tempering improve ductility
Heat to below lower critical
increase toughness
temperature, hold, cool slowly
High temperature
(500-o C 650o C ) makes sorbite
tempering
Medium tempertaure
(350o C - 500o C ) makes troosite, used in making springs
tempering
No structural change, only stress
Low temperature relief, used for making agricultural
(250o C )
tempering tools and metrology stuff
Widmanstatten structure
Case hardening Make surface hard
On the surface
Using free carbon
Mild steel
Carbon monoxide
Carburizing Pack carburizing:
Methane
Liquid carburizing
NaCN
gas carburizing
NH3
Nitriding
Cynaniding NaCN
<3000o C Carburizing
Flame hardening Guideways of lathe 3150o C Neutral
3480o C Oxydizing
Induction hardening To harden surface
Hardness order
Nitriding > Cyaniding > Carburizing
Brine < Water +NaOH < Water < Oil < Air
Cooling rate
Air < Oil < Water < Brine
Age hardening or Precipitation hardening

www.eggsam.com 7.8. NANOMATERIALS [109]
-for Al alloys
Overaging (coarsening of precipitate particles)
Artificial aging
The iron-carbon diagram is determined under equilibrium and TTT curve is determined
under nonequilibrium condition.
The main purpose of spheroidising treatment is to improve machinability of high carbon
steel.
The martensitic transformation is a process of shear, that occurs without any need for
diffusion so there will be no change in composition in this process.
7.8 Nanomaterials
At least one dimension less than 100nm
Zero size: Particles
One dimensional: only one large dimension
Two dimension: sheets
Three dimension: Cubes
Manufacturing
Top-down approach
Bulk material is converted to nano
Mechanical grinding,atomization
Bottom-top approch
Atoms combine to produce nano
Sol-gel technique
Physical/Chemical vapor deposition
7.9 Misc
Cottrell atmosphere: Due to diffusion, the interstitial Carbon gets accumulated in
dislocation sites in iron. (More energy is needed to break it and it causes upper yield
point)
Bauschinger effect:Unload the materials from the region of work hardening- reverse-
load again, Tensile yield strength increases, compressive decreases
Nitrizing produces harder materials than carburizing.
Strain hardening
σf = Kn
n: work hardening exponent (n=0.3 for steel, n= 0.05 for Al)
K: strength coefficient
at UTS = n
Usually 0 < n < 1
For perfectly plastic, n=0

Dislocation forest
Bauschinger Effect
Higher value of n means more dislocations

Cold working
below re-crystallisation temperature Strength and hardness of a cold worked component
increases
Ductility and toughness decreases
strain hardening is due to dislocation
Surface hardening
Shot blasting: For heavy material, steel balls
Shot peening: For small size material, manual hammering
Sand blasting: For thin material,
Hall-Patch Equation
K
σy = σ0 + √
d
σy : Yield strength
σ0 : Base strength of material
k: Constant
d: Grain diameter
Corrosion
Tin plated iron sheet: tin is anodic to iron
Galvanized: zinc is cathodic to iron
Chapter 8
Mechatronics and robotics
8.1 Microprocessors
Microprocessor is a controlling unit of a micro-computer, fabricated on a small chip ca-
pable of performing ALU (Arithmetic Logical Unit) operations and communicating with
the other devices connected to it.
Microprocessor consists of an ALU, register array, and a control unit.
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

All the computing functions are maintained in this unit. (+,-,*,/,%, AND, OR, NOT,
XOR, etc)
Control Unit (CU)

Coordinates and times the CPUs functions, and it uses the program counter to locate
and retrieve the next instruction from memory.
controls the data flow between microprocessor and peripheral devices/peripheral chips.
Registers
Store the data temporarily during the execution/runtime of the program
Memory
stores the information (data& instructions) in binary form.
Read Only Memory (ROM)
Stores items that the computer needs to execute when it is first turned on
Random Access Memory (RAM)
Stores user programs and datas temporarily. RAM is a volatile memory.
System Bus
1) Control bus
2) Data bus
3) Address bus
111
www.eggsam.com 8.2. MICROCONTROLLER [112]
8.1.1 Advantages of microprocessor

Small in size
Low Power Consumption
Versatility
high speed
high accuracy and reliability
used to perform multitask operations
8.1.2 Disadvantages of a Microprocessor

Highly sensitive to thermal and electric variations
Do not have internal memory(RAM&ROM)
Do not have input/output ports inside the microprocessor
No timers, interrupts inside the microprocessor
Make a system expensive even though microprocessor itself is cheep
Need interfacing components for functioning
8.1.3 Types
RISC: Reduced Instruction Set Computer
CISC: Complex Instruction Set Computer
8.2 Microcontroller
Microcontroller is integration of all microprocessor and input and memory other periph-
erals in a single chip.
Arduino is a microcontroller
Atmega: Microcontroller
8.2.1 Components
Central processing unit(CPU)
Random Access Memory)(RAM)
Read Only Memory(ROM)
Input/output ports
Timers and Counters
Interrupt Controls
Analog to digital converters
Digital analog converters
Serial interfacing ports
Oscillatory circuits
www.eggsam.com 8.2. MICROCONTROLLER [113]
8.2.2 Advantages of Microcontrollers

Acts like a microcomputer
Reduces cost and size of the system.
Simple to use
Easy to troubleshoot
Most of the pins are programmable
Easily interface additional RAM, ROM,I/O ports.
Low time required for performing operations.
8.2.3 Disadvantages of Microcontrollers

Complex architecture than that of microprocessors.
Only perform a limited number of executions simultaneously.
Mostly used in micro-equipments.
Cannot interface high power devices directly.
Microprocessors Microcontrollers
It is only a general purpose computer
It is a microcomputer itself
CPU
Memory, I/O ports, timers, interrupts All are integrated inside the
are not available inside the chip microcontroller chip
This must have many additional
Can function as a microcomputer
digital components to perform its
without any additional components.
operation
Systems become bulkier and Make the system simple, economic
expensive. and compact
Not capable for handling Boolean
Handling Boolean functions
functions
Higher accessing time required Low accessing time
Very few pins are programmable Most of the pins are programmable
Very few number of bit handling
Many bit handling instructions
instructions
Widely Used in modern PC and
Widely in small control systems
laptops
E.g. INTEL 8086,INTEL Pentium
INTEL8051,89960,PIC16F877
series
www.eggsam.com 8.3. STEPPER MOTOR [114]
8.3 Stepper motor

No of poles on stator
No of teeth on rotor ≥
2
-Three types
Variable reluctance type
Permanent magnet type
Hybrid type
8.3.1 Variable Reluctance type Stepper Motor

Stator acts as electromagnet
Stator pitch
-Angular separation between two successive poles
360o
θs =
Number of stator ploes
Rotor pitch
360o
θr =
Number of teeth on rotor
Full step angle
Angle of rotation of rotor when only one switch is activated
θf s = θr − θs
Half step angle
Rotation of rotor when two switches are activated
θf s
θhs =
2
8.3.2 Permanent magnet type Stepper motor

Stator is same as VRSM
Rotor is permanent magnet
Holding torque is high
Low speed, high torque
Consumes less power than VRSM
360o
Step angle =
no. rotor poles x no. of phases
Has the highest step angle
8.3.3 Servo motor

Closed loop control algorithm which makes comparator output zero.
Any motor in servo mechanism in servo motor
Also called control motors
8.3.4 Hybrid type Servo motor

Used where minimum step angle is needed
www.eggsam.com 8.4. OPTICAL ENCODER [115]
8.4 Optical encoder

Digital transducer to measure angle or position
Incremental encoder
Single track incremental encoder
360o
Resolution =
Number of holes
Multi track incremental encoder
Speed and direction can be measured
More resolution
Absolute encoder
Position known more accurately
360o
Resolution = N
2
8.5 Hall sensor

Based on hall effect
Hall effect: Voltage developed on the surface of a conductor/semi-conductor carrying a
current placed in a perpendicular magnetic field
Current density J = neAVd
Force acting on charge particle = q(V~d × B)
~ = eVd B
1 IB
VH =
ne t
IB
VH = K
t
K: Hall coefficient
8.6 Electromagnetic induction

dφ
V =
dt
Resolver
position sensor
Angular position, angular velocity
Produces analog output
Analog to digital converter required
Inductosyn
Position sensor
Linear and angular displacement
Based on electromagnetic induction
Piezoelectric accelerometer
Accelerometer
State space Representation
Controllability
www.eggsam.com 8.7. ACTUATORS [116]
determinant of controllability matrix non-zero

Observability
If we can calculate the state variables of a system at any particular time from the output
of the system, then it is observable
Determinant of observability matrix is non-zero
8.7 Actuators
Hydraulic actuators
Liquid pressure energy to mechanical power
Power = Pin Q
8.8 Robotics
The notations used follows Prof. Ashitava Ghosal ’s NPTEL course.
(https://nptel.ac.in/courses/112/108/112108093/)
Students are strongly advised to visit the course at least once OR read the book
https://www.amazon.in/Robotics-Fundamental-Concepts-Ashitava-Ghosal/dp/0195673913
Asimov’s three laws of robotics

• First law (Human safety):
A robot may not injure a human being, or, through inaction, allow a human being to
come to harm.
• Second law (Robots are slaves):
A robot must obey orders given it by human beings, except where such orders would
conflict with the First Law.
• Third law (Robot survival):
A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with
the First or Second Law.
Cartesian or Gantry robot(3P)

- Arm has three prismatic joints, whose axes are coincident with a Cartesian coordinator.
- Uses: pick and place work, application of sealant, assembly operations, handling ma-
chine tools and arc welding.
Cylindrical robot(R2P)
- Axes form a cylindrical coordinate system.
- Uses: assembly operations, handling at machine tools, spot welding, and handling at
die casting machines.
Spherical or Polar robot(2RP)

- It’s a robot whose axes form a polar coordinate system.
- Uses: handling machine tools, spot welding, die-casting, fettling machines, gas welding
and arc welding.
Articulated or Revolute or Anthropomorphic Robot(3R)

www.eggsam.com 8.8. ROBOTICS [117]
- It’s a robot whose arm has at least three rotary joints.

- Uses: assembly operations, die casting, fettling machines, gas welding, arc welding and
spray painting.
- Ex. PUMA560
SCARA robot(2R1P)
-Selective Compliant Assembly Robot Arm or Selective Compliant Articulated Robot
Arm.
- It’s a robot which has two parallel rotary joints to provide compliance in a plane
- Uses: pick and place work, application of sealant, assembly operations and handling
machine tools
- This is an example of a basic SCARA robot configuration.
- Note the three rotary joints and the single vertical joint used in this horizontally artic-
ulated configuration. (3R1P)
- Can move very fast.
- Best suited to planner task
Parallel robot
Used as a mobile platform handling cockpit flight simulators
PUMA
- Industrial robot.
- Programmable Universal Machine for Assembly, or Programmable Universal Manipu-
lation Arm
- Functions like a human arm.
- A total of 6 variables are required, for specifying the position and orientation of a rigid
body in space.
- PUMA has 6 axis of rotation
Transformation
 matrix
1 0 0
 
Rx =  0 cos θ − sin θ 
 
 
0 sin θ cos θ
 
cos θ sin θ 0
 
Ry = 
 
0 1 0 
 
− sin θ cos θ 0
 
cos θ − sin θ 0
 
Rz =  sin θ cos θ 0 
 
 
0 0 1
www.eggsam.com 8.9. TRANSDUCER [118]
 
Cθi −Sθi 0 ai−1
 
i−1[T ] =  Sθi Cαi−1 Cθi Cαi−1 −Sαi−1 −Sαi−1 di 
 
 
i  
 Sθi Sαi−1 Cθi Sαi−1 Cαi−1 Cαi−1 di 
 
0 0 0 1
Transformation based on current axis
0 0 1 2
3 [T ] =1 [T ]2 [T ]3 [T ]
Transformation based on a fixed axis
3 2 1 0
0 [T ] =3 [T ]2 [T ]1 [T ]
8.9 Transducer
The device which converts the one form of energy into another is known as the trans-
ducer.
Active transducer does not use any external power source for producing the output.
Passive transducer requires the additional energy source for working.
Piezoelectric transducer
d
V = tP
r 0
d
g=
r 0
t: Thickness of crystal
d: charge density of crystal
P: pressure on crystal
g: Voltage sensitivity of crystal
Photoelectric Transducer
Converts the light energy into electrical energy.
Made of semiconductor material. Photoemissive Cell
Photoconductive Cell
Photo-voltaic cell
Photodiode
photo-diode
Phototransistor
Chapter 9
Fluid Mechanics
9.1 Hydrostatics
1 Torr= 1mm Hg
1 bar=100kPa
1 poise=0.1Ns/ m 2
1 Stoke=10−4 m 2 / s
1kgf=9.81N
Mass
Density =
Volume
Weight
Specific weight =
Volume
1
Specific volume =
Density
Density
Specific gravity or relative density =
Density of standard fluid
Mean free path
Knudsen number Kn =
Characteristic length of flow
Kn < 0.01 : Continuous fluid
Kn > 0.01 : Continuum does not hold
Isothermal Compressibility (β)

1 dV 1
β=− =
V dP K
K: Bulk modulus of elasticity or Coefficient of compressibility
V dP ρdP
K=− =
dV dρ
K is a function of temperature and pressure
Surface tension (σ)

Unit: N/m
Due to cohesion
Surface tension of water-air interface σ = 0.073N/m
Tensiometer or Stalagmometer: surface tension measurement.
2σ
Excess pressure inside a jet of a liquid =
d
119
www.eggsam.com 9.1. HYDROSTATICS [120]
4σ
Excess pressure inside a drop =
d
8σ
Excess pressure inside a bubble =
d
Capillary raise/fall
Due to Cohesion and Adhesion
4σ cos θ
h=
ρgd
Buoyancy and floatation
Buoyant force = Volume immersed × density of fluid × g
I
Meta-centric height GM = − BG
V
I
Meta-centric radius BM =
V
V: Immersed volume s
K2
Period of rolling T = 2π
gGM
Increase in GM =⇒ Decrease in time period oscillation =⇒ Increase in stability =⇒
Decrease in comfort
Decrease in GM =⇒ Increase in time period oscillation =⇒ Decrease in stability =⇒
Increase in comfort
K: Radius of gyration about axis of rolling
I: Least area moment of inertia of the body at water surface
h: Position of Center of gravity from the surface
Equilibrium Floating object Submerged object

Stable equilibrium M above G B above G
Neutral equilibrium M and G coincide B and G coincide
Unstable equilibrium M below G G above B
Viscosity
du
Newton’s law of viscosity τ = µ
dy
µ
Kinematic Viscosity=
n ρ
∂u
τxy = A + µ
∂y
www.eggsam.com 9.1. HYDROSTATICS [121]
Name A µ n Examples
S Ideal Solid - - - -
T Thixotropic τyield µ <1 Printer ink, lipstick
B Bhingam Plastic τyield µ 1 Sewage sludge, tooth paste, drilling mud
R Rheopectic fluid τyield µ >1 Gypsum
P Pseudo Plastic 0 µ <1 Blood, milk, suspension paints, paper pulp
N Newtonian 0 µ 1 Air, water
D Dilatant fluid 0 µ >1 Butter, Rice starch, Sugar sol
I Ideal fluid 0 0 - -
Thixotropic and Rheopectic fluids have time dependent viscosity.
Bhingam plastic isalso called Ideal plastic
∂u ∂v
τxy = µ +
∂y ∂x
B/T
For Liquids µ = Ae √ (Andrade’s equation)
a T
For Gases µ = (Sutherland equation)
1 + b/T
A, B, a and b are constants.
T is absolute temperature
Rheology: Study of non-Newtonian fluids
Sound r r
K ∂P
Velocity of sound in fluid = =
ρ ∂ρ
9.1.1 Pressure (P)

Pascal’s law: For a stationary fluid, at a point, Px = Py = Pz
Force
Pressure P =
Area
Pressure at depth h, P = hρg
www.eggsam.com 9.2. KINEMATICS OF FLUID FLOW [122]
IGG sin2 θ
Center of pressure yp = h +
Ah
h : Center of gravity from surface
A : Area of the surface
IGG : Area moment of inertia about axis through CG, parallel to surface
θ : Angle of the surface with horizontal
Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Local atmospheric pressure
Net positive suction head P − Pv
Thoma’s cavitation number σc = 2
=
ρV /2 ρV 2 /2
Patm,abs Pvappressure
NPSH= − hsuction − hLoss −
ρg ρg
Shape COP from CG from surface Moment of inertia

water surface (IGG )
2 bh3
Rectangle h h/2
3 12
1 bh3
5 Triangle h h/3
2 36
3 bh3
4 Triangle h 2h/3
4 36
5 πd4
Circle d d/2
8 64
3π 2d
¯ Semi-Circle
∪ d −
32 3π
a + 3b h 2a + b h
a2 + 4ab + b2

Trapezium
a + 2b 2 a+b 3 h3
36(a + b)
Force on submerged bodies

Fx = Ax h̄ρg
Ax : Area of the body projected on a vertical plane
Fy =pWeight of fluid directly above the body
F = Fx2 + Fy2
9.2 Kinematics of fluid flow

Steady flow: At a given point, all flow characteristics remains constant over time.
Unsteady flow: At a given point in fluid flow, flow characteristics might vary with time.
Uniform flow: Velocity at every point in the flow at a given time is same.
Non-uniform flow: Velocity may vary from one point to another in the flow.
Local Acceleration: Acceleration due to change in velocity with respect to time

Convective acceleration: Acceleration due to change in velocity with respect to posi-
tion
Streak line: Locus of points of all the fluid particles that have passed continuously
through a particular spatial point in the past
Stream line: Curve that is instantaneously tangent to the velocity vector of the flow
Path line: Trajectory of a fluid particle
4A
Hydraulic diameter =
P
Cartesian coordinates Cylindrical coordinates
Continuity ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2 V2 1 ∂(rur ) 1 ∂uθ ∂uz

∂ρ + + =0
equations + ∇ · (ρV ) = 0 r ∂r r ∂θ ∂z
∂t
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
ax = +u +v +w ∂vr ∂vr vθ ∂vr ∂vr vθ2
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ar = + vr + + vz −
∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂t ∂r r ∂θ ∂z r
ay = +u +v +w ∂vθ ∂vθ vθ ∂vθ ∂vθ vr vθ
Acceleration ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z aθ = + vr + + vz +
∂w ∂w ∂w ∂w ∂t ∂r r ∂θ ∂z r
az = +u +v +w ∂vz ∂vz vθ ∂vz ∂vz
p∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z az = + vr + + vz
∂t ∂r r ∂θ ∂z
a = a2x + a2y + a2z
∂Ψ
=v 1 ∂Ψ
∂x ur =
∂Ψ r ∂θ
Stream = −u
∂y
function
Line of constant stream ∂Ψ
dx dy uθ = −
function = ∂r
u v
∂φ
= −u
∂x ∂φ
∂φ ur =
= −v ∂r
Potential ∂y
function ∂φ
= −w 1 ∂φ
∂z uθ =
dy u r ∂θ
Equipotential line: =−
dx v
∂u ∂v ∂vr ∂vθ
Cauchy = r =
∂x ∂y ∂r ∂θ
Reimann ∂v ∂u ∂vr ∂vθ
equations =− = −r
∂x ∂y ∂θ ∂r
Rotation of fluid particles
1
ω = ∇×V
2
1 ∂w ∂v
ωx = −
2 ∂y ∂z
1 ∂u ∂w
ωy = −
2 ∂z ∂x

1 ∂v ∂u
ωz = −
2 ∂x ∂y
Vorticity = 2ω
Circulation = Vorticity × area
~ ~
H
Circulation Γ = V · ds
Irrotational flow
ω=0
∇2 φ = 0
∇2 Ψ = 0
φ exists
Possible,steady,incompressible, irrotational flow if ∇2 φ = 0
Possible case of flow if Ψ exists
Laplace equation in cylindrical coordinates

∂ 2 φ 1 ∂φ 1 ∂ 2φ
+ + =0
∂ 2 r r ∂r r2 ∂θ2
Divergence of V~ = ∆ · V~
Linear strain rate

∂u
˙x =
∂x
∂v
˙y =
∂y
∂w
˙z =
∂z
Shear strain
rate
1 ∂v ∂u
˙xy = +
2 ∂x ∂y
1 ∂z ∂w
˙zx = +
2 ∂x ∂z
1 ∂v ∂w
˙yz = +
2 ∂z ∂y
νxy = µxy
www.eggsam.com 9.3. FLOW DYNAMICS [125]
Vortex flow
v2
dp = ρ dr − ρgdz
r
Forced vortex Free vortex
v =ω×r vr = const
ω 2 r12 P1 ω 2 r22 P2 v 2 P1 v 2 P2
z1 − + = z2 − + z1 + 1 + = z2 + 2 +
2g ρg 2g ρg 2g ρg 2g ρg
Doesn’t follow Bernoulli equation Obeys Bernoulli equation
External force is required No external force
Bucket on rotating table Bottle, hole at bottom
Washing machine Kitchen sink
Whirlpool in a river
Tornado
ω2 2
Equation of free surface of fluid in a rotating cylinder Z = h0 − (R − 2r2 )
4g
h0 : Height of fluid at rest
ω 2 R2
Maximum height difference ∆Z =
2g
Where h0 is the initial height of fluid
Z is the height of fluid from the bottom of the cylinder
9.3 Flow Dynamics

g gravity
p pressure
v viscosity
t turbulence
c compressibility
Fx = (Fg )x + (Fp )x + (Fv )x + (Ft )x + (Fc )x
Reynold’s equation of motion: Fx = (Fg )x + (Fp )x + (Fv )x + (Ft )x
Navier Stokes equations

Fx = (Fg )x + (Fp )x + (Fv )x
∂ V~ ~ + ρ~g + µ∇2 V~
ρ = −∇P
∂t 2
∂ u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u

∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂p
ρ +u +v +w =− + ρgx + µ 2
+ 2+ 2
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂p ∂ 2v ∂ 2v ∂ 2v
ρ +u +v +w =− + ρgy + µ + +
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
∂ 2w ∂ 2w ∂ 2w

∂w ∂w ∂w ∂w ∂p
ρ +u +v +w = − + ρgz + µ + +
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
www.eggsam.com 9.4. FLOW MEASUREMENT [126]
Euler’s equation of motion

Fx = (Fg )x + (Fp )x
dp
+ gdz + vdv = 0
ρ
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂p
ρ +u +v +w =− + ρgx
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x
∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂p
ρ +u +v +w =− + ρgy
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y
∂w ∂w ∂w ∂w ∂p
ρ +u +v +w = − + ρgz
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂z
Assumptions:
• Incompressible
• Inviscid
• Homogeneous
Bernoulli’s equation (Energy equation)

p v2
+ + z = constant
ρg 2g
Assumptions: -ideal, irrotational, inviscid, steady, incompressible, homogeneous, contin-
uous flow
Water hammer
2L
Critical closure time Tc =
C
ρV L
Gradual closing of valve, Pressure rise =
T
Sudden closure of a rigid pipe, Pressure rise=ρvC
C: Speed of sound
9.4 Flow measurement

ρm
U-tube manometer P = ρf gH −1
ρf

Inverted U-tube ρm
P = ρf gH 1 −
manometer ρf
√
A1 A2 2gH
Venturi meter Qth = p 2
A1√− A22
A1 A2 2gH
Orifice meter Qth = p 2
sA1 − A22

ρm
Pitot tube V = Cv 2gH −1 measures flow velocity
ρf
s
ρm
Inverted pitot tube V = Cv 2gH 1 −
ρf
ρm : Density of fluid in Pitot tube
ρf : Density of flowing fluid
www.eggsam.com 9.5. LAMINAR FLOW [127]
Pitot tube
Stagnation pressure = static pressure + dynamic pressure
Static pressure: P
ρV 2
Stagnation pressure: P +
2
Pitot tube: Stagnation pressure - static pressure
P
Piezometric head= + Z
ρg
Piezometer tube
Direct pressure, no role for velocity
Triangular weir
8 √ θ
Q = Cd 2g tan H 5/2
15 2
Rectangular notch
2 √
Q = Cd L 2gH 3/2
3
9.5 Laminar flow

V: Mean velocity
u: Velocity at a point
V ∗ : Shear velocity or friction velocity
ρV D
Reynolds number Re =
µ
Hydrodynamic entrance length
Laminar flow 0.05ReD
Re=2000 100D
Turbulent flow 10D to 40D
For laminar flow
Case Re <
Pipe internal 2000
Parallel Plate 1000
Open channel 500
Sphere 1
Over flat plate 5 × 105
9.5.1 Laminar flow Inside a circular pipe

1 dp 2
ur = − [R − r2 ]
4µ dx
1 dp 2
umax =− R
4µ dx
www.eggsam.com 9.5. LAMINAR FLOW [128]
umax
V =
2
32µV L f lV 2
Head loss hf = = [Hagen Poiseuille Formula]
ρgD2 2gD
∂τ ∂p
=
∂y ∂x
∂p r du
τ =− = −µ
∂x 2 dr
dp R
τmax = −
dx 2
P2 P1
dp = + z2 − + z1 Change in pressure due to change in piezometric head
ρg ρgp p
Friction velocity V ∗ = τ0 /ρ = V f /8
64
f=
Re
9.5.2 Laminar flow between parallel plates

1 dp
uy = − [By − y 2 ]
2µ dx
y2

y
uy = 4umax −
B B2
2
V = umax
3
1 ∂p
τ =− [B − 2y]
2 ∂x
∂τ ∂p
=
∂y ∂x
∂p B
τwall =
∂x 2
12µV L
hl =
ρgB 2
B=gap between the walls
9.5.3 Couette flow

Uy 1 dP
u= − [By − y 2 ]
B 2µ dx
U B 2 dP
V = −
2 12µ dx
12µ (V − U/2) L
hf =
ρgB 2
U= Velocity of the top plate
KE correction factor
KE based on actual velocity 1 R 3
α= = u dA
KE based on average velocity AU 3 A
For uniform flow, α = 1
For laminar flow inside a circular pipe α = 2
For turbulent flow inside a circular pipe α = 4/3
www.eggsam.com 9.6. TURBULENT FLOW [129]
Momentum correction factor

Momentum based on actual velocity 1 R 2
β= = u dA
Momentum based on average velocity AU 2 A
For uniform flow, β = 1
For laminar flow inside a circular pipe β = 4/3
For turbulent flow inside a circular pipe β = 1.2
Flow with free surface

3µV L
hl =
ρgδ 2
Stokes law
gD2
Terminal velocity V = (ρsolid − ρf luid )
18µ
Valid for Re < 1
9.6 Turbulent flow

Colebrook-white formula: turbulent flow regime in commercial pipes.
u y 1/7
=
U δ
k : Average height of irregularities
δ 0 : Laminar sublayer height
V : Average velocity
V ∗ : Shear
r velocity
f
V∗ =V
8
0 11.6µ
δ =
ρV ∗
1
Shear stress at pipe surface τ0 = f ρV 2
8
du dv
τ =µ +η
dy dx
2
du du
τ̄ = µ + ρl
dy dx
Prandtl’s universal velocity distribution equation: u = umax + 2.5V ∗ lne (y/R)
Velocity defect =u −p V∗
shear velocity V ∗ = τ0 /ρ
k V ∗ kρ
δ0 µ
Smooth Boundary <0.25 <4
Transition 0.25 - 6.0 4 - 100
Rough Boundary >6 >100
y =R−r
www.eggsam.com 9.7. LOSSES [130]
Turbulent flow in smooth pipes

u ρV ∗ y
= 5.75 log 10 + 5.55
V∗ µ
V ρV ∗ R
= 5.75 log 10 + 1.75
V∗ µ
0.316
f= [4000 < Re < 105 ]
Re1/4
0.221
f = 0.0032 + [105 < Re] (Blasius)
Re0.237
Turbulent flow in rough pipes
u
= 5.75 log10 (y/k) + 8.5
V∗
V
= 5.75 log10 (R/k) + 4.75
V∗
1
√ = 2 log10 (R/k) + 1.74
f
9.7 Losses
Name Equation
f lV 2
Friction(Major loss)1 hf =
2gd
(v1 − v2 )2
Sudden expansion(Minor loss) hl =
2g
(vc − v2 )2
Sudden contraction(Minor loss) hl =
2g
v2
Entrance loss(Minor loss) hl = 0.5
2g
v2
Exit loss(Minor loss) hf =
2g
V2
Bends and other fittings hf = K
2g
1: Darcy-Weisbach formula
Coefficient of friction f 0 = 4f
Equivalent pipe
The equivalent pipe should have same head loss and flow rate of the earlier combination.
Le Li
When pipes are in series 5 = Σ 5
De Di
D
When similar pipes are parallel, d = 2/5
n
Power transmission through pipes
Power transmitted = ρg(H − hf )Q
H − hf
Efficiency =
H
H
Maximum efficiency at hf =
3
Maximum efficiency= 66.67%
Hydraulic gradient line
Shows piezometric head
www.eggsam.com 9.8. BOUNDARY LAYER FLOW [131]
9.8 Boundary Layer Flow

δ : Boundary layer thickness
ρU∞ x
Rex =
µ
Displacement thickness: Distance by which a surface would have to be moved in
the direction perpendicular to its normal vector away from the reference plane in an in-
viscid fluid stream of velocity u0 to give the same flow rate as occurs between the surface
and the reference plane in a real fluid.
Z δ
∗ u
δ = 1− dy
0 U∞
Momentum thickness: Distance by which a surface would have to be moved parallel

to itself towards the reference plane in an inviscid fluid stream of velocity u0 to give the
same total momentum as exists between the surface and the reference plane in a real
fluid. Z δ
u u
θ= 1− dy
0 U∞ U∞
Energy thickness: Distance by which a surface would have to be moved parallel to

itself towards the reference plane in an inviscid fluid stream of velocity u0 to give the
same total kinetic energy as exists between the surface and the reference plane in a real
fluid. Z δ " 2 #
u u
δ ∗∗ = δE = 1− dy
0 U∞ U∞
δ∗
Shape factor =
θ
Von-Karman momentum integral equation
τ0 ∂θ
2
=
ρU∞ ∂x
Von Karman momentum equation is used to find the frictional drag on smooth flat plate
for both laminar and turbulent flows.
Coefficient of drag
τ0
local: Cx = 1 2
2
ρu
FD
Average: CD ∗ = 1
2
ρAU 2
RL ρU 2
Drag force FD = 0 τx bdx = Cf x Bx , Bx = Ax
2
2 2
Drag force ∝ ρL V
1
Friction drag force FD = CD ρU 2 A
2
9.8.1 Laminar Boundary layer

Rex < 5 × 105
Kx
δ=√
Rex
www.eggsam.com 9.8. BOUNDARY LAYER FLOW [132]
τ0
Local friction coefficient, Cf x =
ρv 2 /2
Blasius solution
5x
δ=√
Rex
0.664
Cf x = √ (Local skin friction coefficient)
Rex
1.328
CD = √ (Average drag coefficient)
ReL
τ0 : Shear stress on surface
Cubic
u 3 y 1 y 3
= −
U 2δ 2 δ
K=4.64
Linear
u y
=
U δ
K=3.46
9.8.2 Turbulent Boundary layer

u y n
=
U∞ δ
Logarithmic velocity distribution
5 × 105 ≤ Re < 107
n=1/7
0.37x
δ= 1/5
Rex
0.059
Cf = 1/5
Rex
0.072
CD = 1/5
Rex
Boundary Layer Separation
dp
Adverse pressure gradient: >0
dx
∂u
< 0: Flow separated
∂y y=0

∂u
= 0: On the verge of separation
∂y y=0

∂u
> 0: Flow not separated
∂y y=0
133
www.eggsam.com 10.1. IMPACT OF JETS [134]
Chapter 10
Fluid Machinery
10.1 Impact of jets

www.eggsam.com 10.2. TURBINES [135]
V: Jet velocity
u: Plate velocity
Vr1 = V1 − u1 : Relative velocity of entering jet
Vr2 = V2 − u2 = KVr1 : Relative velocity of leaving jet
Vw1 = Vr1 cos β1 + u1 : Whirl velocity of entering jet
Vw2 = Vr2 cos β2 − u2 : Whirl velocity of leaving jet
V = V1 : Absolute velocity of inlet jet
V2 : Absolute velocity of leaving jet
β1 : Angle of blade at inlet
β2 : Angle of blade at outlet
α: Nozzle angle
K: Blade friction coefficient
10.2 Turbines
Hydraulic energy → mechanical energy → electrical energy
Hydraulic Power station
Reservoir → Penstock → Surge tank → Scroll casing → Guide wheel → Turbine runner
→ Daft tube
Surge tank: To reduce water hammer effect
Cavitation: Outlet of the runner or Entrance of the daft tube or suction part of pump
Wicket gate: In Francis turbine to control flow of water
Volute tube: Velocity head to pressure head
Daft tube: Convert Kinetic energy head to pressure head
Pelton Pelton2 Francis Kapplan Trend
Ns 8.5-30 30-60 60-300 300-800 Increasing
H >250 250-60 <60 Decreasing
Q . .. .... ...... Increasing
Impulse Impulse Reaction Reaction
Tangential Tangential Mixed flow Axial flow
Radial
Ns ∝ no. Adjustable
Inward
of jets Blades
flow
Pelton2 : Pelton with more than one jet
Propeller turbine: Axial √ flow Reaction turbine
N P
Specific speed Ns =
H 5/4
N is in rpm
P is in kW
H is in m
Specific speed of a turbo machine remains constant over different working conditions
Unit quantities
For a single turbine working under different conditions
N
Nu = √
H
Q
Qu = √
H
www.eggsam.com 10.2. TURBINES [136]
P
Pu = 3/2
H
For Similar turbines
Hm Hp
2 2
= 2 2
Nm Dm Np Dp
Qm Qp
3
=
Nm Dm Np Dp3
Pm Pp
3 5
= 3 5
Nm Dm Np Dp
Static pressure drop inside runner
Degree of Reaction =
Total Energy change inside runner
Vf 1
Flow ratio Ψ = √
2gH
U1
Speed ratio Φ = √
2gH
10.2.1 Impulse turbines
Euler Turbine equation Power P = ṁ(U1 Vw1 + U2 Vw2 )

1
Dynamic component: (V12 − V22 )
2
1
Centrifugal component: (u21 − u22 )
2
1
Accelerating component: (Vf21 − Vf22 )
2
Pelton Turbine
Vw1 = V1
F = ρQ[V1 − u](1 + k cos φ)
Power P = ρaV (V − u)(1 + k cos φ)u
u u
Efficiency η = 2 1− (1 + k cos φ)
V V
1 + cos φ
Maximum efficiency =
2
u 1
Maximum efficiency happens when =
V 2
www.eggsam.com 10.3. PUMPS [137]
10.2.2 Reaction turbines

Francis turbine
Power P = ρQ(Vw1 U1 + Vw2 U2 )
For maximum output Vw2 = 0
Vw1 U1 + Vw2 U2
ηh =
gH
P0
ηm =
ṁVw1 U1
Pout
ηoverall =
ρgHQ
ηoverall = ηh ηmech
Vw1 U1 + Vw2 U2 V22
H= +
g 2g
H=power produced+outlet water energy
Q = (1 − blade thickness ratio)πD1 B1 Vf 1
Vf 1
Flow ratio Ψ = √
2gH
U1
2gH
∆Prunner
Degree of reaction R =
∆Prunner + ∆PGuidewheel
maximum number of jets = 6 (Normally)
Kaplan turbine
π
Q = (Do2 − Db2 )Vf 1
4
Speed ratio for highest efficiency = 1.4 to 2
Kaplan turbine has high design efficiency and
it has constant efficiency over a wide range of
design regulation
10.2.3 Draft tube

V12 − V22
Head recovered in draft tube = − hf
2g
V2−V2
Efficiency of draft tube η = 1 2 2
V1
10.3 Pumps
Foot valve + Strainer →
√ Suction pipe → impeller → Delivery pipe
N Q
Specific speed Ns =
H 3/4
Swept volume-Actual discharge
Slip S =
Swept volume
Centrifugal pump
Maximum efficiency when blades are bent backwards
www.eggsam.com 10.3. PUMPS [138]
W
Power P = (Vw2 U2 − Vw1 U1 )
g
gH H
ηm = =
Vw2 U2 He
H = Hm , manometric head
Q = πD1 B1 Vf 1 = πD2 B2 Vf 2
Vw2 U2 − Vw1 U1 Hm
Euler head He = =
g ηm
Manometric head Hm = He − loss
Vf 1
Flow ratio Ψ = √
2gH
U1
2gH
Patm,abs Pvappressure
NPSH= − hsuction − hLoss −
ρg ρg
Net positive suction head P − Pv
Thoma’s cavitation number σc = 2
=
ρV /2 ρV 2 /2
Volute casing
To collect from and deliver at constant velocity
To increase the efficiency of the pump
To reduce the loss of head in discharge
Uniform flow of fluid coming out of impeller
Forward curved blades
has obtuse angle in velocity triangle
Reciprocating pumps High head and small flow rate

Air vessels on suction and delivery side
Q = ALN/60
ρgALN
Power P = (hsuction + hdelivery )
60
ld A 2
Acceleration head during delivery stroke had = ω r
g ad
ld : Length of delivery pipe
ad : Delivery pipe area
Air vessel
-Reduces possibility of cavitation
-Smoothen the flow
-Makes it possible for the pump to run at a higher speed.
-Makes it possible to increase the suction head
-Reduces frictional loss
139
www.eggsam.com 11.1. NAMED NUMBERS [140]
Chapter 11
Heat Transfer
11.1 Named numbers

Name Equation Extra notes
V speed of a body
Mach number M=p =
k/ρ speed of sound
k thermal conductivity
Thermal diffusivity α= =
ρC density × specific heat capacity
hLc Internal conductive resistance
Biot number Bi = =
ksolid Convective resistance
αt
Fourier number Fo = 2
Lc
hL convective heat transfer
Nusselt number Nu = =
kf luid conductive heat transfer
µCp ν Kinematic viscosity
Prandtl number Pr = = =
kf luid α Thermal diffusivity
ρvl Inertial force
Reynolds number Re = =
µ Viscous force
Nu h̄ Actual heat flux of the fluid
Stanton number St = = =
ReP r ρCp U Heat flux capacity of the fluid flow
ρ2 βg∆T D3 Buoyancy force x Inertia force
Grashof number Gr = =
µ2 (Viscous Force)2
Rayleigh number Ra = GrP r
Peclet number P e = ReP r

nD
Strouhal Number* S=
V0
hm L
Lewis number* Le =
µD
Schmidt number* Sc =
ρD
Thermal conductivity
Lorenz number* - =
Electrical conductivity
k
Sherwood number* Sh =
ρCD
mcp
Graetz number* Gz =
Lk
V
Froude number* Fe = √
Lg
V
Euler’s number* Eu = p
P/ρ
* Not important for GATE
www.eggsam.com 11.2. CONDUCTION [141]
11.2 Conduction
Conduction happens by collision of particles and movement of electron
Diathermic: Allows heat flow.
kdiamond > kAg > kCu > kAl > kF e > kSteel
Kpure metal > kits alloy
1
kmetal ∝
T
kalloy ∝ T
1
kliquid ∝
T
knon−metal ∝ T r
T
kgas ∝
Molecular Mass
1
k ∝
M
dT
Fourier’s law of conduction: Q ∝ A
dx
dT
Q = −kA
dx
δT
Thermal resistance in conduction R =
Q
l
Plane slab R = l:Thickness of the slab
kA
ln(r2 /r1 )
Cylinder R= r2 : Outer radius
2πkl
r2 − r1
Splere R= r1 :inner radius
4πkr1 r2
Variable conductivity
If k = k0 (1 + βt)
(t2 + t1 ) (t1 − t2 )
Then Q = k0 1 + β A
2 L
1 TR2
kavg = kT dT
T2 − T1 T1
General heat conduction equations
Cartesian
coordinates

∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂T
kx + ky + kz + qg = ρC
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂t
Cylindrical coordinates
∂ 2T 1 ∂T 1 ∂ 2T ∂ 2T qg ρC ∂T
2
+ + 2 2
+ 2
+ =
∂r r ∂r r ∂φ ∂z k k ∂t
Spherical coordinates
∂ 2T

1 1 ∂ ∂T 1 ∂ 2 ∂T qg ρC ∂T
2 2 2
+ 2 sinθ + 2 r + =
r sin θ ∂φ r sinθ ∂θ ∂θ r ∂r ∂r k k ∂t
1 ∂ ∂T q g ρC ∂T
r2 + =
r2 ∂r ∂r k k ∂t
www.eggsam.com 11.3. CONVECTION [142]
qg : Rate of heat generation.
11.3 Convection
Newton’s law of cooling: Q ∝ A(T − T∞ )
Q = hA(T − T∞ )
δt
= P r−1/3
δ
k
Critical radius of cylinder rc =
h
2k
Critical radius of sphere rc =
h
Up to critical radius, the heat transfer rate increases
Ao − Ai
Logarithmic mean area for hollow cylinder Am =
ln(A√
o /Ai )
Logarithmic mean area, hollow sphere Am = 4πro ri = Ao Ai
Case Equations
x: distance
from T1 , Thickness
of wall = 2L
qg T2 − T1
Tx = (2L − x) + x + T1
2k 2L
Plane wall When T1 = T2 )
qg L
Twall = + T∞
h 2
qg L qL
Tmax = + + T∞
2K h
qR
Twall = + T∞
2h 2
Cylinder qg R qR
Tmax = + + T∞
qg 2 4k 2h
Tr = [R − r2 ] + Twall
4k
qR
Twall = + T∞
3h 2
Sphere qg R qR
Tmax = + + T∞
qg 2 6k 3h
Tr = [R − r2 ] + Twall
6k
www.eggsam.com 11.3. CONVECTION [143]
Forced convection
Case Equations
N ux = 0.332(Rex )1/2 (P r)1/3 (Const. temperature)
Laminar flow over flat N u = 0.664(ReL )1/2 (P r)1/3 (Const. temperature)
plates and walls N ux = 0.453(Rex )1/2 (P r)1/3 (Const. heat flux)
N u = 0.68(ReL )1/2 (P r)1/3 (Const. heat flux)
N u = 4.36 ≈ 48/11 Uniform heat flux
Laminar flow inside tubes
N u = 3.66 ≈ 48/13 Constant wall temp
Turbulent flow over flat N ux = 0.0296(Rex )0.8 P r1/3
plates N uav = 0.036(ReL )0.8 P r1/3
N uav = 0.023Re0.8 P rn
Turbulent flow in tubes n=0.3 Cooling
n=0.4 Heating
Free convection
Case Equations
General form N uav = C(GrP r)n
Vertical wall N ux = 0.378Gr1/4
Vertical plates & Laminar flow N uav = 0.59(GrP r)1/4 104 < GrP r < 109
cylinders Turbulent flow N uav = 0.10(GrP r)1/3 109 < GrP r < 1012
Laminar flow N uav = 0.54(GrP r)1/4 105 < GrP r < 2 × 107
Horizontal plates
Turbulent flow N uav = 0.14(GrP r)1/3 2 × 107 < GrP r < 3 × 1010
Laminar flow N uav = 0.53(GrP r)1/4 104 < GrP r < 109
Horizontal cylinders
Turbulent flow N uav = 0.13(GrP r)1/3 109 < GrP r < 1012
Combined free and forced convection

Gr
Free convection ≥1
Re2
Gr
Mixed convection ≈1
Re2
Gr
Forced convection ≤1
Re2
N u = f (ReGrP r)
Reynold’s Analogy
Cf
St = (Assuming Pr=1)
2
Chilton and Colburn Analogy
Cf f
St.P r2/3 = =
2 8
f: Friction factor
www.eggsam.com 11.4. BOILING [144]
11.4 Boiling
11.5 Fins and Transient heat transfer

Transient heat transfer
T − Ta hAt
= exp(−BiF o) = exp −
T0 − Ta ρV C
Can be considered as a lumped system if Bi<0.1
Fins
Tw = Wall temperature or temperature at the base of the fin.
Ta = Ambient temperature
θ = T − Ta
θw = Tw − Ta
θ = c1 emx + c2 e−mx
θ = Arcosh mx + B sinh mx
hP
m=
kA
Actual heat transfer
Fin Effectiveness =
Heat transer without fins
Actual heat transfer Qf in
Fin efficiency η = =
Maximum heat transfer (Tw − Tα )P lh
www.eggsam.com 11.6. HEAT EXCHANGER [145]
Case Equations
h
T − Ta cosh[m(L − x)] + [sinh m(L − x)]
= km
Tw − Ta h
cosh(ml) + sinh(ml)
Finite fin km
h
 
√ tanh(ml) +
Q = hP kA(Tw − Ta ) 
 km 
h 
1+ tanh(ml)
km
T − Ta cosh[m(L − x)]
=
Tw −√Ta cosh(ml)
Q = hP kA(Tw − Ta ) tanh(ml)
Fin with insulated tip tanh(ml)
Fin efficiency ηf in =
ml
Pl
Fin effectiveness f in = ηf in
A
ml > 2.646, tanh(ml) ≈ 1
T − Ta
= e−mx
Tw −√Ta
Infinitely long fin Q = hP kA(Tw − Ta )
1
Fin efficiency ηf in =
mlr
Pk
Fin effectiveness f in =
hA
11.6 Heat exchanger

Cmin
Heat capacity ratio R =
Cmax
UA
NT U =
Cmin
Actual heat transfer
Effectiveness ε =
Maximum possible heat transfer
Ch (Th1 − Th2 ) Cc (Tc1 − Tc2 )
ε= =
Cmin (Th1 − Tc1 ) Cmin (Th1 − Tc1 )
Heat transfered Q = U Aθ
Parallel flow heat exchanger

∆T1 − ∆T2
LMTD θ =
∆T1
ln
∆T2
∆T1 = Thot,inlet − Tcold,inlet
∆T2 = Thot,outlet − Tcold,outlet
1 − e−N T U (1+R)
=
1+R
www.eggsam.com 11.7. RADIATION [146]
Counter flow heat exchanger

∆T1 − ∆T2
LMTD θ =
∆T1
ln
∆T2
∆T1 = Thot,inlet − Tcold,outlet
∆T2 = Thot,outlet − Tcold,inlet
1 − e−N T U (1−R)
=
1 − Re−N T U (1−R)
If ∆T1 = ∆T2 , then LMTD θ = ∆T1
Condenser or Evaporator
R=0
= 1 − e−N T U
Regenerater
R=1
NT U
=
1 + NT U
Types of heat exchangers
Direct contact heat exchangers
Indirect contact heat exchangers
Regenerators
Recuperators
11.7 Radiation
Irradiation (G): Rate of energy received per unit area of the surface.
Emissive power (E): Rate of energy emitted per unit area of the surface
Radiosity (J): Rate of Total energy leaving unit area of the surface
h = 6.625 × 10−34 Js
σ = 5.67 × 10−8
Grey body
α, ρ&τ same for all wavelength
α+ρ+τ =1
1 R R cosθ1 cosθ2 dA1 dA2
View factor F1−2 =
A1 A1 A2 πr2
F1−2 ⇒ From 1 to 2
Q1−2 = Q1 F1−2
F1−2 + F1−3 + F1−4 + ... = 1
A1 F1−2 = A2 F2−1
Total Emissive power E = πI = σT 4
Stefan-Boltzman law of radiation
Eb = σAT 4
E = σAT 4
E = Eb
Kirchoff ’s law
α=
www.eggsam.com 11.7. RADIATION [147]
q = E = σA(T14 − T24 )
J − Eb
Irradiation G =
1−
Radiosity J = E + ρG
σ(T14 − T24 ) Eb1 − Eb2
Q1−2,net = =
1 − 1 1 1 − 2 Rnet
+ +
A1 1 A1 F1−2 A2 2
1−
Surface resistance =
A
1
Space resistance =
A1 F12
Infinitively large parallel plates
σ(T14 − T24 )
Q1−2,net =
1 1
+ −1
1 2
Infinitely long concentric cylinders
σA1 (T14 − T24 )
Q1−2,net =
1 A1 1
+ −1
1 A2 2
Small body (1) in a large enclosure(2)
Q1−2,net = 1 σAT 4
Wien’s displacement law: λmax T = 2898µmK

λmax : Wavelength corresponding to maximum spectral emissivity
Lambert’s cosine law Eθ = E cos θ

Total emissive power Eθ from a radiating plane surface in any direction is directly pro-
portional to the cosine of the angle of emission
Chapter 12
Thermodynamics
12.1 Basic Principles

ln 2 = 0.693
log 2 = 0.301
ln 10 = 2.301
P V γ γ=const
P T 1−γ =const
T V γ−1 =const
Nozzle: increases velocity at the expense of pressure

F − 32 C −0
=
212 − 32 100 − 0
Triple point of water T=273.16K
Ice point, T=273.15K

1 ∂V
Compressibility k = −
V ∂P T
Specific
heats
du R̄
Cv = =
dT v=c M (γ − 1)
dh
Cp =
dT p=c
Cp − nCv
Cn =
1−n
Cp
Adiabatic Index γ =
Cv
Cp − Cv = R (Meyer’s relation, ideal gases)
2
γ =1+
x
x
Internal energy u = RT [x: dof of molecule]
2
148
www.eggsam.com 12.1. BASIC PRINCIPLES [149]
Monoatomic gas x=3

Diatomic gas x=5
Triatomic gas x=6,7
Change in internal energy ∆u = Cv ∆T
Change in enthalpy ∆h = Cp ∆T
γ−1 n
Polytropic efficiency =
γ n−1
Gas Laws
Name Eqn Condition
Boyle’s Law PV=Const T=Const
Charles’ Law V∝ T P=Const
Gay-Lussac’s Law P∝ T V=Const
Avogadro’s Law V∝ n P,T=Conts
Ideal gas equation
P V = nR̄T
Universal gas constant R̄=8.314J/molK
R̄
R=
Molecular mass
Van-der-Waal’s equation
a
P + 2 (V − b) = RT
V
27R2 Tc2 RTc
a= ,b=
64Pc 8Pc
Compressibility factor
Actual volume
Z=
Volume predicted by ideal gas equation
Pv
Z=
RT
Z = 1 Ideal gas at all temperatures
Actual pressure less than ideal gas pressure,
Z<1
intermolecular forces play important role
Actual volume greater than ideal gas
Z > 1 volume, Volume of molecules play
important role
Law of corresponding states states that all gases when considered at the same values
of reduced pressure and reduced temperature will have same compressibility factor.
Dalton’s law (also called Dalton’s law of partial pressures) states that in a mixture
of non-reacting gases, the total pressure exerted is equal to the sum of the partial pres-
sures of the individual gases.
Amagat’s law states that the volume of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of vol-
umes of the component gases, if the temperature T and the pressure p remain the same.
Gouy Stodola theorem states that rate of reversibility is proportional to the rate
of entropy generation
www.eggsam.com 12.2. WORK AND HEAT [150]
Case Energy transfer Mass transfer

Open system Yes Yes
Closed system Yes No
Isolated system No No
Intensive property Extensive property

Independent of mass Depends on mass
Density Mass
Melting point Volume, length, area
Boiling point
Resistivity
Specific properties
12.2 Work and Heat

• Work is a path function
• Work is energy in transit
Work done by the system : Positive

Work done on the system : Negative
Heat added to the system : Positive
Heat removed from the system : Negative
∆U = Q − W
U: internal energy
Non-flow process
R2
W = P dV
1
R2
Q = CdT
1
dU = mCv (T2 − T1 )
Process n W Q dU dS

T2
Isochoric ∞ 0 mCv (T2 − T1 ) Q mCv ln
T1
T2
Isobaric 0 P (V2 − V1 ) mCp (T2 − T1 ) Q-W mCp ln
T1
V2 V2
Isothermal 1 mRT ln W 0 mCv ln
V1 V1
P1 V 1 − P2 V 2
Adiabatic γ 0 W 0
γ−1
P1 V 1 − P2 V 2 γ−n T2
Polytropic n Wpoly Q-W mCn ln
n−1 γ−1 T1
Cp − nCv
Cn =
1−n
Flow process
R2
W = V dP
1
H = U + PV
www.eggsam.com 12.3. LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS [151]
dH = mCp (T2 − T1 )
Process n W Q dS

T2
Isochoric ∞ V (P1 − P2 ) dH − W mCv ln
T1
T2
Isobaric 0 0 mCp (T2 − T1 ) mCp ln
T1
V2 V2
Isothermal 1 mRT ln W mRT ln
V1 V1
γ
Adiabatic γ (P1 V1 − P2 V2 ) 0 0
γ−1
n T2
Polytropic n (P1 V1 − P2 V2 ) dH − W mCn ln
n−1 T1
12.3 Laws of thermodynamics

Zeroth Law
• When two bodies are independently in equilibrium with a third body, then the two
bodies are also in equilibrium.
• Basis of temperature measurement
• Deals with thermal equilibrium
First law
• Whenever a system undergoes a cyclic change, the net work done on the system is
always equal to the amount of energy removed from the system as heat
• There exists a property of system called E such that a change in its value is equal to
the
H difference
H between the heat supplied and the work done during any change in state.
dQ = dW
• In an isolated system, the energy of the system remains constant
• Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed
• Introduces concept of internal energy
• u=q−w
• Perpetual motion machine of first kind works without power input
www.eggsam.com 12.3. LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS [152]
Second law
• Introduces entropy
• Kelvin-Plank Statement: It is impossible to operate a cyclically operating device which
produces no effect other than the extraction of energy as heat from a single reservoir and
performs an equivalent amount of work
• Clausiu’s Statement: It is impossible to operate a cyclically operating device which
produces no effect other than the transfer of energy as heat from a low temperature body
to a high temperature body.
• PMMSK: Absorbs energy and converts the full energy to work.
Third law
• The entropy of a pure crystalline substance at absolute zero temperature is zero.
• It is impossible to achieve zero Kelvin temperature in a finite number of processes.
• The entropy measured relative to pure crystalline substance at absolute zero tempera-
ture is called absolute entropy
• Defines datum for measuring entropy
• perpectual motion machine of third kind has no friction
Carnot principle
• No heat engine operating between two given thermal reservoirs can be more efficient
than a reversible engine operating between the same two reservoirs.
• The efficiency of all reversible heat engines acting between same temperatures are same.
Steady flow process

mV12 mV22
H1 + + mz1 g + Q = H2 + + mz2 g + W
2 2
dq = dh + vdv + gdz + dw
Turbines
Adiabatic
m(V12 − V22 )
W = H1 − H2 +
2
Diffuser
V22 − V12
H2 = H1 −
2
Throttling
• Isenthalpic process
∂T
Joule-Thomson coefficient µJT =
∂P h
Slope of constant enthalpy line in T-P diagram
µJT = 0: Inversion point
µJT > 0: Cooling
µJT < 0: Heating
Throttling of steam
Pressure decreases
Temperature increases
Dryness fraction increases
www.eggsam.com 12.4. ENTROPY [153]
Entropy increases
Enthalpy is constant
Specific volume increases
W QH − QL TH − TL
Efficiency of Carnot engine η = = =
QH QH TH
QL TL
COP of refrigerator COPr = =
QH − QL TH − TL
QH TH
COP of heat pump COPh = =
QH − QL TH − TL
12.4 Entropy
H δQ
For a system ≤ 0 (Clausius inequality)
T
H δQ
< 0 : Irreversible process
T
H δQ
= 0 : Reversible process
T
H δQ
> 0 : Impossible process
T
• Entropy is a point function and a property
• ∆Sgen (≥ 0) is not a point function
• All adiabatic processes are NOT isentropic
• All isentropic process are NOT adiabatic
• Reversible adiabatic process are isentropic
General equations
T2 V2
s2 − s1 = Cv ln + R ln
T1 V1
T2 P2
s2 − s1 = Cp ln − R ln
T1 P1
γ − n R P1
s2 − s1 = ln
γ − 1 n P2
For melting and vaporization
h1 − h2
sf g =
T
Mixing of different gases
dS = −Ru (Σni ln Xi )
Mixing same type of gas
Tf
dS = Σmi ci ln
Ti
Entropy of disorder
P2
s2 − s1 = K ln
P1
T-ds equations
T ds = du + P dv
T ds = dh − vdP
www.eggsam.com 12.5. AVAILABILITY [154]
SdT = −dA − P dv (Not important for GATE/ESE)

SdT = −dG + vdP (Not important for GATE/ESE)
Maxwell’s
equations

∂T ∂P
=−
∂V S ∂S V
∂P ∂S
=
∂T V ∂V
T
∂S ∂V
=−
∂P T ∂T P
∂V ∂T
=
∂S P ∂P S
12.5 Availability
• Availability is a property of system+surroundings
• High grade energy : Can be completely converted into useful work
• Low grade energy : Cannot be completely converted to work
• Exergy never increases in a process.
• Maximum possible work = Change in availability
Actual output Reversible input
Second law efficiency = or
Reversible output Actual input
η
ηII =
ηrev

T0
Available energy or exergy= 1 − δQ
T
T0
Unavailable energy or anergy= δQ = T0 ds
T
T
Exergy=mCp (T − T0 ) − mCp T0 ln
T0
Availability function for a non-flow process φ = U + P0 V − T0 S
φ2 − φ1 = (u2 − u1 ) + P0 (v2 − v1 ) − T0 (s2 − s1 )
Availability function for a flow process Ψ = H − T0 S
V 2 − V12
ψ2 − ψ1 = (h2 − h1 ) − T0 (s2 − s1 ) + 2 + g(z2 − z1 )
2
Irreversibility I = T0 ∆Su
Irreversibility I = T0 (∆Ssys + ∆Ssurroundings )
Gibbs function
G=H-TS
dG=VdP-SdT
Gibbs Helmholtz function
F=U-TS
dF=-Pdv-SdT
www.eggsam.com 12.6. PURE SUBSTANCES [155]
12.6 Pure Substances

A pure substance is homogeneous and invariable in chemical composition along with no
change in properties of the chemical elements constituting the substance.
Gibbs Phase rule F + P = C + 2
mf
Wetness fraction =
mf + mg
mg
Dryness fraction or quality of steam x =
mf + mg
Priming = (1 − x)100
Sub-cooled liquid at temperature T
u = h − Pv
h = hf − Cp (Tsat − T)
Tsat
s = sf − Cp ln
T
Saturated liquid at temperature Tsat
h = hf
s = sf
Liquid-vapor mix at temperature Tsat
h = hf + x(hg − hf )
s = sf + x(sg − sf )
v = vf + x(vg − vf )
Saturated vapor at temperature Tsat
h = hg
s = sg
v = vg
Super heated vapor at temperature T
h = hf + Cp (T− Tsat)
T
s = sf + Cp ln
Tsat
T
v = vf
Tsat
Clausius-Clapeyron Equation
d(ln P ) hf g
=
dT RT 2
∂P hf g
=
∂T T vf g
Used for Liquid-Vapor transition
Kirchoff relation
Solid-Liquid phase transition
12.7 Air cycles

Air
R = 287J/kg − K
γ = 1.4
Cp = 1005J/kg − K
Cv = 717J/kg − K
www.eggsam.com 12.7. AIR CYCLES [156]
www.eggsam.com 12.8. PSYCHROMETRY [157]
re = expansion ratio, rk =Compression ratio, rc =Cut off ratio
Carnot engines in series

η = η1 + η2 − η1 η2
T1 + T3
For same work output from both the engines T2 =
2
Refrigerators in series
1 1 1 1 1
= + +
COP COP1 COP2 COP1 COP2
T1 + T3
For same work output from both the engines T2 =
2
12.8 Psychrometry
Specific humidity
mv kg of vapour
ω= =
ma kg of dry air
Pv Pv
ω = 0.622 = 0.622
Pa Patm − Pv
Patm = Pa + Pv
Degree of saturation
ω
µ=
ωsat
Relative humidity
Pv vsat mv
φ= = =
Psat vv msat
µ
φ=
Ps
1 − (1 − µ)
Patm
Enthalpy of moist air
h = ha + ωhv
h = 1.005tdb + ω(2500 + 1.88tdb )
Cp = Cpa + ωCpv = 1.005 + 1.88ω ≈ 1.021kJ/kg-dry air-K
Tcoil − T2
Bypass factor =
Tcoil − T1
Contact factor = 1 - BPF
fg
Lewis number L =
kw cphs
For air-water mix, L=0.945
Wet bulb depression= DBT-WBT
Psychrometric processes
1 : Humidification
1’: Dehumidification
2 : Sensible heating
2’: Sensible cooling
www.eggsam.com 12.9. RANKINE CYCLE [158]
Cooling tower
Approach: Temperature difference between cooled outlet water and WBT of entering air
Minimum temperature to which water can be cooled = WBT of air
Range: Temperature difference between exit cold water and incoming condenser hot water
12.9 Rankine cycle
WT − WC
Work ratio =
WT
WC
Back work ratio = =1-Work ratio
WT
Net work Wnet = WT − WC
h3 − h2
Mean temperature of heat addition Tm =
s3 − s2
T1
Thermal efficiency η = 1 −
Tm
Net work ratio is almost 1 for Rankine cycle
Reheat cycle Regenerative cycle

Pump work Constant Decreases
Turbine work Increases Decreases
Net work Increases Decreases
Dryness fraction Increases Decreases
Condenser load Increases Decreases
Work ratio Increases Decreases
Steam rate Decreases Increases
Thermal efficiency I or D or C Increases
Rankine cycle is preferred for waste heat recovery
Internal efficiency: Product of stage of steam turbine efficiency and reheat factor
Stage efficiency: Ratio of adiabatic heat drop to isentropic heat drop per stage of a tur-
bine
www.eggsam.com 12.10. STEAM TURBINE [159]
Rankine efficiency: Ratio of isentropic heat drop in prime mover to the amount of the
heat supplied per unit mass of steam
Rankine cycle with infinite series of regenerative feed heating has efficiency almost equal
to Carnot efficiency
12.10 Steam Turbine

∆hmb
Degree of reaction=
∆hmb + ∆hsb
Compounding of steam turbines reduces turbine speed
Impulse turbines
De Laval : Single stage blade wheel
Curtis: Velocity compounded
Rateau: Pressure compounding
Zoelly: Pressure compounding
Velocity compounding
Moving and fixed blades
Curtis
Pressure compounding
Moving blades and fixed nozzles
Rateau and Zoelly
Force F = ṁs (Vw1 + Vw2 )

Power P = F u
Work done on blade 2u(Vw1 + Vw2 )
Blade efficiency ηb = =
Energy supplied to the blade V12

cos β2
ηb = 2(s cos α − s2 ) 1 + K
cos β1
u
Blade speed ratio s =
V1
Vr2
Blade velocity constant K =
Vr1
Frictionless blades Vr1 = Vr2
cos α
For maximum efficiency, s =
2
Maximum efficiency η = cos2 α
Maximum work Wmax = 2ṁu2
V1 − α − Vw1 Nozzle
V2 − β
Vr1 − β1 Blade angle
Vr2 − β2 Blade angle, Discharge an-
gle, exit angle, blade outlet an-
gle?
www.eggsam.com 12.11. BRAYTON CYCLE, GAS TURBINES [160]
V12
Nozzle efficiency ηN =
2(h0 − h1 )
Stage efficiency = ηb ηN
Axial flow turbine

β = 90, Vw2 = 0
Reaction turbine
Q̇ = πDhVf 1
Power P = ṁ(Vw1 + Vw2 )U
2
Efficiency η = 2 −
1 + 2s cos α1 − s2
For maximum efficiency s = cos α
2 cos2 α
Maximum efficiency =
1 + cos2 α
(Vw1 + Vw2 )U
Diagram efficiency η = V 2 V 2 −V 2
1
2
+ r2 2 r1
-Adiabatic expansion
50% reaction, or identical bladings, or Parson’s turbine V1 = Vr2 V2 = Vr1 α1 =
β2 α2 = β1
12.11 Brayton cycle, Gas Turbines
P2 P3
Pressure ratio rp = =
P1 P4
V1
Compression ratio rk =
V2
V4
Expansion ratio re =
V3
www.eggsam.com 12.11. BRAYTON CYCLE, GAS TURBINES [161]
WT − WC T1 γ−1
Work ratio = = 1 − rp γ
WT T3
WC
Back work ratio = =1-Work ratio
WT
Net work Wnet = WT − WC
Wnet 1 1
Efficiency η = = 1 − γ−1 = 1 − γ−1
Qs rk
rp γ
γ
Tmax γ−1
For maximum efficiency, rpmax =
Tmin
Brayton cycle is not as efficient as Rankine cycle
Optimum work
√
rpopt = rpmax
√
T2 = T4 = √ T1 T3 √
2
Wopt = C(r T3 − T1 )
T1
η =1−
T3
Regeneration
Thermal efficiency increases
No change in Turbine work
No change in compressor work
heat supplied reduces
Mean temperature of heat addition increases
Mean temperature of heat rejection reduces
Tmin γ−1
Ideal regeneration η = 1 − rp γ
Tmax
Reheating
Turbine work increases
Thermal efficiency may or may not increase
Intercooling
Increases the net work output
Compressor work reduces
Turbine work constant
Heat supply increases
Thermal efficiency decreases
√
Perfect cooling Pi = P1 P2
Reversed Brayton cycle

1
When working as refrigerator, COP = γ−1
P2 γ
−1
P1
www.eggsam.com 12.12. NOZZLE [162]
12.12 Nozzle
Adiabatic, W=0
V1 <<<
p V2
V2 = v2(H1 − H2 )
u
u 2n
" n−1 #
P 2
n
V2 = t P1 v 1 1 −
n−1 P1
r
2n
V2,max = P1 v1
n−1
12.13 Jet Propulsion

Turbo jet engine
Thrust =(ṁa + ṁf )Ve − ṁa Vi
Thrust power =[(ṁa + ṁf )Ve − ṁa Vi ]Vi
2Vi
Propulsion efficiency η =
Vi + Ve
Vi : Flight velocity
Ve : Relative jet velocity
Turbojet has no power for take-off
Efficiency continuously increases with speed
Turboprop engine
Has high power for take-off
Low efficiency at high altitudes and high velocity
Efficiency first increases with speed and then decreases
Flight velocity cannot exceed jet velocity
Rocket
2V0 Ve
η= 2
V0 + Ve2
Ve : Jet velocity
V0 : Vehicle velocity
Jet velocity of a rocket is independent of forward motion
Thrust=mp Ve + Ae (Pe − Pambient )
mp : mass rate of flow of propellant
Ve : Jet exit velocity
Nitric acid: Oxidizer

Hydrogen: Fuel
Fuming nitric acid hydrazine: Hypergolic propellant
Methyl nitrate methyl alcohol: Compounded liquid propellant
Ethyl alcohol: Liquid fuel
Nitrocellulose: Solid fuel
Ammonium perchlorate: Solid oxidant
Hydrogen peroxide: Liquid oxidant
www.eggsam.com 12.14. RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR [163]
12.14 Reciprocating compressor

Low volume
High pressure ratio
Brake power=Indicated"power+ Friction # power
n−1
n P2 n
W = P1 (V1 − V4 ) −1
n−1 P1
V2 − V1 V4
ηvol = =1+C −C
Vs V
1/n 3
P2
ηvol = 1 + C − C
P1
Multi-staging increases efficiency
Power consumed is least for isothermal compression
Puppet valve is used in reciprocating engines
Compression work per kg of air is independent of clearance
volume
Inter-cooling/Multi-staging
" n−1 #
nN P2 nN
W = P1 (V1 − V4 ) −1
n−1 P1
Work is reduced
Weight of compressor is reduced
Flywheel weight is reduced
Volumetric efficiency is increased
In perfect inter-cooling, work is equal in both the stages
To increase efficiency
Decrease clearance ratio
Decrease delivery pressure
Multistage
12.15 Centrifugal compressor

β > 90o : Forward curved
β = 90o : Radial blades
β < 90o : Backward curved
Vw2
Degree of reaction =1 −
2u2
Used in large refrigeration plants
Low head, high flow rate
Stalling: Separation of flow from the blade surface

Surging: Complete breakdown of flow. Physical damage due to impact loads and high
frequency vibration
Choking: mass flow rate is highest in choking condition
www.eggsam.com 12.16. AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS [164]
12.16 Axial flow compressors

Vw2 ∆TA Enthalpy drop in rotor
Degree of reaction =1 − = =
2u2 ∆TA + ∆TB Enthalpy drop in stage
12.17 Fuels and combustion

CO2 : 44g
CO : 28g
O2 : 32g
H2 O : 18g
H2 : 2g
By volume, dry air contains 78.09% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.04% carbon
dioxide
Semi-bituminous coal: Power plants
Biogas: Carbon dioxide and methane
LPG: Propane and butane
Lignite:
Anthracite: hard and high heating value
Bituminous: High ash content
Coke: Derived from coal
Bomb Calorimeter Const Volume, HCV, liquid and solid fuels
Exhaust gas calorimeter Specific heat
Junkers gas calorimeter Const Pressure
Throttling calorimeter Const Enthalpy
Separating calorimeter Isobaric
Bomb calorimeter
Constant volume
High calorific value
Solid and liquid fuels
Primary fuels
Wood, coal, natural gas,...
Artificial or secondary fuels
Charcoal, coal gas, coke, kerosene, diesel, petrol,...

100 8 O O
Theoretical air required= C + 8H − + S = 11.6C + 34.8(H − ) + 4.35S
23 3 8 8
kg-air/kg-fuel
11
Mass of CO2 formed = C×
3
Mass of H2 O formed = H2 × 9
www.eggsam.com 12.17. FUELS AND COMBUSTION [165]
Higher/gross calorific value

Lower/net calorific value
LCV=HCV-Latent heat of water formed
Coal that does not cake: Free burning cake

Expansion in volume during combustion: swelling index
Grindability index
Weatherability
a[O2 +3.76N2 ]
Volatile matter is responsible for flame length
FC: Fixed carbon

VM: Volatile matter
M: Moisture
Proximate analysis
FC+VM+M+Ash=100%
Step 1: 1g at 105o C for 1 hour. Loss in weight=M
Step 2: 950o C, 7 min, covered platinum crucible. loss in weight = M+VM
Step 3: 720o C, complete burning, uncovered crucible. Remaining mass= Ash
Ultimate analysis
C+H2 +O2 +N2 +S+M+Ash=100%
Mass percentage
Dulong and Petit’s formula

HCV = 33, 800C + 144, 450(H − O/8) + 9, 380S kJ/kg
Orsat Apparatus
Volumetric analysis
Dry analysis
KOH (Caustic soda): CO2
Pyrogalic acid: O2
Cuprous chloride: CO
Remaining volume: N2
Junker’s Gas Calorimeter

Bomb Calorimeter : Constant volume, Powdered and liquid fuels
www.eggsam.com 12.18. IC ENGINES [166]
12.18 IC Engines
Petrol Engines(SI) Diesel Engines(CI)
Compression ratio 5-10 14-22
Speed High Relatively low
Weight Light Heavy
Peak pressure Low (To avoid self ignition) High
Thermal efficiency Low (Due to low CR) High
Cycle Otto cycle Diesel cycle
Fuel Petrol, Gasoline Diesel
Highly volatile less volatile
Ignition Spark plug is used Compression ignition
Fuel injection Air+ Fuel mixture during Fuel alone at the end of
suction stroke compression
Fuel pump and injector is
Carburetor is used
used
Load control Quantity of air-fuel mixture Quantity of fuel alone is

is controlled using throttle controlled
Vehicles Usually light vehicles Usually heavy vehicles
Specific output Higher lower
For the same pressure ratio, Otto cycle is more efficient than Diesel cycle
Four stroke engine Two stroke engine

Number of crank shaft
2 1
rotations per power stroke
Number of strokes per cycle 4 2
Turning moment Non-uniform Uniform
Flywheel Heavy Lighter
Engine size and weight for
Heavier, bulkier Lighter, compact
a given power
Need of cooling and
Relatively Less More
lubrication
Rate of wear and tear Low Higher
Valves Present No valves. Has ports.
Higher due to higher time Lower due to lower time for
Volumetric efficiency
for induction induction
Thermal efficiency Higher Lower
Part load efficiency Higher Lower
When efficiency is preferred When weight is to be
Use
over weight reduced
Mopeds, scooters, hand
Application Car, trucks,...
sprayers.
Air-Fuel Ratio
Case AFR
Cold start 9:1 Very rich
Idling 10:1 Vehicle not moving
Full load 12.5:1
Cruising 14:1 Best economy
Part load 16:1
For gasoline engines, the stoichiometric A/F ratio is 14.7:1
For diesel Engines, the stoichiometric A/F ratio is 14.5:1
Combustion chamber
Pre-combustion chamber Combustion induced swirl
Turbulent chamber Compression swirl
open combustion chamber Masked inlet valve
F-head combustion chamber Spark ignition
How to reduce knocking
Parameter SI engine CI engine

Delay period Increase Reduce
Ignition lag Increase Reduce
Self Ignition temp Increase Reduce
Engine speed Increase Reduce
Air-Fuel ratio Richer Lean
Load Reduce Increase
Compression ratio Reduce Increase
Spark advance Reduce Increase
Spark Retard
Inlet temp Reduce Increase
Inlet pressure Reduce Increase
Supercharging Reduce Increase
Wall temp Reduce Increase
Cylinder size Reduce Increase
Power output Reduce Increase
Knock happens at the late part of combustion in SI and early part of combustion in
CI
10% Richer flame has highest flame propagation speed and less knocking
Octane number
Iso-octane and normal heptane percentage by volume
In SI engine
BS IV: 81
BS VI: 81/85
Research Octane Number (RON) 91 91/95
Cetane number
CI engine
n-hexadecane (cetane) α methyl naphthalene
BS 4 and 6: 51
Cetane index: 46
An ignition delay in a CI engine is the time taken by the fuel to auto-ignite after
being injected into the engine cylinder.
Suction-Compression-Expansion-Exhaust
Brake thermal efficiency

www.eggsam.com
12.19. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING [169]
CI> SI>2 stroke SI
Idling Engine running. But not the vehicle
Super charging
To increase inlet air density
Uses supercharger
Best used in CI
In SI Engine, increases the chance of knocking
Ignition systems
Battery Ignition
-Battery, ignition switch, ignition coil, breaker points, condenser, distributor and spark
plugs
BP
ηmech =
IP
Brake thermal efficiency
ηrelative =
Air standard efficiency
BP
(ηth )brake =
ṁf × CV
PM EP LA N2 n
IP =
60
Actual work
Diagram factor=
Theoretical work
Vswept + Vclearance
Compression ratio =
Vclearance
Photo Chemical smog
HC and NOx
Emissions
HC follows U shaped curve (Platinum used)
NOs A shaped (Rhodium used)
CO negative exponent (Palladium used)
3 way catalytic converters
12.19 Refrigeration and Air conditioning

1TR= 12000BTU/hr
1TR= 3000kcal/hr
1TR= 3.517kW (Use this value in calculations)
1TR= 3.88kW
Lice−water = 336kJ/kg
R50X: Azeotropic Mixture

R7XX: Inorganic Refrigerant. XX-molar mass
R11: Freon 11 CCl3 F, Centrifugal type
R12: Freon 12 CCl2 F2 , Window type
www.eggsam.com
12.19. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING [170]
R22: Freon 22 Low temperature cold storage

R717: Ammonia, Ice plants
Air: Aircraft
Carbon dioxide: Direct contact food
R(m−1)(n+1)p : Cm Hn Fp Clq : n + p + q = 2m + 2
R1(m−1)(n+1)p : Cm Hn Fp Clq : n + p + q = 2m
Ice plants
Reacts with copper and alloys
Requires larger displacement per TP
Ammonia Has higher compressor discharge temperature
Smell or Sulphor candle test to find leakage
Refrigerant absorber, ammonia - water
Reciprocating compressors
Window type units
Halide torch to find leakage, green flame
Freon 12
Inflammable, Non-toxic, Chemically stable
Low refrigerating effect
Low temperature cold storage
Freon 22
Centrifugal systems
Freon 11
Air Aircraft air conditioning
Direct contact freezing food
CO2
Reciprocating compressors
Lithium Bromide
Absorption refrigerations, solar refrigeration
Water
Azeotropes Refrigerant mix, acts like pure substance
QL TL
COP of refrigerator COPr = =
QH − QL TH − TL
Refrigerators in series acting between T1 & T and T & T2
1 1 1 1 1
= + +
COP COP1 COP2 COP1 COP2
T1 + T2
For equal work input T =
√ 2
For equal COP T = T1 T2
Thermostatic expansion valve

Maintains constant degree of super heat at the end of the expansion valve
Ensures the evaporator completely filled with refrigerant of the load
RSH
RSHF =
RSH + RLF
www.eggsam.com 12.20. BOILER [171]
RSH RLH RT H
cmms,min = = =
0.0204(ti − tADP ) 50(ωi − ωADP ) 0.02(hi − hADP )
Vapor compression refrigeration
Throttle valve instead of expansion cylinder
Evaporator → Compressor → Condenser → Throttle valve
Reversed Rankine
Bell-Coleman or Joule cycle (Reverse Brayton)
Vapor absorption refrigeration system
Can use solar energy directly
Refrigerant
Low boiling point
Low freezing point
Low specific volume
Low viscosity
Low specific heat
Low positive operating pressure
High latent heat
High thermal conductivity
High density
High critical temperature
Inflammable
Non-toxic
Winter air conditioning

Heating-humidifying-heating
Air conditioning
Air velocity: 6-7m/s
Air per person: 0.25 m3 /min
Sensible heat factor 0.7
Comfort conditions: 22o C and 60% RH
Air change: Air changed per hour
RSHL= 0.0204 V̇ ∆T
RLHL= 50 V̇ ∆ω
V̇ is in m3 /min
Answer is in kW
Ozone layer is in stratosphere
12.20 Boiler
Output of a boiler is normally stated as evaporative capacity in tonnes of steam at 100o C
that can be produced from 100o C water.
Drum
Setting
Grate CI, above which fluid is burned
Furnace Above grate and below boiler shell

Burning happens here
Flue gas Hot mix of products of combustion
Flue Passage for flue gas
Stocker regulates fuel usage
Water wall
Water space
Steam space
Feed water Water supplied to the boiler
Water supplied to the boiler is
Economizer preheated using the waste hot gases
before reaching chimney.
Placed before Air preheater
Air Preheater fresh air going to furnace is heated

from hot waste water
Heats the saturated steam
Super heater Above furnace
No change in pressure
Safety device that is used to protect
Fusible plug the boiler when the water level falls
below a minimum level
Flow rate of saturated water in down comers
Circulation ratio =
Flow rate of steam released from drum
Flue gas
Boiler furnace → Super heater → Economizer → Air preheater → Electrostatic precipi-
tators → induced draft fans → Chimney
Lancashire Horizontal double fire tube

Cornish Horizontal single fire tube
La-Mont High pressure water tube
Cochran Vertical multiple fire tube
Babcock and Wilcox Horizontal Water tube
Benson High pressure boiler

Once through flow
Stirling Bent tube, water tube
Chapter 13
Renewable sources of Energy
Solar Energy
Wind Energy
Biomass Energy
Geothermal (0.05 W/m2 )
Tidal energy
Ocean thermal energy conversion
Advantages
Good for environment
Unlimited supply
Cheaper
Disadvantages
Dilute form of energy
Depends on whether and location
13.1 Solar energy

1 Langley=1cal/cm2 = 1.163 ×10−2 kWh/m2
174
www.eggsam.com 13.1. SOLAR ENERGY [175]
θ Angle of incidence Angle between incident beam and normal to the plane
θz Zenith angle Angle between the beam and normal to the horizontal plane
αa Solar altitude angle 90o − θz
φ Latitude -90o to 90o

+ve for Northern hemisphere.
Angle made by the line connecting the centers of earth and sun
δ Declination with its projection on the equatorial plane of earth.
-23.45o to 23.45o (South-North)
Angle between the projection of the normal to the surface on a
γ Azimuth angle horizontal plane and meridian (longitude)
-180o to 180o (east-west)
γs Solar azimuth angle Angle between projection of solar beam on the horizontal and
meridian
Angular measurement of time
ω Hour angle Angle of rotation of earth since solar noon
-180o to 180o (Morning-evening)
Angle between collector plate and horizontal
β Slope of the plane 0o − 180o
(0-towards equator-90-Away from equator-180)
Vertical surface, β = 90o
Ψ Longitude Measured from Greenwich

Positive eastward
cos θ = sin φ(sin δ cos β +cos δ cos γ cos ω sin β)+cos φ(cos δ cos ω cos β −sin δ cos γ sin β)+
cos δ sin γ sin ω sin β
Solar constant ISC = 1367W/m2
n: day ofthe year
360
In = ISC 1 + 0.033 cos n
365
360
Declination angle δ = 23.45o sin × (284 + n) (Cooper’s relation)
365
On March 21 ans september 21, δ ≈ 0
Hour angle ω = 15(tsolar − 12)

ω = 15(tzone − 12) + (Ψ − Ψzone ) + ωeq
Local Apparent Time: = Standard Time + 4(Ψlocal − ΨStandardtime ) + ωeq

1
Air mass (m)=
cos θz
θz : Zenith angle: Angle between the beam and normal to the horizontal plane
2hC 2
Spectral intensity Iλ (λ, T ) = Plank’s law
hC
λ5 exp −1
λkT
k: Universal Boltzman constant
C: Speed of light
h: Plank’s const
Spectral emissive power of black body Eb = πIλ (λ, T )
For sun rise and sun set, ωs = cos−1 (− tan φ tan δ)

Perihelion: Closest to the sun
Aphelion: Maximum distance from the sun (June 21)
Irradiance: Total rate of radiant energy incident on a unit area of surface

Beam radiation (Ib ): Solar radiation received directly from sun. Also called direct
radiation
Diffuse radiation (Id ): Radiation reaching a surface after scattering in the atmosphere.
Also called indirect radiation
Global radiation: Ib + Id
Pyranometer: Measures global radiation

Pyrheliometer: Measures direct/beam radiation
Albedo meter: Reflected radiation
Spring equinox: March 21

Longest equinox: June 21
Autumn equinox: September 21
Shortest day: December 21
13.1.1 Solar Thermal Energy

cos θ
Tilt factor:= ratio of beam falling on the tilted surface to horizontal surface
cos θz
1 + cos β
Tilt factor for diffused radiation rd =
2
1 − cos β
Tilt factor for reflected radiation rr =
2
Components of solar thermal
Selective coating: Applied on the absorber plate for high absorbility in short wave re-
gion (solar radiation) and low emissivity in long wave region (Re-radiation from absorber
plate) (Black Nickel, Black copper, Black chrome, Commercial coating)
Absorber plate:Absorbs solar radiation and transfers heat to the fluid (Cu, Al, Brass,
steel, silver)
Riser tube: To absorb maximum heat from from absorber plate and transfer it to the fluid.
Transparent cover: To reduce re-radiation. Uses glazed glass. High transmissivity for
for short waves and high reflectivity for long waves.
τα
(τ α)net =
1 − (1 − α)ρ
Useful energy gien to the fluid
Collector efficiency=
Total energy reaching the collector
Effective area of apperture
Concentration ratio =
Area of collector
Adding more layers of covers reduces τ α product. Reduces heat loss through convec-
tion. Reduces efficiency.
Flat plate collector

No optical concentration
No need for solar tracing
Commonly used for water heating
Concentration ratio = 1
Max Temperature ≈100o C
Parabolic collectors
Line concentrating
Tracing mechanism is necessary (In one axis)
Concentration ratio ≈ 100
Up to 300o C
Central tower collector

Dual axis solar tracking
Point concentrating
Maximum temperature ≈ 600o C
Paraboloid dish collector

Dual axis solar tracking
Point concentrating
Maximum temperature ≈ 900o C
13.1.2 Solar thermal energy storage

Sensible heat storage device
No phase change
Latent heat storage

Heating with phase change
Hydrated salt: N a2 SO4 .10H2 O *
) N a2 SO4 + 10H2 O
www.eggsam.com 13.2. WIND ENERGY [178]
Thermo-Chemical storage
Endothermic and exothermic reactions to store and extract energy
13.2 Wind energy

Indirect solar power
Wind velocity ∝ H 1/7
1
Power in wind P = ρAV 3
2
1
Bernaulli’s equation P1 − P2 = ρ [V12 − V22 ]
2
1 V1 + V2 2
Power produced = ρAturbine [V1 − V22 ]
2 2
V1
For maximum power, V2 =
3
Maximum efficiency = 59.3% (Lanchester-Blitz limit)
1 16
Maximum power P = ρAturbine V13
2 27
ρ
Maximum horizontal force Fx = πD2 V12
9
Maximum torque =Fx R
Power extracted
Power coefficient Cp =
Power available in the wind
Lift
Lift coefficient CL =
Wind force
Drag
Drag coefficient CD =
Wind force
ωR
Tip speed ratio λ =
V1
Ablade
Solidity γ =
Aswept
Cut-in speed: Minimum speed when power production starts
cut-off/cut-out speed: Speed at which power production is stopped
Solidity ratio: Ratio of blade area to rotor circumference

Horizontal axis machine
Vertical axis machine
Cup anemometer
Savonius rotor
Darrieus rotor
13.3 Biomass energy

Biogas
Cx Hy Oz →Cx Hy + O2
Anaerobic fermentation
1 kg dry cattle dung ≈ 1m3 of biogas
www.eggsam.com 13.4. TIDAL POWER [179]
1 kg fresh cattle poop ≈ 0.9Litre

1 kg fresh cattle dung 8% biodegradable dry matter
1 kg fresh cattle dung requires same volume of water
Retention time ≈ 40 days
Thermo-Chemical Method
Biomass Gasification
Drying → Pyrolysis → Oxidation → Reduction
Produces Producer gas: CO2 , CO, N2 , H2
Partial combustion of biomass
Bio-ethanol and Bio-diesel

Produced through fermentation of certain biomass.
13.4 Tidal power

Tidal range (R): Difference between consecutive high and low tides
Ebb: Low tide
M
R∝ 3
D
M: Mass of the body causing tide
D: Distance to the body causing tide
Spring tides: Earth, sun and moon are in a line.
Neap tide: Earth, sun and moon are in perpendicular lines.
Rspinrg > Rneap
1
Tidal power generated = ρgAR2
2
Single basin Single action tidal power plant
Single basin double action tidal power plant
Multi basin tidal power plant
13.5 Fuel cells

-Direct conversion to electrical energy
-No moving parts
-No vibration or sound
Fuel-Electrode-Electrolyte-Oxidant
www.eggsam.com 13.5. FUEL CELLS [180]
Hydrogen-Oxygen FC Alkaline FC
Hydrogen-air FC Phosphoric acid FC
Hydrazine-oxygen FC Polymer electrolytic membrane FC
Hydrocarbon-air FC Molten carbonate FC
Synthesys gas-air FC Solid oxide FC
Ammonia-air FC
Hydrogen-Oxygen fuel cell
Fuel: Hydrogen (At negative electrode, Anode)
Oxygen (At positive electrode, Cathode)
At anode: H2 → 2H + + 2e−
1
At cathode: 2H + + 2e− + O2 → H2 O
2
Electrolyte
Conductive to ions and nonconductive to electricity
Should not get charged
Electrode
Good conductor of electricity
Should not corrode on contact with electrolyte
Stable at high temperatures
Thank you
.
I would like to thank everyone for helping me make this book a reality. I extend my
sincere thanks to all my social media supporters. The constant support of them
motivated me in making this book a reality.I especially thank the following people who
helped me by pointing out errors and mentioning the missing equations.
Anshuman Sarma
Er Yogendra Pratap Singh
Satya Panda
Hemant Sukhija
Raja Radha
Malaya ranjan
Arjun Bajpayee
Deepak Kumar
Somesh Akolkar
3 Anonymous contributors
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Mechanical Engineering

Sagar Wilcy Tom

1 Basics and Engineering Mechanics 3

8 Mechatronics and robotics 111

9 Fluid Mechanics 119

10 Fluid Machinery 133

11 Heat Transfer 139

13 Renewable sources of Energy 174

Free GATE online exams

Basics and Engineering Mechanics

1.1 Equations of motion

1.7 Work and energy

Acceleration due to gravity 9.81 m/s

Atomic mass (g)

Length, Area, Volume Force and pressure

Light year : Distance traveled by light in one year = 9.4607×1012 km

Magnitude P = |P~ |= p21 + p22 + p23

Unit vector: A vector whose magnitude is 1

Shape Moment of inertia CG from base

2.1 Stress and strain

True stress and strain

Thermal stress, both ends fixed

Thermal stress, one support yields by l0

Equivalent Young’s modulus

2.2 Complex stress and strain

2.3 Slopes and deflections

Point of contra flexure

2.4 Shear stress distribution in beams

2.6 Strain energy

Columns and struts

3.1 Analysis of Planar mechanisms

Type Contact Example

Completely constrained motion : 1 DOF

Closed pair : Permanent contact between the links

Motion Rotation Coriolis acceleration

Fixed instantaneous centers: will not move (Primary instantaneous center)

Universal joint - Hooke’s joint

Ackermann steering Only turning pairs

3.1.2 Slider crank mechanism

θ = ψ1 + ψ2 , same hand are in contact

Fundamental law of gearing

3.3 Fly wheels

Spring controlled governors

Slider-crank mass balancing

Primary force balance=cmrω 2 cos θ

If primary direct is θ clockwise,

3.6 Cam and Follower

get the direction of gyroscopic torque vector.

Bow: Front of the boat

4.1 Theories of failure

4.2 Fatigue failure

Low and high cycle fatigue

4.5 Threaded joints

Eccentric loading, Load in plane of bolted joints

Bolt of uniform strength

4.6 Welded joints

Parallel Fillet weld

4.7 Sliding contact bearings