LIPIDS

• Lipids are organic compounds primarily composed of

alcohol and fatty acids,
linked together by an ester
linkage.
• Lipids are insoluble in water but soluble in fats or
organic solvents (ether, chloroform, benzene, acetone).
• Lipids encompass a broad range of compounds including
fats, oils, waxes, and related compounds.
• They are widely distributed in nature, present in both
plants and animals.

Biological Importance of Lipids

• Energy Storage: Lipids are more palatable and storable
than carbohydrates, providing high energy value (25% of
body needs).
• Essential Fatty Acids: Lipids supply essential fatty
acids that cannot be synthesized by the body.
• Fat-Soluble Vitamins: Lipids provide fat-soluble
vitamins (A, D, E, and K).
• Nervous System: Lipids are important constituents of
the nervous system, particularly phospholipids.
• Cell Membranes: Lipids contribute to cell membrane
structure and function.

Stored Lipids
• ("depot fat") are stored in all human cells and act as:
• A store for energy.
 • A pad for internal organs to protect them from outside
shocks.
• A subcutaneous thermal insulator against loss of body
heat.

Lipoproteins
• Lipoproteins are complexes of lipids and proteins,
important cellular constituents present in both cellular
and subcellular membranes.
• Cholesterol is a structural component of membranes
and is used for the synthesis of adrenal cortical
hormones, vitamin D3, and bile acids.

Cholesterol
• Cholesterol is a structural component of membranes
and a precursor for various essential compounds like
hormones, vitamin D, and bile acids.
• Synthesized in the body from acetyl-CoA, also obtained
from diet (butter, milk, egg yolk, brain, meat, animal fat).

Synthesis of a Triglyceride
• This process involves the esterification of glycerol with
three fatty acid molecules.
Fatty Alcohols
• Fatty alcohols are a type of alcohol present in lipids.
• Two important fatty alcohols are glycerol and
sphingosine.

Glycerol
• Glycerol is a trihydric alcohol
synthesized from glucose.
Properties:
• Colorless, viscous, oily liquid with a
sweet taste.
• Dehydration reaction produces acrolein, used for
detection.
• Forms trinitroglycerin (TNG), used as an explosive and
vasodilator.
• Forms monoglycerides, diglycerides, and triglycerides.
• Has nutritive value and contributes to phospholipid
structure.

Uses:
• Pharmaceutical and cosmetic preparations.
• Reduces brain edema.
• Treatment of angina pectoris and glaucoma.
• Explosives manufacturing.
Uses of Glycerol

• Pharmaceutical and cosmetic preparations.

• Reduces brain edema in cerebrovascular disease.
• Nitroglycerin is used as a vasodilator, especially for the
coronary arteries, thus it is used in the treatment of
angina pectoris.
• Explosives manufacturing.
• Treatment of glaucoma (increased intraocular pressure
causing vision loss) due to its ability to dehydrate the
tissue from its water content.

Sphingosine
• Sphingosine is the alcohol
(monohydric) present in
sphingolipids.
• Synthesized in the body from
serine and palmitic acid.
• Acrolein Test: It is not positive with the acrolein test.

Classification of Fatty Acids

• Fatty acids are aliphatic monocarboxylic acids primarily
obtained from the hydrolysis of natural fats and oils.
• General Formula: R-(CH2)n-COOH, typically with
straight chains and an even number of carbon atoms.
Classification:
 • Saturated Fatty Acids: No double bonds, solid at room
temperature (except for short chains).
• Unsaturated Fatty Acids: Contain double bonds.

Saturated Fatty Acids

• No double bonds, solid at room temperature (except for
short chains).
Types:
• Short-Chain Saturated Fatty Acids (2-10 carbon):
• Short chain volatile: 2-6
carbons, liquid, water-soluble,
volatile at room temperature
(e.g., acetic, butyric, caproic
acids).
• Short chain non-volatile: 7-10 carbons, solid, water-
soluble, non-volatile at room temperature (e.g., caprylic,
capric acids).
• Long chain saturated: More than 10 carbon atoms, non-
volatile, water-insoluble (e.g., palmitic, stearic, lignoceric
acids).

Unsaturated Fatty Acids

• Contain double bonds.
Types:
• Monounsaturated: One
double bond (CnH2n-
1COOH).
 • Polyunsaturated: More than one double bond (CnH2n-
#COOH).

Classification of Lipids
• Simple Lipids: Fatty acid
esters of different alcohols,
no additional substances.
• Compound or Conjugated Lipids: Contain additional
substances besides fatty acids and alcohols (e.g., sulfur,
phosphorus, amino groups, carbohydrates, proteins).
• Derived Lipids: Products of simple or compound lipid
hydrolysis.
• Miscellaneous Lipids: Possess characteristics of lipids
but do not fit into other categories.

Simple Lipids
• Triglycerides or Triacylglycerol:
Most abundant lipids in nature,
esters of glycerol with various
fatty acids.
Types:
• Simple Triglycerides: Three fatty acids of the same type
(e.g., tripalmitin).
• Mixed Triglycerides: Three
fatty acids of different types
(e.g., stearo-diolein, palmito-
oleo-stearin).
Physical Properties of Fat and Oils
• Color: Freshly prepared fats and oils are colorless,
odorless, and tasteless.
• Specific Gravity: Fats have a specific gravity less than 1,
so they float on water.
• Solubility: Insoluble in water, soluble in organic solvents.
• Melting Point: Fats have low melting points, but higher
than their solidification point.

Chemical Properties of Fats and Oils

• Hydrolysis: Breakdown into fatty acids and glycerol by

steam, acid, alkali, or enzymes.

• Saponification: Alkaline hydrolysis produces glycerol and

soap (salts of fatty acids).

• Halogenation: Addition of halogens (e.g., hydrogen or

iodine) to unsaturated fatty acids.
 • Hydrogenation (Hardening of Oils): Addition of hydrogen
to double bonds of unsaturated fatty acids, converting
liquid oils into solid fats (e.g., margarine).

• Oxidation (Rancidity): Unpleasant odor or taste

development due to oxidation by oxygen, bacteria, or
moisture.

Rancidity
• Physicochemical change
causing unpleasant odor,
taste, or abnormal color,
particularly on aging,
exposure to atmospheric oxygen, light, moisture,
bacterial or fungal contamination, and/or heat.
Types and Causes:
• Hydrolytic Rancidity: Hydrolysis by lipase or bacterial
contamination.
• Oxidative Rancidity: Oxidation by oxygen, light, or heat.
 • Ketonic Rancidity: Contamination with fungi like
Aspergillus niger.

Types and Causes of Rancidity

• Hydrolytic Rancidity: From slight hydrolysis of the fat by
lipase or bacterial contamination leading to the liberation
of free fatty acids and glycerol at high temperatures
and moisture.
• Oxidative Rancidity: Oxidation of fat or oil by exposure
to oxygen, light, and/or heat producing peroxide
derivatives (e.g., peroxides, aldehydes, ketones, and
dicarboxylic acids) that are toxic and have a bad odor.
• Ketonic Rancidity: Due to the contamination with certain
fungi such as Aspergillus niger on fats such as coconut
oil.

Prevention of Rancidity
• Avoidance of the causes (exposure to light, oxygen,
moisture, high temperature, and bacteria or fungal
contamination).
• Keeping fats or oils in well-closed containers in a cold,
dark, and dry place (i.e., good storage conditions).
• Removal of catalysts such as lead and copper that
catalyze rancidity.
• Addition of antioxidants to prevent peroxidation in fat
(i.e., rancidity).

Hazards of Rancid Fats

 • The products of rancidity are toxic, i.e., causes food
poisoning and cancer.
• Rancidity destroys the fat-soluble vitamins (vitamins A,
D, K, and E).
• Rancidity destroys the polyunsaturated essential fatty
acids.
• Rancidity causes economical loss because rancid fat is
inedible.

Waxes
• Solid simple lipids containing a monohydric alcohol (with a
higher molecular weight than glycerol) esterified to long-
chain fatty acids.
• Insoluble in water, soluble in fat solvents, and are
negative for the acrolein test.
• Hydrolysis: Not easily hydrolyzed as fats and are
indigestible by lipases.
• Rancidity: Very resistant to rancidity.
• Nutritional Value: No nutritional value.
Types:
• True Waxes: Secreted by insects (e.g., beeswax),
protective coatings on animals and plants.
• Wax-like Compounds: Cholesterol esters (e.g., lanolin).

Differences between Neutral Lipids and Waxes

Compound Lipids
• Contain additional substances besides fatty acids and
alcohols.
Classification:
• Phospholipids: Contain a phosphoric acid group.
• Glycolipids: Contain carbohydrate residues.
• Lipoproteins: Lipids combined with proteins.

Cholesterol
• The most important sterol in animal tissues, present as
free alcohol or in an esterified form (with linoleic, oleic,
palmitic acids, or other fatty acids).
• Steroid hormones, bile salts, and vitamin D.
• Different tissues contain varying amounts of it that
serve a structural and metabolic role.
• Synthesized in the body from acetyl-CoA (1gm/day,
cholesterol does not exist in plants) and is also taken in
 the diet (0.3 gm/day as in, butter, milk, egg yolk, brain,
meat, and animal fat).

Steroids
• Derivatives of cholesterol that are formed of a steroid
ring or nucleus.
Biologically Important Groups:
• Sterols:
• Adrenal Cortical Hormones:
• Male and Female Sex Hormones:
• Vitamin D Group:
• Bile Acids:
• Cardiac Glycosides:

Bile Acids
• Steroidal molecules synthesized from cholesterol in the
liver and actively secreted along with cholesterol and
phospholipids into the bile.
Functions:
• Emulsification of lipids during digestion.
• Help in digestion of the other foodstuffs.
• Activation of pancreatic lipase.
• Help digestion and absorption of fat-soluble vitamins.
• Solubilizing cholesterol in bile and prevent gallstone
formation.
• Choleretic action (stimulate their own secretion).
• Intestinal antiseptic that prevents putrefaction.
Chemical Reactions
• Halogenation: Addition of halogens (e.g., hydrogen or
iodine) to unsaturated fatty acids. (e.g., Linoleic acid + 2
Iodine → Stearate-tetra-iodinate)
• Hydrogenation (Hardening of Oils): Addition of hydrogen
to double bonds of unsaturated fatty acids, converting
liquid oils into solid fats (e.g., margarine).
• Hydrolysis: Breakdown into fatty acids and glycerol by
steam, acid, alkali, or enzymes.
• Saponification: Alkaline hydrolysis produces glycerol and
soap (salts of fatty acids).
• Oxidation (Rancidity): Unpleasant odor or taste
development due to oxidation by oxygen, bacteria, or
moisture.

Key Objects:
• Lipids: The central theme of the document.
• Fatty Acids: Building blocks of lipids, classified as
saturated and unsaturated.
• Glycerol: A trihydric alcohol, essential for triglyceride
synthesis.
• Sphingosine: A monohydric alcohol, present in
sphingolipids.
• Triglycerides: The most abundant lipids in nature,
composed of glycerol and three fatty acids.
• Waxes: Solid simple lipids containing a monohydric
alcohol esterified to long-chain fatty acids.
• Phospholipids: Important components of cell
membranes, containing a phosphoric acid group.
• Glycolipids: Contain carbohydrate residues and
sphingosine.
• Lipoproteins: Complexes of lipids and proteins, essential
for lipid transport.
• Cholesterol: An important sterol in animal tissues, a
precursor for various essential compounds.
• Steroids: Derivatives of cholesterol, containing a steroid
ring or nucleus.
• Bile Acids: Steroidal molecules synthesized from
cholesterol in the liver.