OSI Model

It is a 7-layer architecture with each layer having specific functionality to perform.

All these 7 layers work collaboratively to transmit the data from one person to
another across the globe.
Data Flow In OSI Model
When we transfer information from one device to another, it travels through 7
layers of OSI model. First data travels down through 7 layers from the sender’s end
and then climbs back 7 layers on the receiver’s end.
Data flows through the OSI model in a step-by-step process:
 Application Layer: Applications create the data.
 Presentation Layer: Data is formatted and encrypted.
 Session Layer: Connections are established and managed.
 Transport Layer: Data is broken into segments for reliable delivery.
 Network Layer : Segments are packaged into packets and routed.
 Data Link Layer: Packets are framed and sent to the next device.
 Physical Layer: Frames are converted into bits and transmitted physically.
Each layer adds specific information to ensure the data reaches its destination
correctly, and these steps are reversed upon arrival.
Let’s look at it with an Example:
Luffy sends an e-mail to his friend Zoro.
Step 1: Luffy interacts with e-mail application like Gmail , outlook , etc. Writes
his email to send. (This happens in Layer 7: Application layer )
Step 2: Mail application prepares for data transmission like encrypting data and
formatting it for transmission. (This happens in Layer 6: Presentation Layer )
Step 3: There is a connection established between the sender and receiver on the
internet. (This happens in Layer 5: Session Layer )
Step 4: Email data is broken into smaller segments. It adds sequence number and
error-checking information to maintain the reliability of the information. (This
happens in Layer 4: Transport Layer )
Step 5: Addressing of packets is done in order to find the best route for transfer.
(This happens in Layer 3: Network Layer )
Step 6: Data packets are encapsulated into frames, then MAC address is added for
local devices and then it checks for error using error detection. (This happens in
Layer 2: Data Link Layer )
Step 7: Lastly Frames are transmitted in the form of electrical/ optical signals over
a physical network medium like ethernet cable or WiFi. (Layer 1:Physical Layer)
After the email reaches the receiver i.e. Zoro, the process will reverse and decrypt
the e-mail content. At last, the email will be shown on Zoro’s email client.
What Are The 7 Layers of The OSI Model?
The OSI model consists of seven abstraction layers arranged in a top-down order:
1. Physical Layer
2. Data Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
Physical Layer – Layer 1
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is responsible
for the actual physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains
information in the form of bits. It is responsible for transmitting individual bits
from one node to the next. When receiving data, this layer will get the signal
received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which
will put the frame back together.

Functions of the Physical Layer

  Bit Synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the
bits by providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus
providing synchronization at the bit level.
 Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e.
the number of bits sent per second.
 Physical Topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different,
devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star, or mesh topology.
 Transmission Mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows
between the two connected devices. The various transmission modes
possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
Note:
 Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables are Physical Layer devices.
 Network Layer, Data Link Layer, and Physical Layer are also known as
Lower Layers or Hardware Layers .
Data Link Layer (DLL) – Layer 2
The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message.
The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one
node to another, over the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is
the responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC address .
The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
 Logical Link Control (LLC)
 Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames
depending on the frame size of the NIC(Network Interface Card). DLL also
encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution
Protocol) request onto the wire asking “Who has that IP address?” and the
destination host will reply with its MAC address.
Functions of the Data Link Layer
  Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for
a sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can
be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of
the frame.
 Physical Addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds
physical addresses ( MAC addresses ) of the sender and/or receiver in the
header of each frame.
 Error Control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control
in which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
 Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data
may get corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of data that can
be sent before receiving an acknowledgment.
 Access Control: When a single communication channel is shared by
multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to
determine which device has control over the channel at a given time.

Note:
 Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to as Frame.
 Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and device
drivers of host machines.
  Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.
Network Layer – Layer 3
The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other
located in different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of
the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The
sender & receiver’s IP address es are placed in the header by the network layer.
Functions of the Network Layer
 Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable
from source to destination. This function of the network layer is known as
routing.
 Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-network uniquely, the
network layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP
addresses are placed in the header by the network layer. Such an address
distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.
Note:
 Segment in the Network layer is referred to as Packet .
 Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers and
switches.
Transport Layer – Layer 4
The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services
from the network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments .
It is responsible for the end-to-end delivery of the complete message. The transport
layer also provides the acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and re-
transmits the data if an error is found.
At the sender’s side: The transport layer receives the formatted data from the
upper layers, performs Segmentation , and also implements Flow and error
control to ensure proper data transmission. It also adds Source and Destination
port number s in its header and forwards the segmented data to the Network Layer.
Note: The sender needs to know the port number associated with the receiver’s
application.
Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or
manually. For example, when a web application requests a web server, it typically
uses port number 80, because this is the default port assigned to web applications.
Many applications have default ports assigned.
At the receiver’s side: Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and
forwards the Data which it has received to the respective application. It also
performs sequencing and reassembling of the segmented data.
Functions of the Transport Layer
 Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the
(session) layer, and breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the
segments produced has a header associated with it. The transport layer at the
destination station reassembles the message.
 Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process,
the transport layer header includes a type of address called service point
address or port address. Thus by specifying this address, the transport layer
makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process.
Services Provided by Transport Layer
 Connection-Oriented Service
 Connectionless Service
1. Connection-Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process that includes:
 Connection Establishment
 Data Transfer
 Termination/disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgment, back
to the source after a packet or group of packets is received. This type of
transmission is reliable and secure.
2. Connectionless service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data Transfer. In
this type of transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet.
This approach allows for much faster communication between devices.
Connection-oriented service is more reliable than connectionless Service.
Note:
 Data in the Transport Layer is called Segments .
 Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of the OS
and communicates with the Application Layer by making system calls.
 The transport layer is called as Heart of the OSI model.
 Device or Protocol Use : TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP
Session Layer – Layer 5
This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of
sessions, and authentication, and also ensures security.
Functions of the Session Layer
 Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: The layer allows
the two processes to establish, use, and terminate a connection.
 Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are
considered synchronization points in the data. These synchronization points
help to identify the error so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and
ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.
 Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start
communication with each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
Note:
 All the below 3 layers(including Session Layer) are integrated as a single
layer in the TCP/IP model as the “Application Layer”.
 Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application itself.
These are also known as Upper Layers or Software Layers.
 Device or Protocol Use : NetBIOS, PPTP.
Example
Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through some
Messenger application running in their browser. The “ Messenger ” here acts as
the application layer which provides the user with an interface to create the data.
This message or so-called Data is compressed, optionally encrypted (if the data is
sensitive), and converted into bits (0’s and 1’s) so that it can be transmitted.
Communication in Session Layer
Presentation Layer – Layer 6
The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer . The data from the
application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to
transmit over the network.
Functions of the Presentation Layer
 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC .
 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another
form or code. The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext and the
decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting as
well as decrypting data.
 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the
network.
Note: Device or Protocol Use: JPEG, MPEG, GIF.
Application Layer – Layer 7
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the
Application layer which is implemented by the network applications. These
applications produce the data to be transferred over the network. This layer also
serves as a window for the application services to access the network and for
displaying the received information to the user.
Example : Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.
Note: The application Layer is also called Desktop Layer.
Device or Protocol Use : SMTP .
Functions of the Application Layer
The main functions of the application layer are given below.
 Network Virtual Terminal(NVT): It allows a user to log on to a remote
host.
 File Transfer Access and Management(FTAM): This application allows a
user to
access files in a remote host, retrieve files in a remote host, and manage or
control files from a remote computer.
 Mail Services: Provide email service.
 Directory Services: This application provides distributed database sources
and access for global information about various objects and services.
Note: The OSI model acts as a reference model and is not implemented on the
Internet because of its late invention. The current model being used is the TCP/IP
model.

OSI vs TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP protocol ( Transfer Control Protocol/Internet Protocol ) was created by
U.S. Department of Defense’s Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in
1970s.
Some key differences between the OSI model and the TCP/IP Model are:
1) TCP/IP model consists of 4 layers but OSI model has 7 layers. Layers 5,6,7
of the OSI model are combined into the Application Layer of TCP/IP
model and OSI layers 1 and 2 are combined into Network Access Layers
of TCP/IP protocol.
2) The TCP/IP model is older than the OSI model, hence it is a foundational
protocol that defines how should data be transferred online.
 3) Compared to the OSI model, the TCP/IP model has less strict layer
boundaries.
4) All layers of the TCP/IP model are needed for data transmission but in the
OSI model, some applications can skip certain layers. Only layers 1,2 and 3
of the OSI model are necessary for data transmission.

Questions

1) Is OSI layer still used?

2) What is the highest layer of the OSI model?

Answers

1) Yes, the OSI model is still used by networking professionals

to understand data abstraction paths and processes better.
2) Layer 7 or Application layer is highest layer of OSI model.

Difference Between MAC Address and IP Address

Both MAC Address and IP Address are used to uniquely define a

device on the internet. NIC Card’s Manufacturer provides the
MAC Address, on the other hand, the Internet Service Provider
provides the IP Address.

What is MAC Address?

MAC, or Media Access Control is a unique identifier that is carved

on the computer hardware to connect the system to other systems
of the network address. It uses the NIC – Network Interface
Controller to create a communication segment to establish
communication between systems on the same network. MAC
Address works for a local network.

What is the Format of the MAC Address?

MAC Address is represented as a group of 6 hexadecimal

numbers, each group consisting of two hexadecimal numbers. It is
also called a 6-byte hexadecimal number. For eg. This is an
example of a MAC Address: 01-23-45-67-89-BC.

What is an IP Address?

IP Address, or Internet Protocol Address is a unique identifier for

every system that has internet connectivity. The major difference
between MAC address & IP address is that IP address has a global
network, whereas MAC address operates only in a local network. It
is used to establish a communication between networks & systems
of several networks. The IP address can be used for broadcasting
or multicasting.

What is the Format of a IP Address?

IP address is a 32-bit, 4 group address that consists of numbers

separated in a decimal format. For eg. 198.168.2.33. We also have
a common form of IP address, that is whitelisted IP address which
is written as 0.0.0.0, which means that it can receive data from
anywhere. This is generally not considered a safe option as
whitelisting means welcoming cyber attacks.

What is the Importance of an IP Address?

IP address is an essential part as it allows the service provider to

identify networks & their address provide information about the
network & data being shared. IP address is stored on every
computer that is connected to the internet & this helps their
communication over LAN – Local Area Network, or over internet.
Difference Between MAC Address and IP Address

The main difference between MAC and IP address is that MAC

Address is used to ensure the physical address of the computer. It
uniquely identifies the devices on a network. While IP addresses
are used to uniquely identifies the connection of the network with
that device takes part in a network. IP Address issued by internet
service provider.

Conclusion

Both MAC address & IP address are unique identifiers that connect
to those systems which have an internet connectivity. They differ
in the aspect that MAC address is a local area network address,
whereas IP address is a global area network. There are many
differences too in terms of their configurations, format which once
read in the tabular format shown above would help us to
understand the differences and benefits clearly.

Questions

What is an address?

An address is a storage location, or an area to store the information or

data about a specific product or system. If we talk about IP address, then
it stores information about the network connectivity.

What is MAC Address & IP address?

Both MAC Address & IP address are unique identifiers that give
information about the connectivity of those systems which have an
internet, network or bandwidth connectivity.
Difference Between Token ring and Ethernet

There are two prominent local area network (LAN) technologies that are
used when it comes to computer networking: Token Ring and Ethernet.
Token Ring uses a token-passing to control access while it is governed
by IEEE 802.5 standard; thus, devices must wait for a token before
transmitting any data.

On the other hand, Ethernet utilizes Carrier-Sense Multiple

Access/Collision Detection (CSMA/CD), which means that devices can
send data any time the network is idle until a collision occurs then
retransmission will occur after some random period of time has elapsed.
These two systems vary significantly with respect to their data
transmission methods, network topologies, and costs making them
appropriate for different applications.

Token Ring

In the token ring, a token ring passes over a physical ring. Token ring is
defined by IEEE 802.5 standard. In a token ring, there is a station and a
special frame called a token. A station in the token ring can transmit data
frame if it contains a token. After the successful transmission of data
frame tokens are pointed(issued). The token ring is a star-shaped
topology and handles priority in which some nodes may give priority to
the token.
Advantages

 Predictability: Since each device gets an opportunity to pass the

token, this token passing process is more predictable with no
packet collisions happening at all.

 Handling of Priorities: In a token ring network, some nodes can

be given priority over others making the management of important
data easier.

 Routing Information: Token Ring includes routing information

and it may assist in streamlining data transmission.

Disadvantages

 Expensive: Compared to Ethernet, Token Ring networks are

relatively costly to set up.

 Slow Speed: Generally speaking its transmission speeds are lower

than that of other types of networks with speeds ranging from four
megabits per second (Mbps) to sixteen megabits per second
(Mbps).

 Complexity: Compared to Ethernet, token ring technology is more

complicated and hence needs intense care during its operation.

Ethernet

IEEE 802.3 defines the Ethernet. It uses CSMA/CD mechanism. It

means that if many stations exist at the same time to talk, all stations will
be closed. To resume them, wait for a random time. Unlike token ring it
doesn’t employ any priorities. And it is less costly than token ring
network.

Advantages
  Saving Cost: Cost of token ring is much higher as compared to
Ethernet. It may be up to 70% lower in cost.

 Speed: Ethernet uses faster data transmission rates compared with

other methods like token ring, from 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps or
beyond.

 Simplicity: Setting up and maintaining an Ethernet network is

simpler for users.

Disadvantages

 Collisions: In Ethernet, the fact that it is not deterministic makes it

prone to collisions if two or more devices attempt transmitting
simultaneously.

 No Priority Handling: The absence of a way on the part of

Ethernet to sort out some devices or data means there will be
problems where priority management is required.

Difference Between Token ring and Ethernet

TOKEN RING ETHERNET

Ethernet uses CSMA/CD(Carrier-
the token passing mechanism is
Sense Multiple Access/Collision
used.
Detection) mechanism.
Token ring is defined by IEEE Whereas Ethernet is defined by IEEE
802.5 standard. 802.3 standard.
Token ring is deterministic. it is non-deterministic.
A token ring is a Star shaped
Ethernet is a Bus shaped topology.
topology.
The token ring handles priority in
which some nodes may give Ethernet does not employ priority.
priority to the token.
Token ring costs more than Ethernet cost seventy percent less than
Ethernet. token ring.
TOKEN RING ETHERNET
token ring telephone wire is used. Ethernet coaxial cable(wire) is used.
The token ring contains routing Ethernet does not contain routing
information. information.
The transmission speed of token Its transmission speed is faster
ring is slower (generally operates (generally operates at 10 Mbps to up
at 4 Mbps to 16 Mbps). to 100 Mbps).
Flow of data is unidirectional as
No such directional flow of data takes
data is passed from one
place. Instead, data frames can be
workstation to another only when
transmitted by any of the workstation
the token is received by the
if the network is idle.
workstation.
Token ring uses a token passing Ethernet uses CSMA/CD so here more
system so only 1 workstation is than one workstation stays active at a
active at a time. time.

Token Ring shines in situations that require predictability and priority

management but it is generally more expensive and slower than its
competitors. Ethernet on the other hand, provides a faster and cheaper
option that has become the mainstay for most contemporary networks
especially where simplicity and low prices are preferred to sure access as
well as collision handling. The decision to use either Token Ring or
Ethernet would be greatly influenced by specific network needs
especially performance issues, scalability concerns as well as cost issues.
Question

DSL

DSL is a type of broadband internet connection that uses existing

telephone lines to transmit data. It provides high-speed internet access to
homes and businesses without the need for a separate dedicated line.
DSL is a modem technology transport high-bandwidth data, such as
multimedia and video, to service subscribers. DSL provides dedicated,
point-to-point, public network access.

Digital Subscriber Line/Loop

DSL stands for Digital Subscriber Line/Loop and it is a communication

medium that receives data via a copper telephone landline.