PNNL 32074
PNNL 32074
PNNL 32074
February 2022
C Cejudo
B Ford
T Saslow
K Stoughton
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PNNL- 32074
February 2022
C Cejudo
B Ford
T Saslow
K Stoughton
Prepared for
the U.S. Department of Energy
under Contract DE-AC05-76RL01830
Contents
Acronyms and Abbreviations....................................................................................................... ii
Contents .................................................................................................................................... iii
1.0 Introduction .....................................................................................................................1
2.0 Meter Selection and Installation .......................................................................................2
2.1 Selection Considerations .....................................................................................3
2.2 Installation Considerations ...................................................................................5
2.3 Testing and Calibration ........................................................................................6
3.0 Water Meter Technology Overview..................................................................................7
3.1 Positive Displacement Meters ..............................................................................9
3.2 Velocity Meters ..................................................................................................10
3.3 Compound Meters .............................................................................................12
3.4 Electronic Meters ...............................................................................................13
3.5 Differential Pressure Meters ...............................................................................15
4.0 Data Analytics ...............................................................................................................17
4.1 Supporting Data Sources ...................................................................................17
4.2 Water Use Intensity............................................................................................18
4.3 Use Cases .........................................................................................................18
4.3.1 Benchmarking Monthly WUI for Similar Buildings ................................ 18
4.3.2 Identifying Landscape Irrigation Improvements.................................... 19
4.3.3 Identifying a Plumbing Leak .................................................................19
4.3.4 Improper Configuration of a Meter at a Building with Low Water
Use ......................................................................................................20
Appendix A – Glossary............................................................................................................ A.1
Contents iii
PNNL- 32074
Figures
Figure 1. Recommended Installation for Turbine and Compound Meters ............................6
Figure 2. Example of a Nutating Disk Positive Displacement Meter ....................................9
Figure 3. Example of Class II Turbine Meter .....................................................................10
Figure 4. Example of Vortex Shedding Meter ....................................................................11
Figure 5. Example of a High-Low Compound Meter ..........................................................13
Figure 6. Example of an Electromagnetic Meter................................................................14
Figure 7. Example of Ultrasonic Transit-Time Meter .........................................................14
Figure 8. Example of Venturi Meter...................................................................................15
Figure 9. Example of Orifice Plate Meter...........................................................................16
Tables
Table 1. Meter Characteristics ...........................................................................................8
Contents iv
PNNL- 32074
1.0 Introduction
Managing water-efficient facilities and Intended Audience:
operations can be enhanced by the application Operations and Maintenance (O&M) and
of water meters and timely analysis of the Building Management staff to provide a
general introduction and overview of water
reported data. These actions provide critical
meters.
information for facility managers to analyze
water use, identify trends and operational issues The recommendations in these best
that can help target water efficiency measures. practices are designed to supplement
those of the manufacturer and design
Federal agencies are required to meter buildings professionals. As a rule, these best
practices will first defer to the
for water per the Energy Act of 2020, codified in
manufacturer’s recommendations on
42 U.S.C. § 8253(e), which directs agencies to installation and maintenance.
meet the following water metering requirements:
• By October 1, 2022, in accordance with U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) guidance, all
federal buildings shall, for the purposes of efficient use of water and reduction in the cost
water in such buildings, be metered.
• Each agency shall use, to the maximum extent practicable, advanced meters or
advanced metering devices that provide data at least daily and that measure at least
hourly consumption of water in the federal buildings of the agency.
• Meter data shall be incorporated into federal water tracking systems (e.g. ISO 50001,
Energy Management Information Systems) and made available to federal facility
managers.
Basic Terms:
These best practices provide further technical
information to select the appropriate water Standard meters cumulatively measure
and record aggregated usage data that
meters on buildings that have been identified and
are periodically retrieved for use in
to understand how data can be used and customer billing or energy management. A
analyzed to improve water management. meter that is not an advanced meter is
considered a standard meter.
Find additional information and resources on
federal water metering on the Federal Energy Advanced meters measure and record
water consumption data hourly or more
Management Program water metering resources
frequently and transmit measurements
website over a communication network to a central
collection point.
Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI) is
an integrated network of advanced
meters, communications, and data
management systems.
Advanced Meter Reading (AMR) is a
predecessor to AMI. AMR refers to
individual advanced meters that transmit
readings over short distances without the
need for manual logging.
Find more definitions in the Glossary
Introduction 1
PNNL- 32074
• Water meter technology options Find more information water metering use
cases in the Data Analytics Section.
• Data analytics and validation
Introduction 2
PNNL- 32074
Pressure Loss: All meters impart a pressure loss to the system from friction through the flow
path of the device. Some meters (electronic and propeller) impart minimal drag on the water
flow, while others (venturi) depend on water pressure to register measurements. Undersized
meters may have a large pressure drop, however larger meters may not measure low-flows
as accurately and have cost and installation disadvantages. Determine the building or
application acceptable pressure loss and select a meter that fits within this pressure range
or provide provisions to compensate for proper system operation, such as a booster pump.
Location: Meters can be located indoors or outdoors, with each option having advantages and
disadvantages. For example, indoor installations provide protection from the elements and
added security but may take-up a significant footprint in the mechanical or water entry room.
Outdoor installations may free up valuable indoor space, but the location of the underground
meter vault may interfere with vehicle or foot traffic. Other considerations include access for
reading and maintenance, meter harmonics/vibrations local drainage, and freeze protection
for outdoor applications.
Available space: The space required for meter installation depends on the type, size, and
required accessories such as straight lengths of pipe, strainers, control valves, test ports,
etc., that make up the “meter set.” Allow sufficient space around the meter set to permit
access for reading, testing, calibration and maintenance.
Networking and Cybersecurity: As AMI is increasingly integrated with federal IT networks,
advanced meters introduce new entry points for potential cybersecurity breaches. Close
coordination between agencies’ facility operations and IT personnel is essential to ensure
that potential vulnerabilities are addressed and that AMI systems are operating in
accordance with federal information cyber security policies.
Communication and data management systems: Communications and interoperability
between meters and other data acquisition systems are critical. Confirm meter
communication options are appropriate and compatible with existing information technology
(IT) systems and cybersecurity protocols. Current AMI and AMR technology allows for
remote data readings minimizing previous disadvantages of indoor or outdoor installations.
Confirm cybersecurity requirements with the appropriate federal agency’s meter acquisition
policy, if applicable.
Cost: Initial costs vary by meter technology and size. A small turbine meter will be less
expensive than an equivalent sized compound meter. An ultrasonic meter (newer
technology) may be slightly more expensive to a comparable compound meter but may
have other benefits such as reduced footprint and maintenance. Procurement and
installation should be balanced with operations and maintenance for the application. A low-
cost meter not well suited to the application may cost more in operations and maintenance.
Conversely, a more expensive compound meter may not be appropriate for an application
where a less expensive disk meter may suffice. In certain cases, high costs could mean
advanced metering is not practicable at some Federal buildings. See the Federal Metering
Guidance for an explanation of practicability of advanced metering in appropriate buildings.
Pipe fittings and valves close to the meter introduce turbulence in water flow, which decreases
the accuracy of most meters. The guidelines listed below and as illustrated in Figure 1 can
assist in providing the best flow and measurement accuracy through the meter.
A. Straight Pipe: Compound and turbine meters require a minimum length of 5 pipe
diameters upstream and downstream of the meter for optimum performance. For
example, a pipe 3” in diameter would require 15” of straight pipe both upstream and
downstream of the meter.
B. Strainer: Water that contains sediments or contaminants can damage or interfere with
the internal components of most water meter types. Although some meters include
internal strainers, installations without an appropriate external strainer may require a
minimum of 10 pipe diameters of straight pipe upstream of meter.
C. Valves: Valves disturb water flow, thus interfering with the water flow profile.
− Install full open butterfly or gate valves a minimum of 5 pipe diameters from meter
and strainer upstream and 5 pipe diameters downstream.
− Install check valves at least 5 pipe diameters downstream of the meter. Install
pressure reducing valves at least 5 pipe diameters downstream of meter. Never
install check valves or pressure reducing valves within 5 pipe diameters downstream
of the meter.
D. Other: Components such as backflow devices, pumps, and test ports.
− Install backflow devices at least 5 pipe diameters upstream of the meter.
− Install test ports at least 2 pipe diameters upstream and downstream of the meter.
− Never install valves on the suction side of a pump near a meter.
Refer to the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Fluid Metrology Calibration
Services website for more information https://www.nist.gov/pml/sensor-science/fluid-
metrology/fluid-metrology-calibration-services-liquid-flow
This section describes a variety of water meters available on the market. Table 1 provides a
general comparison of key attributes that can be useful in the selection process, with the most
common meter types encountered in building applications shown at the top.
1
Information obtained from AWWA Water Meters Manual 6 and Manual 22, as well as a selection of manufacturer and industry data to compile
typical ranges for each criteria.
Types: There are two main categories of PD meters: 1) nutating disk and 2) oscillating piston.
− Nutating disk meters have a disk on a sliding ball guided by a thrust roller. The
movement of water into the fixed volume measuring chamber causes the disk to nutate,
or wobble, on its axis. The thrust roller is connected to a magnetic coupling at the
register.
Applications: PD meters are well suited for smaller systems with low flow rates, up to 400 gpm.
Common PD meter sizes range from 5/8” to 2”. Nutating disk meters are the most common type
of PD meter used in building applications. Oscillating piston meters are ideal for use with
viscous fluids such as in vehicle maintenance and food and beverage applications.
Selection Tips: PD meters are very accurate for low-flow rates. Pressure drop through the
meter is modest, and meter maintenance is minimal. Smaller low-occupancy buildings are ideal
candidates for these meters, as are low-flow applications. PD meters operate best when
installed horizontally. PD meters are small and do not require straight lengths of pipe upstream
or downstream of the meter and are well suited for environments where space is limited. As the
measuring mechanism is not designed for higher flows, buildings or applications that experience
periodic high flow rates should consider a compound meter. PD meters are less expensive than
comparable turbine or compound meters.
Types: There are four main categories of velocity meters: 1) turbine, 2) single-jet and multi-jet,
3) vortex shedding, and 4) propellor.
− Turbine meters use an impeller connected by a gear set to the register to measure the
water flow. There are two classes of turbine meters. Class I turbine meters have the
impeller axis perpendicular to the water flow, tend to be older designs and thus are less
widely used. Class II turbine meters have the impeller axis parallel to the water flow and
are smaller than Class I meters.
− Single-jet and multi-jet meters concentrate the flow of water into several columns
directed at the periphery of an impeller. Single-jet meters have one jet directed
tangentially to the impeller. Measurements are taken in a similar manner as turbine
meters.
− Vortex shedding meters are unique as they induce vortices in the flowing water and
use the frequency at which these occur to measure the flow rate and infer the volume.
− Propeller meters have a “pinwheel” (rotor) in the flow stream that spins on a horizontal
axle geared to a register. The rotor spins proportionally to the fluid velocity with minimal
pressure drop. This meter type can measure high-velocity turbulent flows and can be
used in water in which particulates are present without significantly affecting the meter
components.
Applications
− Turbine meters should range in size from ¼“ to 20” and work best in high-flow
applications, thus should be considered for high-occupancy facilities and end uses
where flow rates are greater than 50 gpm.
− Single- and multi-jet meters range in size from 5/ 8 ” to 2” and cover a wider range of flow
rates ranging from 2–30 gpm.
− Vortex shedding meters range in size from ¼“ to 12”. They are less common in potable
water applications as low flow rates are not accurately measured, although they can be
appropriate for end uses with continuous moderate to high flow rates such as boiler feed
water, chilled or hot water systems, corrosive fluids, or where moving parts are not
desired.
− Propeller meters range in size from 2” to 72” and are most appropriate for high-flow end
uses containing sediments such as irrigation mains.
Selection Tips
Acceptable flow rates vary from meter-to-meter in this category; consult manufacturer data
sheets to help select the appropriate meter. Avoid installing turbine meters in buildings or end-
uses in which frequent low-flow rates are experienced as accuracy in these ranges tends to be
poor; PD or multi/single-jet meters would be choices for that application. Turbine meters need
fully established relatively steady flow profile upstream of the meter. A strainer should be
installed upstream of the turbine meter to remove debris that can impact accuracy and reduce
the life of the meter. Many turbine meters require an adequate length of straight pipe installed
before and after the meter (typically 10x and 5x nominal diameter, respectively) otherwise
accuracy will be affected. Vortex meters should be avoided in applications where intermittent
low-flow occurs due to the possibility of under measurement.
Types: There are three main types of compound meters: 1) series, 2) parallel, and 3) fire-
service.
− Series compound meters operate simultaneously with a ratcheting mechanism so only
one meter registers flow at a time.
− Parallel compound meters operate one at a time and transition by an automatic bypass.
− Fire service compound meters are specialty types listed by Underwriters Laboratories
(UL) and/or Factory Mutual Global (FM) for fire service applications. This type of meter
complies with applicable fire and life safety codes and standards.
Applications: These units have a large TDRs and are widely used in buildings and applications
with large water flow rate variations. Common compound meter sizes range from 2” to 8”.
Selection Tips: Observe the use patterns (water demand profile) of your facility to minimize the
time spent operating at the changeover point. Also consider the space needed to accommodate
manufacturer’s recommended strainer and straight-pipe requirements. Compound meters
ranging in size from 2” to 8”. When use is intermittent and shows significant variation, a
compound meter should be considered. Because they require two meters per application,
compound meters tend to be relatively expensive compared to a similar size turbine or PD
meter.
Types: There are two main types of electronic meters: 1) electromagnetic and 2) ultrasonic.
− Electromagnetic meters operate by sending a magnetic field through the water flow to
induce an electrical current that is proportional to the flow rate moving through the field.
Applications: Electronic meters also have high TDRs, making them suitable for variable flow
applications. These units are commonly used in water lines that contain contaminants, due to
the lack of moving parts and obstructions in the meter cylinder. Common electronic meter sizes
range from ½” to 72”. Ultrasonic meter common sizes range from 5/8” to 120”. The maintenance
required for electronic meters is low, making them ideal for remote locations and areas where
workspace is limited. The accuracy and sizing ranges are greater than those of their mechanical
counterparts, making them ideal for unique metering purposes where accuracy is of utmost
importance.
Selection Tips: Avoid using for water that contains magnetic (iron) particles or air bubbles as
these factors can affect meter accuracy. It is also critical to have a reliable source of power.
The cost of electronic meters is decreasing as the market matures. The cost of a small
electronic meter may be on par with a comparable turbine meter, with added benefits of low
pressure drop and excellent low flow capabilities.
Types: There are two types of differential pressure meters” 1) Venturi and 2) orifice plates.
− Venturi meters restrict water flow by gradually decreasing the tube diameter as the
water flow approaches the middle of the meter. The meter takes two measurements, at
the inlet of the meter and near the narrowest section of the meter. The difference in
pressure is proportional to the rate of flow.
− Orifice plate meters rely on a precisely manufactured plate inserted between two
flanges to restrict water flow and induce a pressure drop. Suspended particles—
regardless of size—abrade the plate over time and enlarge the orifice. This process
diminishes the accuracy of the meter. It is imperative that orifice plates be inspected
regularly to prevent the occurrence of excessive wear. The frequency at which
inspections should occur will depend on water quality and use of the water line.
Applications: Differential pressure meters are used on large water lines in high-flow
applications in which variations in flow rate are low. This meter type is most commonly found in
larger water distribution systems.
Selection Tips: Differential pressure meters require sufficient space for flow conditioning
straight pipe runs installed upstream and downstream of the meter. They are typically less
expensive than other types of meters. Common differential pressure meter sizes range from ¼”
to 84”. Maintenance, regular testing and calibration, and replacements of orifice plates are all
required to attain accurate readings. Costs of differential pressure meters are comparable to the
costs of turbine meters.
The WUI metric can be calculated over any time period; although, for benchmarking purposes,
total water use usually is summed monthly or annually.
Note: Per the Energy Act of 2020, the US DOE, in consultation with the Office of Management
and Budget (OMB) and the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), is developing new
performance metrics requirements for data centers, in which WUI is being considered.
Situation: A regional energy and water manager monitors monthly water use for a portfolio of
buildings. She compares monthly WUI for four similar buildings and notices that water use at
Building B has increased substantially in December, while it is trending downward for the winter
at the other three buildings.
0.3
0.25
0.2 Bldg A
0.15 Bldg B
0.1 Bldg C
0.05 Bldg D
0
Outcome: The water manager reviewed the 15-minute interval data and saw that at 3:30 PM
on December 4, baseline water use at the facility increased rapidly from zero to approximately
130 gallons every 15 minutes. She placed a call to the facility manager on-site, who discovered
that a faucet had been left running in a seldom-used utility closet. The facility manager closed
the faucet and the following month water use decreased by almost 20,000 gallons.
Situation: A facility grounds manager in Texas reviews a graph of landscape irrigation water
use over the previous month and sees that a consistent amount of water is used at the same
time each day. Further investigation reveals that the irrigation system is controlled by a clock
timer, leading to a significant overuse of water throughout the year, particularly in the winter
months. By implementing weather-based irrigation controllers, which adjust the timing and
duration of irrigation based on locally forecasted weather conditions, the site could save water
and money.
2,500,000
Water Use (gallons)
2,000,000
1,500,000
2018
1,000,000
2019
500,000
Outcome: The following year after installing the weather-based irrigation controllers, the site
reduced irrigation water use by 57%, saving nearly 17 million gallons of water. Data from the
advanced water meter was instrumental in first identifying the problem of over-watering and
then demonstrating the savings from installing the controllers.
Situation: A building operator reviews a plot of water use over the previous 24 hours and
notices a suspicious pattern of regular water use at night. The graph below shows one gallon
pulses at intervals of 2 hours which reveals use during unoccupied periods.
Outcome: The water use observed at regular intervals during the night, when the building is
unoccupied, raised the suspicion of a small but continuous water leak. Visual inspection of the
fixtures in the men’s restroom confirmed the leak’s location. Leaks can be difficult to recognize
during the day when water normally flows but during unoccupied periods when no flow is
expected, regular pulses of the same magnitude and frequency are a common sign that there is
a leak in the system.
Situation: A facility manager reviews water use data at a campus building for the prior 24-hour
period. The time series graph reveals little interpretable information, beyond the fact that the
building appears to have used a total of 20 gallons of water during that time.
100
Water Use (gallons)
80
60
40
20
0
12 AM 3 AM 6 AM 9 AM 12 PM 3 PM 6 PM 9 PM
Time
Outcome: The meter is not properly configured to record the relatively low rates of water use in
this building. The water meter has a pulse kit that is configured to report consumption in 10-
gallon increments; however, because water use is low at this building, the kit should have been
configured to pulse at 1-gallon increments or less. That configuration would have provided
better data resolution, showing water use at times where the meter is currently reporting zero
use.
Appendix A – Glossary
Advanced meter: An advanced meter records energy or water consumption data hourly or more
frequently and provides for daily or more frequent transmittal of measurements over a
communication network to a central data collection point. Advanced meters usually are able to
record other physical quantities in addition to consumption. Related to an advanced meter, an
advanced metering device is an electronic meter with built-in metering and communication
capabilities, or a separate electronic device coupled to a standard meter that enables
communication to the on-site automated metering infrastructure.
Advanced Meter Reading (AMR): The predecessor and contemporary to AMI, AMR refers to
individual advanced meters that transmit readings over short distances without the need for
manual logging of information. The key difference between AMR and AMI falls in the method of
data collection. AMR relies solely on vehicles or personnel equipped with remote meter-reading
devices to collect data from the roadside, as opposed to data being automatically transmitted to
a data management system. As such, readings occur less frequently and are less useful for
diagnostic purposes.
Changeover point: The point at which a compound meter’s operations transition from one meter
to the other is known as the changeover point. Applications with flows near this operating point
should consider a meter that can accommodate the changeover point range.
Extended low-flow: Low flow at which the meter manufacturer guarantees minimum accuracy of
±3% or 97%–103%
Flow range: A general range of flow rates that the meter measures accurately. This information
refers to entire meter categories, not individual meters.
Maximum continuous duty: The flow rate where meter can be run continuously without
degrading meter operation.
Pressure range: The amount of water pressure the meter can safely handle without being
damaged or give inaccurate readings. This is important to consider when evaluating the
pressure available from the main line and the pressure requirements of the building or
application.
Sizing range: Sizing range refers to the range of line sizes available for a type of meter. This
dimension refers to the internal diameter of the tube. It is important to be aware of this, as
installing the correct meter may involve adapters to reduce the line size.
Appendix A A.1
PNNL- 32074
Turndown ratio (TDR): TDR compares a meters highest rated flow to its lowest rated flow. This
ratio is specific to individual meters and the ranges provided by the manufacturer. It is useful
when evaluating system requirements and meter capabilities, as some meters have flow ranges
that make them better suited for specific use patterns. TDR tends to decrease in smaller sized
lines and increase in larger sized line.
Water-intensive buildings: Buildings with high water-using equipment such as chiller plants,
steam plants, industrial buildings, manufacturing machinery and buildings, data centers, lodging,
food service, food sales, recreation centers, vehicle wash stations, inpatient health care and
hospitals, prisons, vehicle care, laboratories, and irrigation pump houses.
Water Use Intensity (WUI): A metric that normalizes water use by the total floor area of a
building. WUI can be used to directly compare rates of water use across buildings of different
sizes.
Appendix A A.2
PNNL- 32074
Pacific Northwest
National Laboratory
902 Battelle Boulevard
P.O. Box 999
Richland, WA 99354
1-888-375-PNNL (7665)
www.pnnl.gov