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PNNL- 32074

Water Metering Best


Practices

February 2022

C Cejudo
B Ford
T Saslow
K Stoughton

Prepared for the U.S. Department of Energy


under Contract DE-AC05-76RL01830

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PNNL- 32074

Water Metering Best Practices

February 2022

C Cejudo
B Ford
T Saslow
K Stoughton

Prepared for
the U.S. Department of Energy
under Contract DE-AC05-76RL01830

Pacific Northwest National Laboratory


Richland, Washington 99354
PNNL- 32074

Acronyms and Abbreviations


AMI advanced metering infrastructure
AMR advanced meter reading
AWWA American Water Works Association
DOE Department of Energy
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
FM Factory Mutual
gpm gallons per minute
ID internal diameter
IT information technology
mg/l milligrams per liter
NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology
NPD nominal pipe diameter
OMB Office of Management and Budget
O&M Operations & Maintenance
PD positive displacement
TDR turndown ratio
UL Underwriter’s Laboratories
WUI water use intensity

Acronyms and Abbreviations ii


PNNL- 32074

Contents
Acronyms and Abbreviations....................................................................................................... ii
Contents .................................................................................................................................... iii
1.0 Introduction .....................................................................................................................1
2.0 Meter Selection and Installation .......................................................................................2
2.1 Selection Considerations .....................................................................................3
2.2 Installation Considerations ...................................................................................5
2.3 Testing and Calibration ........................................................................................6
3.0 Water Meter Technology Overview..................................................................................7
3.1 Positive Displacement Meters ..............................................................................9
3.2 Velocity Meters ..................................................................................................10
3.3 Compound Meters .............................................................................................12
3.4 Electronic Meters ...............................................................................................13
3.5 Differential Pressure Meters ...............................................................................15
4.0 Data Analytics ...............................................................................................................17
4.1 Supporting Data Sources ...................................................................................17
4.2 Water Use Intensity............................................................................................18
4.3 Use Cases .........................................................................................................18
4.3.1 Benchmarking Monthly WUI for Similar Buildings ................................ 18
4.3.2 Identifying Landscape Irrigation Improvements.................................... 19
4.3.3 Identifying a Plumbing Leak .................................................................19
4.3.4 Improper Configuration of a Meter at a Building with Low Water
Use ......................................................................................................20
Appendix A – Glossary............................................................................................................ A.1

Contents iii
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Figures
Figure 1. Recommended Installation for Turbine and Compound Meters ............................6
Figure 2. Example of a Nutating Disk Positive Displacement Meter ....................................9
Figure 3. Example of Class II Turbine Meter .....................................................................10
Figure 4. Example of Vortex Shedding Meter ....................................................................11
Figure 5. Example of a High-Low Compound Meter ..........................................................13
Figure 6. Example of an Electromagnetic Meter................................................................14
Figure 7. Example of Ultrasonic Transit-Time Meter .........................................................14
Figure 8. Example of Venturi Meter...................................................................................15
Figure 9. Example of Orifice Plate Meter...........................................................................16

Tables
Table 1. Meter Characteristics ...........................................................................................8

Contents iv
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1.0 Introduction
Managing water-efficient facilities and Intended Audience:
operations can be enhanced by the application Operations and Maintenance (O&M) and
of water meters and timely analysis of the Building Management staff to provide a
general introduction and overview of water
reported data. These actions provide critical
meters.
information for facility managers to analyze
water use, identify trends and operational issues The recommendations in these best
that can help target water efficiency measures. practices are designed to supplement
those of the manufacturer and design
Federal agencies are required to meter buildings professionals. As a rule, these best
practices will first defer to the
for water per the Energy Act of 2020, codified in
manufacturer’s recommendations on
42 U.S.C. § 8253(e), which directs agencies to installation and maintenance.
meet the following water metering requirements:
• By October 1, 2022, in accordance with U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) guidance, all
federal buildings shall, for the purposes of efficient use of water and reduction in the cost
water in such buildings, be metered.
• Each agency shall use, to the maximum extent practicable, advanced meters or
advanced metering devices that provide data at least daily and that measure at least
hourly consumption of water in the federal buildings of the agency.
• Meter data shall be incorporated into federal water tracking systems (e.g. ISO 50001,
Energy Management Information Systems) and made available to federal facility
managers.
Basic Terms:
These best practices provide further technical
information to select the appropriate water Standard meters cumulatively measure
and record aggregated usage data that
meters on buildings that have been identified and
are periodically retrieved for use in
to understand how data can be used and customer billing or energy management. A
analyzed to improve water management. meter that is not an advanced meter is
considered a standard meter.
Find additional information and resources on
federal water metering on the Federal Energy Advanced meters measure and record
water consumption data hourly or more
Management Program water metering resources
frequently and transmit measurements
website over a communication network to a central
collection point.
Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI) is
an integrated network of advanced
meters, communications, and data
management systems.
Advanced Meter Reading (AMR) is a
predecessor to AMI. AMR refers to
individual advanced meters that transmit
readings over short distances without the
need for manual logging.
Find more definitions in the Glossary

Introduction 1
PNNL- 32074

These best practices focus on agency-owned Metering Cost Effectiveness:


building-level metering and addresses water Water reduction and operational
meters for applications such as irrigation, improvements drive the cost effectiveness of
cooling towers, vehicle wash, laundry, water meters. A properly selected meter may
commercial cooking, recreation, and other have a higher upfront cost but will last longer
water-intensive end uses. and reduce operations & maintenance
issues. Although meters do not save water
directly, they provide data to inform
Many federal facilities have water meters that performance improvements and cost
are owned and managed by a private utility reductions from:
that supplies water to the site. These utility • Water leaks in distribution system or
water meters typically measure water for an equipment
entire campus, not at the building-level or • Operational issues such as open valves
application level. Therefore, many federal or malfunctioning equipment
buildings and water-intensive applications • Water-intensive buildings that are good
(e.g., irrigation) are not metered. Further, candidates for water efficiency upgrades
commonly available water meter selection
resources focus on private utility operations The Federal Metering Guidance discusses
and revenue recovery, not on facility water the practicability of installing advanced
efficiency and O&M. meters. It provides agencies with the option
to forego advanced meters on buildings
These best practices aim to guide facility where costs could prohibit accomplishment of
agency mission and project objectives. A
managers in understanding these key issues to forthcoming best practice on life-cycle cost
help increase the use of water metering: analysis for advanced metering will help
• Water meter selection and installation agencies make these determinations.

• Water meter technology options Find more information water metering use
cases in the Data Analytics Section.
• Data analytics and validation

Introduction 2
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2.0 Meter Selection and Installation


The following information provides best practices on Determining the Water Demand Profile:
selecting and installing water meters. To select the right meter type and size,
determine the building or application flow
2.1 Selection Considerations range and estimate percentages for each:
1. Low flows (0.25 gpm–30 gpm)
Selecting the appropriate water meter technology/type 2. High flows (30 gpm–1000+ gpm)
and size requires identifying and addressing the unique 3. Maximum continuous duty (varies)
requirements of each application. The primary
considerations include: Temporary data logging may be required
to collect water use profile data (minimum
Meter Size: The appropriate meter size for an of 7 days). The existing meter (typically
application depends on the anticipated flow range utility owned) must be tested for valid data
(minimum, maximum, and continuous duty), as well logging.
as the other considerations listed here. The
American Water Works Association (AWWA) Turndown Ratio is a metric used to
oversees water meter specifications, including estimate the range of accurate flow
testing criteria, selection, installation, and measurement that can be expected from
maintenance guidelines. Per AWWA standards, a meter. Some meters (orifice) have very
threads on meter bodies are typically listed as one low TDRs meaning the meter does not
nominal iron-pipe size (NPS) larger than the nominal accurately measure large variations in
size of the meter inlet internal diameter (ID). Meter flow rate. Therefore, orifice meters should
sizes indicated throughout these best practices refer only be used on applications with very
little variation in flow rate. It is common for
to the flow capacity of the meter body ID, not the
the TDR to decrease as pipe diameter
nominal pipe size they are connected to. decreases, and it will vary among
Manufacturer product data sheets will list meter manufacturers.
characteristics similar to those noted in Table 1
specific to their sizing ranges. Flow Range is the minimum and
maximum flow rates measured
Water Demand Profile: A building’s water demand accurately. This metric refers to entire
profiles the range of flow rates expected or observed meter categories, not individual meters.
throughout a time period, typically a week. For some To estimate flow ranges for individual
buildings or applications, water consumption is meters, consider the TDR and desired
consistent with little variation, while other buildings accuracy of the maximum or minimum
flow rate of the building or application.
may experience large swings in water use. It is
pertinent to select a meter that can operate in the An example is a system with a max flow
expected extended low-flow and maximum of 1,000 gpm and a meter with a TDR of
continuous duty ranges of the building or application. 5:1, thus the lowest flow rate accurately
measured would be:
Accuracy: Some applications may require highly
1,000 gpm / 5 = 200 gpm
accurate meter readings (laboratory equipment),
while others may not require such high performance Alternatively, a system with a max flow of
(irrigation). Accuracy is a function of the meter type, 1500 gpm and a meter with a TDR of 30:1
meter size, and the water volume and velocity would have a min flow rate accuracy of:
flowing through it. The turndown ratio (TDR) is a 1,500 gpm / 30 = 50 gpm
metric that compares a meter’s highest rated flow
range to its lowest. An oversized meter will not
accurately measure low flows, making it harder to detect problems at a building level. Meter
accuracy also can be affected by improper installation. This is especially true for turbine and
compound meters that require flow conditioning for a uniform swirl-free flow profile in the
pipe immediately upstream of the meter.

Meter Selection and Installation 3


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Pressure Loss: All meters impart a pressure loss to the system from friction through the flow
path of the device. Some meters (electronic and propeller) impart minimal drag on the water
flow, while others (venturi) depend on water pressure to register measurements. Undersized
meters may have a large pressure drop, however larger meters may not measure low-flows
as accurately and have cost and installation disadvantages. Determine the building or
application acceptable pressure loss and select a meter that fits within this pressure range
or provide provisions to compensate for proper system operation, such as a booster pump.
Location: Meters can be located indoors or outdoors, with each option having advantages and
disadvantages. For example, indoor installations provide protection from the elements and
added security but may take-up a significant footprint in the mechanical or water entry room.
Outdoor installations may free up valuable indoor space, but the location of the underground
meter vault may interfere with vehicle or foot traffic. Other considerations include access for
reading and maintenance, meter harmonics/vibrations local drainage, and freeze protection
for outdoor applications.
Available space: The space required for meter installation depends on the type, size, and
required accessories such as straight lengths of pipe, strainers, control valves, test ports,
etc., that make up the “meter set.” Allow sufficient space around the meter set to permit
access for reading, testing, calibration and maintenance.
Networking and Cybersecurity: As AMI is increasingly integrated with federal IT networks,
advanced meters introduce new entry points for potential cybersecurity breaches. Close
coordination between agencies’ facility operations and IT personnel is essential to ensure
that potential vulnerabilities are addressed and that AMI systems are operating in
accordance with federal information cyber security policies.
Communication and data management systems: Communications and interoperability
between meters and other data acquisition systems are critical. Confirm meter
communication options are appropriate and compatible with existing information technology
(IT) systems and cybersecurity protocols. Current AMI and AMR technology allows for
remote data readings minimizing previous disadvantages of indoor or outdoor installations.
Confirm cybersecurity requirements with the appropriate federal agency’s meter acquisition
policy, if applicable.
Cost: Initial costs vary by meter technology and size. A small turbine meter will be less
expensive than an equivalent sized compound meter. An ultrasonic meter (newer
technology) may be slightly more expensive to a comparable compound meter but may
have other benefits such as reduced footprint and maintenance. Procurement and
installation should be balanced with operations and maintenance for the application. A low-
cost meter not well suited to the application may cost more in operations and maintenance.
Conversely, a more expensive compound meter may not be appropriate for an application
where a less expensive disk meter may suffice. In certain cases, high costs could mean
advanced metering is not practicable at some Federal buildings. See the Federal Metering
Guidance for an explanation of practicability of advanced metering in appropriate buildings.

Meter Selection and Installation 4


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2.2 Installation Considerations


The following rules of thumb provide general guidelines for meter installations. Refer to the
meter manufacturer’s installation recommendations for specific requirements.
− Install the meter in the proper orientation. Some meter types (electronic) can be installed
in any orientation, while most others must be installed horizontally.
− Locate meter so it is readily accessible for reading, servicing, calibrating and/or testing.
− Provide high-quality shutoff valves and connections so the meter can be removed from
service without negatively affecting operations.
− Provide a bypass to allow for testing and routine maintenance without interrupting
service.
− Provide for permanent electrical grounding not connected to the meter to prevent
accidental shock to operations personnel.
− Provide protection from freezing and other conditions that could damage the meter set.
− Provide proper wiring connection to AMI/AMR or building controller system in
accordance with individual federal agency IT and/or AMI/AMR requirements.
− For outdoor installations, confirm that soil conditions, groundwater level, frost line, and
meter vault depth and clearances are appropriate.

Pipe fittings and valves close to the meter introduce turbulence in water flow, which decreases
the accuracy of most meters. The guidelines listed below and as illustrated in Figure 1 can
assist in providing the best flow and measurement accuracy through the meter.
A. Straight Pipe: Compound and turbine meters require a minimum length of 5 pipe
diameters upstream and downstream of the meter for optimum performance. For
example, a pipe 3” in diameter would require 15” of straight pipe both upstream and
downstream of the meter.
B. Strainer: Water that contains sediments or contaminants can damage or interfere with
the internal components of most water meter types. Although some meters include
internal strainers, installations without an appropriate external strainer may require a
minimum of 10 pipe diameters of straight pipe upstream of meter.
C. Valves: Valves disturb water flow, thus interfering with the water flow profile.
− Install full open butterfly or gate valves a minimum of 5 pipe diameters from meter
and strainer upstream and 5 pipe diameters downstream.
− Install check valves at least 5 pipe diameters downstream of the meter. Install
pressure reducing valves at least 5 pipe diameters downstream of meter. Never
install check valves or pressure reducing valves within 5 pipe diameters downstream
of the meter.
D. Other: Components such as backflow devices, pumps, and test ports.
− Install backflow devices at least 5 pipe diameters upstream of the meter.
− Install test ports at least 2 pipe diameters upstream and downstream of the meter.
− Never install valves on the suction side of a pump near a meter.

Meter Selection and Installation 5


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Figure 1. Recommended Installation for Turbine and Compound Meters

2.3 Testing and Calibration


Most water meters, other than electronic types, contain moving parts that wear out over time,
reducing accuracy and reliability. To avoid wear-related problems, it is recommended that
meters be tested for accuracy in accordance with manufacturer’s recommendations or
applicable American Water Works Association test procedures for the meter type. General
practices for maintaining different sized meters are listed below and provided by meter type in
Table 1.
− Meter sizes between 5/8” and 1” should be tested every 10 years.
− Meter sizes between 1” and 4” should be tested every 5 years.
− Meter sizes above 4” should be tested annually.

Refer to the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Fluid Metrology Calibration
Services website for more information https://www.nist.gov/pml/sensor-science/fluid-
metrology/fluid-metrology-calibration-services-liquid-flow

Meter Selection and Installation 6


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3.0 Water Meter Technology Overview


The single function of a water meter is to convert the physical flow of water into a measurement
of volume. While the process used to make this measurement varies, all water meters share
these basic components:
− A coupling connection to the water line. Flanges and union threaded ends are the most
commonly used connections.
− A metering element that reacts proportionately to flowing water. This could be an
impeller, a nutating disc, or an electrical signal.
− A register that converts the incoming signal, pulse, or mechanical movement into a
measurement of volume. In advanced meters, the register often is connected to an
AMR/AMI system that transmits readings, often by radio frequency.

This section describes a variety of water meters available on the market. Table 1 provides a
general comparison of key attributes that can be useful in the selection process, with the most
common meter types encountered in building applications shown at the top.

This section of describes five categories of water meters:


− Positive displacement
− Velocity
− Compound
− Electronic
− Differential pressure

Water Meter Technology Overview 7


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Table 1. Meter Characteristics 1


Turn Down Meter
Meter Flow Range Pressure Testing
Meter Type Cost Ratio Size Applications
Category (gpm) Drop Frequency
(High to Low) Range
Water Meters Applicable for Most Building Applications
Nutating Positive 5/ Single Family Residential,
$ 0.25 to 400 3:1 to 20:1 8” to 2” Low 10-15 years
Disk Displacement Small Commercial,
Turbine Large Office, Irrigation,
Velocity $$ 4 to 12,000 20:1 to 50:1 ¼“ to 20” Medium Annual
Class II Education, Hospitals
Single Family Residential,
$$ to 5/ Multifamily Residential,
8 ” to
Ultrasonic Electronic 0.05 to 10,000 100:1 Low 1-5 years
$$$ 120” Hospital, Commercial,
Irrigation
Single Family Residential,
Electro- $$ to Multifamily Residential,
Electronic 0.1 to 100,000+ 400:1 ½” to 72” Low 1-5years
magnetic $$$ Hospital, Commercial,
Irrigation
Multifamily Residential,
Compound
Compound $ to $$ 0.25 to 4,500 100:1 to 1,000:1 2 to 8” High Hospital, Commercial, 1-5 years
Class II
Education, Irrigation
Water Meters for Other Applications
Oscillating Positive 5/
$ 0.4 to 5 3:1 to 10:1 8” to 2” Low Process, Viscous fluids 5-10 years
Piston Displacement
Multi-Jet Velocity $ 0.25 to 160 15:1 to 40:1 5/ Medium Small Commercial 5-10 years
8” to 2”
Single-Jet Velocity $ 0.25 to 1000 40:1 to 300:1 5/ Medium Education, Hospitals 5-10 years
8” to 2”
Vortex
Velocity $$ 0.6 to 100,000+ 10:1 to 20:1 ¼ to 12” High Irrigation 1-5 years
Shedding
Propeller Velocity $ to $$ 40 to 100,000+ 10:1 2 to 72” Low Irrigation 1-5 years
Differential Process, Boilers, High
Venturi $$ 0.25 to100,000+ <5:1 ¼” to 84” High Annual
Pressure Volume, Low Variability
Differential Process, Steam, High
Orifice $ 0 to 25 <5:1 ¼“ to 24” High Annual
Pressure Volume, Low Variability
Fire
Compound $$ 2.5 to 7,000 10:1 to 20:1 3” to 12” N/A Per local fire safety codes Annual
Service

1
Information obtained from AWWA Water Meters Manual 6 and Manual 22, as well as a selection of manufacturer and industry data to compile
typical ranges for each criteria.

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3.1 Positive Displacement Meters


Description: Positive displacement (PD) meters directly measure water volume by monitoring
how often a fixed volume measuring chamber is filled with and emptied of water.

Types: There are two main categories of PD meters: 1) nutating disk and 2) oscillating piston.
− Nutating disk meters have a disk on a sliding ball guided by a thrust roller. The
movement of water into the fixed volume measuring chamber causes the disk to nutate,
or wobble, on its axis. The thrust roller is connected to a magnetic coupling at the
register.

Figure 2. Example of a Nutating Disk Positive Displacement Meter

− Oscillating piston meters have a precision-machined measurement chamber


containing a circular piston constrained to oscillate in one plane only. The rotation of the
piston within a circular groove is transmitted to the register either mechanically or
magnetically.

Applications: PD meters are well suited for smaller systems with low flow rates, up to 400 gpm.
Common PD meter sizes range from 5/8” to 2”. Nutating disk meters are the most common type
of PD meter used in building applications. Oscillating piston meters are ideal for use with
viscous fluids such as in vehicle maintenance and food and beverage applications.

Selection Tips: PD meters are very accurate for low-flow rates. Pressure drop through the
meter is modest, and meter maintenance is minimal. Smaller low-occupancy buildings are ideal
candidates for these meters, as are low-flow applications. PD meters operate best when
installed horizontally. PD meters are small and do not require straight lengths of pipe upstream

Water Meter Technology Overview 9


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or downstream of the meter and are well suited for environments where space is limited. As the
measuring mechanism is not designed for higher flows, buildings or applications that experience
periodic high flow rates should consider a compound meter. PD meters are less expensive than
comparable turbine or compound meters.

3.2 Velocity Meters


Description: Velocity meters measure water velocity and convert the measurement into a
volume. An impeller spins at a rate proportional to the water flow, or in the case of a vortex
shedding meter, volume is interpreted through flow-induced vortices.

Types: There are four main categories of velocity meters: 1) turbine, 2) single-jet and multi-jet,
3) vortex shedding, and 4) propellor.
− Turbine meters use an impeller connected by a gear set to the register to measure the
water flow. There are two classes of turbine meters. Class I turbine meters have the
impeller axis perpendicular to the water flow, tend to be older designs and thus are less
widely used. Class II turbine meters have the impeller axis parallel to the water flow and
are smaller than Class I meters.

Figure 3. Example of Class II Turbine Meter

− Single-jet and multi-jet meters concentrate the flow of water into several columns
directed at the periphery of an impeller. Single-jet meters have one jet directed
tangentially to the impeller. Measurements are taken in a similar manner as turbine
meters.

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− Vortex shedding meters are unique as they induce vortices in the flowing water and
use the frequency at which these occur to measure the flow rate and infer the volume.

Figure 4. Example of Vortex Shedding Meter

− Propeller meters have a “pinwheel” (rotor) in the flow stream that spins on a horizontal
axle geared to a register. The rotor spins proportionally to the fluid velocity with minimal
pressure drop. This meter type can measure high-velocity turbulent flows and can be
used in water in which particulates are present without significantly affecting the meter
components.

Applications
− Turbine meters should range in size from ¼“ to 20” and work best in high-flow
applications, thus should be considered for high-occupancy facilities and end uses
where flow rates are greater than 50 gpm.
− Single- and multi-jet meters range in size from 5/ 8 ” to 2” and cover a wider range of flow
rates ranging from 2–30 gpm.
− Vortex shedding meters range in size from ¼“ to 12”. They are less common in potable
water applications as low flow rates are not accurately measured, although they can be
appropriate for end uses with continuous moderate to high flow rates such as boiler feed
water, chilled or hot water systems, corrosive fluids, or where moving parts are not
desired.
− Propeller meters range in size from 2” to 72” and are most appropriate for high-flow end
uses containing sediments such as irrigation mains.

Water Meter Technology Overview 11


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Selection Tips

Acceptable flow rates vary from meter-to-meter in this category; consult manufacturer data
sheets to help select the appropriate meter. Avoid installing turbine meters in buildings or end-
uses in which frequent low-flow rates are experienced as accuracy in these ranges tends to be
poor; PD or multi/single-jet meters would be choices for that application. Turbine meters need
fully established relatively steady flow profile upstream of the meter. A strainer should be
installed upstream of the turbine meter to remove debris that can impact accuracy and reduce
the life of the meter. Many turbine meters require an adequate length of straight pipe installed
before and after the meter (typically 10x and 5x nominal diameter, respectively) otherwise
accuracy will be affected. Vortex meters should be avoided in applications where intermittent
low-flow occurs due to the possibility of under measurement.

3.3 Compound Meters


Description: This meter type uses a combination of both high- and low-flow metering devices
for facilities that see a wide variation of water flow rates throughout a given time period.
Compound meters typically include both turbine and positive displacement (disk) meters as one
unit. When water usage is low, the PD meter is active and registers usage until flow increases
above a threshold when the turbine meter registers usage. Accuracy is affected by the
changeover point, which is the flow rate at which the meter transfers from the high to low-flow
measurements.

Types: There are three main types of compound meters: 1) series, 2) parallel, and 3) fire-
service.
− Series compound meters operate simultaneously with a ratcheting mechanism so only
one meter registers flow at a time.
− Parallel compound meters operate one at a time and transition by an automatic bypass.
− Fire service compound meters are specialty types listed by Underwriters Laboratories
(UL) and/or Factory Mutual Global (FM) for fire service applications. This type of meter
complies with applicable fire and life safety codes and standards.

Water Meter Technology Overview 12


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Figure 5. Example of a High-Low Compound Meter

Applications: These units have a large TDRs and are widely used in buildings and applications
with large water flow rate variations. Common compound meter sizes range from 2” to 8”.

Selection Tips: Observe the use patterns (water demand profile) of your facility to minimize the
time spent operating at the changeover point. Also consider the space needed to accommodate
manufacturer’s recommended strainer and straight-pipe requirements. Compound meters
ranging in size from 2” to 8”. When use is intermittent and shows significant variation, a
compound meter should be considered. Because they require two meters per application,
compound meters tend to be relatively expensive compared to a similar size turbine or PD
meter.

3.4 Electronic Meters


Description: Electronic meters measure water velocity from an electrical charge or signal and
converts that measurement to a volume measurement. The measurement is proportional to the
velocity, which is used to calculate the volume of water. Some electronic meters may include
pressure and temperature sensors. Because the flow is through an open pipe with no moving
parts, they can be installed minimal to zero straight runs of pipe (depending on manufacture’s
installation instructions), there is very little pressure drop and minimal maintenance required.

Types: There are two main types of electronic meters: 1) electromagnetic and 2) ultrasonic.
− Electromagnetic meters operate by sending a magnetic field through the water flow to
induce an electrical current that is proportional to the flow rate moving through the field.

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Figure 6. Example of an Electromagnetic Meter

− Ultrasonic meters come in two varieties: 1) doppler and 2) transit-time.


– Doppler meters send and receive high-frequency sound waves through the fluid. The
sound waves are reflected off particles suspended in the fluid and sensed by the
metering unit. A shift in frequency is interpreted to arrive at the total water flow.
– Transit-time meters send an ultrasonic signal through the water, both in the direction
of flow and in the reverse direction. The difference in travel time is proportional to the
velocity of the flow. These meters are commonly found in non-invasive, clamp-on
units that are easy to install on the outside of the pipe.

Figure 7. Example of Ultrasonic Transit-Time Meter

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Applications: Electronic meters also have high TDRs, making them suitable for variable flow
applications. These units are commonly used in water lines that contain contaminants, due to
the lack of moving parts and obstructions in the meter cylinder. Common electronic meter sizes
range from ½” to 72”. Ultrasonic meter common sizes range from 5/8” to 120”. The maintenance
required for electronic meters is low, making them ideal for remote locations and areas where
workspace is limited. The accuracy and sizing ranges are greater than those of their mechanical
counterparts, making them ideal for unique metering purposes where accuracy is of utmost
importance.

Selection Tips: Avoid using for water that contains magnetic (iron) particles or air bubbles as
these factors can affect meter accuracy. It is also critical to have a reliable source of power.
The cost of electronic meters is decreasing as the market matures. The cost of a small
electronic meter may be on par with a comparable turbine meter, with added benefits of low
pressure drop and excellent low flow capabilities.

3.5 Differential Pressure Meters


Description: Differential pressure meters work by restricting water flow into the meter and
measuring the difference in pressure at the inlet and outlet. The differences in pressure are
proportional and used to measure velocity which is then inferred into a volumetric number.

Types: There are two types of differential pressure meters” 1) Venturi and 2) orifice plates.
− Venturi meters restrict water flow by gradually decreasing the tube diameter as the
water flow approaches the middle of the meter. The meter takes two measurements, at
the inlet of the meter and near the narrowest section of the meter. The difference in
pressure is proportional to the rate of flow.

Figure 8. Example of Venturi Meter

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− Orifice plate meters rely on a precisely manufactured plate inserted between two
flanges to restrict water flow and induce a pressure drop. Suspended particles—
regardless of size—abrade the plate over time and enlarge the orifice. This process
diminishes the accuracy of the meter. It is imperative that orifice plates be inspected
regularly to prevent the occurrence of excessive wear. The frequency at which
inspections should occur will depend on water quality and use of the water line.

Figure 9. Example of Orifice Plate Meter

Applications: Differential pressure meters are used on large water lines in high-flow
applications in which variations in flow rate are low. This meter type is most commonly found in
larger water distribution systems.

Selection Tips: Differential pressure meters require sufficient space for flow conditioning
straight pipe runs installed upstream and downstream of the meter. They are typically less
expensive than other types of meters. Common differential pressure meter sizes range from ¼”
to 84”. Maintenance, regular testing and calibration, and replacements of orifice plates are all
required to attain accurate readings. Costs of differential pressure meters are comparable to the
costs of turbine meters.

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4.0 Data Analytics and Validation


The purpose of installing advanced water meters at federal To be useful for analysis, water use
buildings is to collect data to analyze and act upon. Detailed should be measured at short, regular
water use data measured hourly or more frequently and intervals, and data should be
displayed in water tracking systems can be used by agencies accurate and complete.
to identify operational issues and select conservation
measures to reduce water use. The importance of metering Measurement Interval: Federal law
can be summed up in the energy manager’s maxim: You requires advanced meters installed
can’t manage what you don’t measure. on federal buildings to measure at
least hourly consumption of energy
and water. Depending on the
Advanced meters are one component of an agency’s AMI, application, more frequent
which includes an integrated network of advanced meters, measurement (e.g., 15-minute
communications networks, and energy management intervals) may be desirable. High-
information systems. All of these components work together resolution interval data enables
to transform readings at the meter into actionable data for the water managers to see variable
user. usage patterns at their facility
throughout the day and look for
periods of unexpectedly high or low
4.1 Supporting Data Sources water use
Combining water meter data with specific information about a Data Accuracy: As discussed in the
building leads to the greatest insight and the most value for Error! Reference source not
the investment. Common supporting data sources include: found. section, advanced meters
must be appropriately sized and
Real property data: Dimensions such as building size, age,
properly configured to accurately
and use type provide context as to whether water use is measure water flow. Inaccurate data
within the expected range at expected times of day. can lead to unreliable conclusions.
Equipment inventories: Descriptions of water-consuming
equipment in the building can help explain unexpected Data Completeness: There are
patterns, such as unusually high levels of water use due techniques for interpolating missing
data over short intervals (i.e., 1–2
to single-pass cooling.
hours); however, filling longer gaps
Weather data: Outdoor environmental factors such as with estimated values reduces the
temperature and rainfall can provide another check as to reliability of the data. Complete or
whether a building is overusing water. For example, near-complete data is desirable for
regular irrigation during wet months often is wasteful and understanding water performance at
the building.
presents an opportunity for savings.
Utility bills and rate schedules: Billing documents from the
local utility can be analyzed in combination with water use data to project and verify cost
savings from retrofits and operational improvements.
Maintenance records: These records are important documents that explain repairs and
replacements on water-using equipment. Savings from maintenance often can be quantified
using water meter data.

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4.2 Water Use Intensity


Water use intensity (WUI) is a metric that normalizes water use by a building’s total floor area.
WUI can be used to directly compare rates of water use across buildings of different sizes. The
metric is usually calculated as:

𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 (𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔)


𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 (𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓)

The WUI metric can be calculated over any time period; although, for benchmarking purposes,
total water use usually is summed monthly or annually.

Note: Per the Energy Act of 2020, the US DOE, in consultation with the Office of Management
and Budget (OMB) and the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), is developing new
performance metrics requirements for data centers, in which WUI is being considered.

4.3 Use Cases


The following examples illustrate some typical use cases for water meter interval data.

4.3.1 Benchmarking Monthly WUI for Similar Buildings

Situation: A regional energy and water manager monitors monthly water use for a portfolio of
buildings. She compares monthly WUI for four similar buildings and notices that water use at
Building B has increased substantially in December, while it is trending downward for the winter
at the other three buildings.

Monthly Water Use Intensity at Four


Buildings
0.4
0.35
WUI (gallons/sqft)

0.3
0.25
0.2 Bldg A

0.15 Bldg B
0.1 Bldg C
0.05 Bldg D
0

Outcome: The water manager reviewed the 15-minute interval data and saw that at 3:30 PM
on December 4, baseline water use at the facility increased rapidly from zero to approximately
130 gallons every 15 minutes. She placed a call to the facility manager on-site, who discovered

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that a faucet had been left running in a seldom-used utility closet. The facility manager closed
the faucet and the following month water use decreased by almost 20,000 gallons.

4.3.2 Identifying Landscape Irrigation Improvements

Situation: A facility grounds manager in Texas reviews a graph of landscape irrigation water
use over the previous month and sees that a consistent amount of water is used at the same
time each day. Further investigation reveals that the irrigation system is controlled by a clock
timer, leading to a significant overuse of water throughout the year, particularly in the winter
months. By implementing weather-based irrigation controllers, which adjust the timing and
duration of irrigation based on locally forecasted weather conditions, the site could save water
and money.

Monthly Irrigation Water Use, 2018-2019


3,000,000

2,500,000
Water Use (gallons)

2,000,000

1,500,000
2018
1,000,000
2019
500,000

Outcome: The following year after installing the weather-based irrigation controllers, the site
reduced irrigation water use by 57%, saving nearly 17 million gallons of water. Data from the
advanced water meter was instrumental in first identifying the problem of over-watering and
then demonstrating the savings from installing the controllers.

4.3.3 Identifying a Plumbing Leak

Situation: A building operator reviews a plot of water use over the previous 24 hours and
notices a suspicious pattern of regular water use at night. The graph below shows one gallon
pulses at intervals of 2 hours which reveals use during unoccupied periods.

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Building Water Use Profile


9
8
7
Water Use (gallons)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
12 AM 3 AM 6 AM 9 AM 12 PM 3 PM 6 PM 9 PM 12 AM
Time

Outcome: The water use observed at regular intervals during the night, when the building is
unoccupied, raised the suspicion of a small but continuous water leak. Visual inspection of the
fixtures in the men’s restroom confirmed the leak’s location. Leaks can be difficult to recognize
during the day when water normally flows but during unoccupied periods when no flow is
expected, regular pulses of the same magnitude and frequency are a common sign that there is
a leak in the system.

4.3.4 Improper Configuration of a Meter at a Building with Low Water Use

Situation: A facility manager reviews water use data at a campus building for the prior 24-hour
period. The time series graph reveals little interpretable information, beyond the fact that the
building appears to have used a total of 20 gallons of water during that time.

Building Water Use Profile


120

100
Water Use (gallons)

80

60

40

20

0
12 AM 3 AM 6 AM 9 AM 12 PM 3 PM 6 PM 9 PM
Time

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Outcome: The meter is not properly configured to record the relatively low rates of water use in
this building. The water meter has a pulse kit that is configured to report consumption in 10-
gallon increments; however, because water use is low at this building, the kit should have been
configured to pulse at 1-gallon increments or less. That configuration would have provided
better data resolution, showing water use at times where the meter is currently reporting zero
use.

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Appendix A – Glossary
Advanced meter: An advanced meter records energy or water consumption data hourly or more
frequently and provides for daily or more frequent transmittal of measurements over a
communication network to a central data collection point. Advanced meters usually are able to
record other physical quantities in addition to consumption. Related to an advanced meter, an
advanced metering device is an electronic meter with built-in metering and communication
capabilities, or a separate electronic device coupled to a standard meter that enables
communication to the on-site automated metering infrastructure.

Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI): An integrated network of advanced meters,


communications networks, and data management systems. Advanced metering infrastructure
can refer broadly to an agency’s entire portfolio of advanced meters and related assets (referred
to in this document as the agency’s “AMI system”) or more narrowly to the assets at a particular
site or building.

Advanced Meter Reading (AMR): The predecessor and contemporary to AMI, AMR refers to
individual advanced meters that transmit readings over short distances without the need for
manual logging of information. The key difference between AMR and AMI falls in the method of
data collection. AMR relies solely on vehicles or personnel equipped with remote meter-reading
devices to collect data from the roadside, as opposed to data being automatically transmitted to
a data management system. As such, readings occur less frequently and are less useful for
diagnostic purposes.

Changeover point: The point at which a compound meter’s operations transition from one meter
to the other is known as the changeover point. Applications with flows near this operating point
should consider a meter that can accommodate the changeover point range.

Extended low-flow: Low flow at which the meter manufacturer guarantees minimum accuracy of
±3% or 97%–103%

Flow range: A general range of flow rates that the meter measures accurately. This information
refers to entire meter categories, not individual meters.

Maximum continuous duty: The flow rate where meter can be run continuously without
degrading meter operation.

Pressure range: The amount of water pressure the meter can safely handle without being
damaged or give inaccurate readings. This is important to consider when evaluating the
pressure available from the main line and the pressure requirements of the building or
application.

Sizing range: Sizing range refers to the range of line sizes available for a type of meter. This
dimension refers to the internal diameter of the tube. It is important to be aware of this, as
installing the correct meter may involve adapters to reduce the line size.

Standard meter: An electromechanical or solid-state meter or phase controller that cumulatively


measures and records aggregated usage data that are periodically retrieved for use in customer
billing or energy management. A meter that is not an advanced meter is considered a standard
meter under this guidance.

Appendix A A.1
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Turndown ratio (TDR): TDR compares a meters highest rated flow to its lowest rated flow. This
ratio is specific to individual meters and the ranges provided by the manufacturer. It is useful
when evaluating system requirements and meter capabilities, as some meters have flow ranges
that make them better suited for specific use patterns. TDR tends to decrease in smaller sized
lines and increase in larger sized line.

Water-intensive buildings: Buildings with high water-using equipment such as chiller plants,
steam plants, industrial buildings, manufacturing machinery and buildings, data centers, lodging,
food service, food sales, recreation centers, vehicle wash stations, inpatient health care and
hospitals, prisons, vehicle care, laboratories, and irrigation pump houses.

Water Use Intensity (WUI): A metric that normalizes water use by the total floor area of a
building. WUI can be used to directly compare rates of water use across buildings of different
sizes.

Appendix A A.2
PNNL- 32074

Pacific Northwest
National Laboratory
902 Battelle Boulevard
P.O. Box 999
Richland, WA 99354
1-888-375-PNNL (7665)

www.pnnl.gov

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