Main Course Contents

Formulae of the Chapter

Numerical Examples from Board Exams.
Problems on Higher Order Thinking Skills
Guidelines to NCERT Exercises
7
Bank of Board Questions
VSAQ, SAQ, LAQ
Answers to Bank of Board Questions ALTERNATING
CURRENT AND
ELECTRICAL MACHINES

Main Course Contents

1. Distinguish between alternating current and direct current.
Ans. Alternating current. It is that current which varies in
its direction periodically. Its value at any instant is given by magnitude continuously and reverses
I=I, sin ot =1, sin 2ft
where I, is the peak value of a.c. or Direct curTent
Current amplitude and o=2f=2n/T is
the angular frequency of a.c. Alternating current
Figure 7.1 shows the variation of
alternating current with time. It rises from 0

0to maximum in one direction, then falls

to zero and then rises from 0 to maximum
in the opposite direction and again falls to
Zero, thus completing one full cyce. Figure 7.1 Alternatingand direct currents.

Direct current. It is that current which flowS with aconstant magnitude in the samefixeddirection.
rove mathematicaly that the average value of alternatingcurrent over one complete cycle is zero.
Ans. Average value offa.c. over one complete cycle. The alternating current at any instantt
is g/iven by
I=l, sin ot
the Current remains constant for asmall time dt, then the amount of charge that
Aows thAsroughsuming
the circuit in small time dt will be
dq =ldt =l, sin ot.dt 425
 426 MOVE FAST WITH PHYSICS-XI

Ihe total charge that flows through the cireult in one complete cycle of a.C,

2r/T
cos T J0
o (cos2r-cos 0]=-1-11-0
2 2T
Jo

The average value of a.c. over one complete cycle of a.c,

Thus the average value of a.c. over a complete cycle of a.c. is zero.
3. Ordinary moving coil galvanometer used for d.c. cannot be used to mea9ure an alternating current
even if its frequency is low. Explain, why. [CBSE D94]
Ans. Ordinary moving coll galvanometer cannot be used to measure a.c. Ordinary movtng
coll galvanometer is based on magnetic effect of current which, in turn, depends on directlon of
current. So it cannot be used to measure a.c. During one half cycle of a.c, its pointer moves in one
directlon and during next half cycle, it will move in the opposite directlon. Now the average value
ofa.c. over a complete cycle is zero. Even if we measure an alternating current of low frequency,
the pointer, wllappear to be stationary at the zero position due to persistence of vision.
We can measure a.c. by using a hot-wire ammeter which is based on heating effect of current
and this effect ls independent of the directlon of current.
4. Define average value of a. over halfa cycle. Establish the velationshtp between ihe 'average value'
and the peak value' of an alternating current.
Ans. Average or mean valueof a.c. It is defined as that value of direct current whch sends the
same charge in a cireutt in the same time as is sent by the gtven alternatng current in its half time period. It
is denoted by I,, or I
Relation between average valueand peak value of a.c. The value of alternating current at
any instarnt t ls given by
I=l, sin ot
This current can be assumned to renmain constant for a small time dt, Then the amount of
charge that flows through the clrcuit in small time dt is glven by
d= I.dt, sin ot.dt
The total charge that flows through the clrcult, say in the flrst half cycle, ie., from
t=0to t=T/2 is given by
T/2 cO8 of T/2

2
[cos - cos 0]
T

2T
-1-1]
The average value of a.c. over the first half cycle is
Charge
Time I,n =I, =0.637 I,
Or

Thus the mean or average vatue of an alternating current is 2/nor 0.637 times itä zeak value.
 CHAPTER 7: ALTERNATING CURRENT & ELECTRICAL MACHINES 427

5. What is meant by root mean square or effective value of an alternating current ? Derive a relation
between it and its peak value. (CBSE D 09; OD 2000 C]
Ans. Root mean square or virtual or effective value of a.c. It is defined as that value of a direct
current which produces the same heating effect in a given resistor as is produced by the given alternating
current when passed for the same time. It is denoted by I l , or by I,off*
Relation between the effective and peak value of a.c. Suppose an alternating current
le, sin ot be passed throughacircuit of resistanceR. Then the amount of heat produced in small
time dt will be
dH = 1'R dt
If T is the time period of a.c., then heat produced in one complete cycle willbe
H-('Rdt
Let I,or be the effective value of a.c. Then heat produced in time Tmust be
H=l RT
RT = Rdt or

Butdtis the mean of the squares of the instantaneous values of a.c. over one complete
cycle, hence the effective or virtual value of a.c. equals its root mean square value, ie,

1- cos 2 ot
Now 2
T
sin 2 ot

20 -)

Irms T 2
1
Or
or or rms = o =0.707 I,
 428 MOVE FAST WITH PHYSICS-XIl

It is defined as that value of a steady

emf.
mean square va<ue of an alternating resistance as is produced by
the given alternating
t Oot given virtual or effective
value ofthe
voltage that produces the same amount of heat in a also called
time. It is
emfwhen applied to the same resistance for the same or E,
alternating emf. It is denoted by or an
an altermating emf. Suppose
rns

value of
Relation between the rms value and the peak
alternating emf Eapplied toa resistance R is given by
E =¬,sin ot
Heat produced in a small time dt will be

dH= dt =- sin ot dt
R R
period of the alternating emf. Then heat produced in time T will be
Let T be the time
(1- cos 2 ot) dt = sin 2ot 77
t
H-faH=f 0
R
sin ot dt = R 2 2R 20

4 T-sin (4n- sin 0)

2R T-0) 2o
sin
2RL 20

Or H-(T
2R
-0]= ET
2R
If Erms
is the root mean square value of the alternating emf, then the amount of heat
produced by it in the same resistance Rin the time T will be
rms
H=
R
From the above two equations, we get

E2T ET
rms

R 2R
Or
rms
-0.707E
.8. Prove that the voltage and current always vary in the same phase in an a.c.
circuit containing
resistance only. Show this phase relationship graphically.
Ans. A.C. circuit containing resistance only : Purely resistive a.c.
Fig. 7.2, supposea resistor of resistance R is connected to a source of
circuit. As shown in
alternating emf E given by
E=¬, sin ot ...(1)
IE I be the current in the circuit at any
instant t, then the potential drop across Rwill be IR.
According to Kirchhoff's loop rule,
Instantaneous emf of the source = Instantaneous p.d. across R
E, sin ot = IR
R
or sin ot
R

I= I, sin ot ..(2)

where I, =R=the maximum or peak value of a.c. &,sin ot

igure 7.2 A.C. through a

resistor.
 CHAPTER 7:
ALTERNATING CURRENT &ELECTRICAL MACHINES 429
From equations (1) and (2), we
that both E and Iar note
functions
Hence the emf E and current Iareof sin ot.
in
nhase in a purely resistive circuit, same
means that both and Iattain their This C, sin ot
minimum and maximum values atzero. the
I, sin o o t ,

same time. This phase 2n

relationship
shown graphically in Fig. 7.3(a).
is
Figure 7.3(b) shows the phasor
diagram for a resistive a.c. circuit. Both the (a)
(6)
phasorsE and I are in the same direction,
making same angle ot with x-axis. The Tiqure 7.3 (a) Graph of E and I versus ot and
(b) Phasor diagram, for a
phase angle between them is zero. resistive a.c. circuit.
9. A pure inductor is
connected across an
behind the applied emf by aphase anglea.c.of source. Show mathematically that the current in it lags
showing the variation of inductive reactance r/2. What is its inductive reactance ? Draw a
with the frequency of the a.c. source. graph
Or
(CBSE OD 03, 11|
Asinusoidal emf is applied to a
behind the voltage by n/2. Show circuit containing an inductor only.
this phase relationship graphically. Show that the [CBSE current lags
D 95C]
Or
An a.c. voltage, E=E, sinot is applied
LShow the phase relationship across an inductance L. Obtain an expression for the
þetween current and voltage in a phasor diagram. current
Ans. A.C. circuit containiDg only an [CBSE D03 ; Punjab 01]
apure inductor of inductance inductor : Purely inductive a.c. circuit. Fig. 74 shows
Lconnected to a source of emf alternating E given by
E=E, sin ot ..(1)
As the alternating current flows through the
inductor, a
back emf - LdI is set up which opposes the
dt applied em.
Net instantaneous emf =E- Lul
dt
But this emf must be zero because there is no resistance sin or
in the circuit.
Fiqure 7.4 A.C. through an inductor.
dl
E-L0 or E= L.
dt dt
Or dl
sin ot =L. or dl = sin ot.dt
dt L

Integrating, dl= sin ot. dt

Or
oL
cos ot =-I, cos ot =-I, sin (r/2 - ot) |:: cos0 sin (n/2 0)]
Or
I= l, sin (ot- n/2) .(2) |::sin 0 sin( 0))
where I,= oL = the peak value of a.c.
Phase relationship between Eand I. On comparing equations (1) and (2), we find that the
Phase angle of current I is n/2 rad less than that of emf E. Thus in an inductive a.c. circuit, the
voltage is ahead of the current in phase by 90° or the current lags behind the voltage in phase by 90°.
 430 MOVE FAST WITH PHYSICS XI

This mems that the voltage E attains its

maxdmum value (,)a quarter of cycle (time T/4)
earder than the currernt Lor the current attains its
peak vaBue (!g)a quarter of cycle later than the
voltage This phase relationship is shown
R2
graphically in Fig. 7.5(@).
Figure 7.5(b) shows the phasor diagram for
an inductive a.c. circuit. The phasor &makes an ()
angle ot with raxis in anticlockwise direction.
As the current lags behind the emf in phase by Fiqure 7.5 (a) Graph of E&I versus aot.
n/2 rad, so the current phasor makes an angle inductive a.c. circuit.
(0) Phasor diagram, for an
r/2 rad with the phasor of E in clockwise
direction.
Inductive reactance. Comparing equation , =¬,/oLwith the ohmic relation l, =E,7R we
measure of the effective
tind that olplays the same role here as the resistance Rin resistive case. It is a
Such a non-resistive
resistence or opposition ofered by the inductor to the flow of a.c. through it.inductive
opposition to the flow of curent is called reactance. In this case, it is called reactance and
is denoted by XË
A, = oL=2r L
where fis the frequency of a.c. supply. The SI unit of inductive reactance isohm (Q)
For a.c.y X«f
For d.c., f=0, so X, =0
Thus an inductor allouws d.c. flow through it easily but opposes the
flow of a.c. through it.
Variation of X, with frequency. As X, « f. so the graph of
X, versus fis a straight line with a positive slope. As f increases,
X, also increases [see Fig. 7.6]. igure 7.6 Graph of X, versus f.

10. Analternating enf is applied across acapacitor. Show mathematically that current in it leads the
ayplied emf by a phase angle of n/2. What is its capacitive reactance ? Draw a graph shouwing the
variation of capacitive reactance with the frequency of the a.c. source. [CBSE OD 03, 08]
Or
Discuss the phase relationship between current and emfin an a.c. circuit containing a capacitor only.
Derive the expression for the reactance of acapacitor C when connected across an a.c. source. Gie its
units.
[Punjab 92]
Or
Obain the relation l= l, sin (ot+ n/2) and X =1/0C for a pure capacitor across which an
a.c.
emfofE =E, sin ot is applied as shown in Fig. 7.7. Draw aphasor diagram showing emfE,
and their phase differene
current I
(ISCE 03]
Ans. A.C circuit containing only a capacitor : Purely
capacitive a.c. circuit. As shown in Fig. 7.7, consider a pine
capacitor Cconnected across a sOurce of alternating emf Egiven by H
E=E, sin ot ..(1)
Due to the continuous charging and discharging of the
capacitor plates, a continuous but alternating current exists in the E, sin ot
circuit.
Figure 7.7
 CHAPTER 7: ALTERNATING CURRENT & ELECTRICAL MACHINES 431

At any instant,
P.D. across the capacitor plates = Applled emf
V-&-E, sin cot
But or
Q-CV=Ct, sin ot
. Current at any instant is (CE sin ot) =oCE, cos wt
dt dt
I= I, sin (ot + n/2) .(2)
where I, =oCeo = the current amplitude.
1/oC
Phase relationship between E and I. On comparing equations (1) and (2), we
capacitive a.c. circuit, the current leads the voltage or the voltage lags behind the current infind that in a
phase by n/2
radian. The phase relationship between Eand I is shown graphically in Fig. 7.8(4).
Figure 7.8(b) shows the phasor E,14 Y
diagram foracapacitive a.c. circuit.
The phasor E makes an angle ot with T/2
X-axis in anticlockwise direction. As , /2 2T
the currernt leads the emf in phase by 3/2/ ot
n/2 rad, so the current phasorI makes
an angle n/2 rad with phasor E in (a) (6)
anticlockwise direction. Figure 7.8 (a) Graph of EandI versus ot and (b) phasor
diagram, for a capacitive a.c. circuit.
Capacitive reactance. Comparing the relation,
1/oC
with the ohmic relation I, = , we find that the factor 1
R
is the
effective resistance or opposition
oC
ofered by the capacitor tothe flow of a.c. through it. It is called capacitive reactance and is denoted by X.
Thus
1
X =1
oC 2 fC
The SI unit of capacitive reactance is ohm (2)
1
For a.c., Xc
For d.c.,f=0 X =0
Thus a capacitor allows a.c. to flow through it easily but
Oters infinite resistance to the flow of d.c., i.e., acapacitor blocks d.c.
Figure 7.9
Variation of capacitive reactance with frequency. Capacitive reactance,Graph of X, versus f.
1 1
X¢ = oC 2rfC
1.e., 1
Thus the
decreases. Fig. 7.9capacitive
shows thereactance
variation varies
of Xinversely
with f. with the frequency. As f increases, X
 MOVE FAST WITH
PHYSICS-XII

o nn mauctor L, a capacitor C and a resistor Rare connected in series in an a.c.

circuit. Deduce, with
tne help of suitable phasor diagrans, a mathematical expression for
meant by resonance of this circuit ? Prove that this circuit impedance of this circuit. What is
1 exhibits resonance
at a frequency given by
2n VLC
[CBSE D 09, 11]
Or
Using phasor diagram, derive an expression for the
mean by resonance condition of such a circuit ? impedance of a series LCR-circuit. What do you
[CBSE OD 12]
Ans. Series LCR-circuit. As shown in Fig. 7.14, suppose a
resistance R, an inductance L and
capaitance C are connected in series to a source of alternating emfE
K- V= RI
given by E =o sin ot.
V,=X!
R
0000
L
C

V P
7

R A
eo sin ot
Figure 7.14 Series LCR-circuit.
Figure 7.15 Phasor diagram Figure 7.16
for series LCR-circuit,
Impedance triangle,
when V, >Ve: when X, >Xç.
Let I be the current in the series circuit at any instant.
Then
1. Voltage V, =RI across the resistance R will be
in phase with current I,as shown in
Fig. 7.15 The amplitude of V is' V =,R
2. Voltage V, =X, Iacross the inductance Lis ahead ot
cun. I u phase by n/2 rad.
Its amplitude is V =Ix,
3. Voltage V = X, I across the
capacitance C lags behind the current I in phase by n/2
rad. Its amplitude is V = X¢
As V, and V are in opposite directions, their resultant is (V,
-V By parallelogram law,
the resultant of V, and (V, -V ) must be equal to the applied emf E,
given bv the diagonal of the
parallelogram. Using Pythagorean theorem, we get V (V)+
E=(V +(V, -v§ =(1,R)' +(gX, -lXç)

Clearly, R+(X -Xe) is the effective resistance of the series

R+(X, -X'
LCR-circuit which opposes or
impedes the flow of current through it and is called its impedance. It is denoted by Z and its SI unit is
ohm (2) Thus
1
Z= R*+(X - x ' =
m alationship between the resistance R,
inductive reactance X, capacitive reactance
sndthe impedance ZisshowT in ig. 7.l0. 1ne right angled AOAPis called the impedance trias X
 Special Coses
1. Inductive
LCR-circuit. When X, > X or V,>Ve we see from
ahead of current by phase angle which Fig. 7.15 that emf is
is given by
tan =X - Xç Or cos =
R
R Z
The instantaneous current in the circuit will be I=l, sin (ot - )
2. Capacitive LCR-circuit. When X, <X or V, <V,the current is ahead of emf by
phase angle which is given by
tan = R
or COs =
R
The instantaneous current in circuit will be I=I, sin (ot + ).
3. Resonance condition of LCR-circuit. When X, = X or V,=Ve
Z=R+(X -X =R
Clearly the impedance is minimum. The circuit is purely resistive. The current and
are in the same phase and the current in the circuit is maximum. This voltage
condition of the LCR-circuit is
called resonance condition. The frequency at which the current amplitude I, attains a peak
value is
called natural or resonant frequency of the LCR-circuit and is denoted by f.. Its value can be
determined as follows :
1 1 1
As X = Xç or
2f, L= or Or
.

21f,C 47LC 2TVLC

 CHAPIER 7 ALTERNATING CURRENT & ELECTRCAL MACHINES 437

(a) Define power in an a.c. circuit. Show that the average power
general, given by transferred to an a.c. circuit is, in
R
=,,m cOs = rms
where the symbols used have their usual meanings.
[CBSE D 09, 11]
(b) Discuss the various special cases.
Ans. Power in an a.c. circuit. The rate at which electric energy is
called its power. For an a.c. circuit, we define instantaneous power as consumed
in an electric circuit is
the product of the instantaneous
voltage and instantaneous Current.
Suppose in an a.c. circuit, the voltage and current at any instant are given by
E -E, sin ot
and I= I, sin (ot - )
where is the phase angle by which the voltage E leads the current I.
The instantaneous power is given by

2
[2 sin ot .sin (ot -)

2
[cos -(cos 2 ot - )]
[:: 2sin A sin B cos(A- B)- cos(A +B))
The average power dissipated per cycle can be obtained by taking the average of the
two
cosine terms in the above equation. The second cosine term [cos (2 aot - )] is
average is zero. Therefore,
time-dependent. Its

R
cos =,srms cos ¢=¬ yus yms
2

Special Cases
1, Pure resistive circuit. Here the voltage and current are in
same phase, i.e.
=0and cos =1.
§ 2
ris
P =ms Lrme X1=8, rms
R

2. Pure inductive circuit. Here the voltage leads the current in phase by
2

Pa rms
.Irys cos =0
2

Thus the average power COnsumed in an inductive circuit over a complete cycle is zero.
3. Pure capacitive circuit. Here the voltage lags behind the current in phase by l.e.,
2
=
2

rms .Ims
Thus the average power consumed in a capacitive Circuit over a complete cyce is also zevo
 4. Series LCR-circuit. For a series LCR-circuit,
tan- L -X
Pa: =mrms cos , where = R

So, may have a non-zero value for series LR-, RC- and LCR-circuits. Some power is
Consumed in such circuits, but only in the resistor R.
D. Power dissipated at resonance in LCR-circuit. At resonance, X, =Xç and =0. So
cos =1, and P. I,pn That is, maximum pover is dissipated in the circuit (through
R at resonancC.

.17. (a) Define power factor of an a.c. circuit.

(b) What are the maximum and minimum values of power factor of an a.c. circuit ? [CBSE D10]
Ans. (a) Power factor. The power factor is defined as the ratio of true power to the apparent power of
an a.c. circuit. It is equal to the cosine of the phase angle between current and voltage in the a.c. circuit. It is
-given by
COs True power
=
P
Apparent power Vus rns
For aseries LCR-circuit, power factor is
R R
Cos ) =

R+ oL

(b) For a purely inductive or capacitive circuit, =90° Power factor = cos 90° =0
Thus the power factor assumes the minimum value for a purely
inductive or capacitive circuit.
For apurely resistive circuit, =0° Power factor = cos 0° =1
Thus the power factor assumes the maximum value for a purely
resistive circuit.
18. What is wattless current ?
(ISCE 2000 ; Punjab 04)
Ans. Watless current. The current in an a.c.
circiuit is
consumed in the circuit is zero. It is the component , sin saidofto the be wattless if the average power

inductive or capacitive a.c. circuit, the phase difference between alternating current. In an
Power factor, cos =0 and so the current is voltage and current, = t r/2.
wattless.
 A.C. To
To A.C.
load
Source load Source

Laminated iron core LLaminated iron core

(a) (b)
Figure 7.22 (a) Step-up and (b) Step-down, transformer.
Principle. It works on the principle of mutual induction, i.e., when a changing current is passed
through one of the two inductively coupled coils, an induced emf is set up in the other coil.
Construction. A transformer essentially consists of two coils of insulated copper wire having
different number of turns and wound on the same soft iron core. The coil P to which electric energy
issupplied is called the primary and the coil from which energy is drawn or output is obtained is
called the secondary. To prevent energy losses due to eddy currents, a laminated core is used.
Working. Asthe alternating current flows through the primary, it generates an alternating
magnetic flux in the core which also passes through the secundary. This changing flux sets up an
induced emf in the secondary, also a self-induced emf in the primary. If there is no leakage of
magnetic flux, then flux linked with each turn of the primary will be equal to that linked with each
turn of the secondary.
Theory. Consider the situation when no load is connected to the secondary, i.e., its terminals
are open. Let N, and N, be the number of turns in the primary and secondary respectively.
Then
d¢
Induced emf in the primary coil, E, =-N
d¢
Induced emf in the secondary coil, =-N
where ¢ is the magneticflux linked with each turn of the primary or secondary at any instant. Thus
N,
E, N,
Let Ebe the emf applied to the primary. By Lenz's law, self-induced emfE,
primary coil.
opposes Ein the
.:. Resultant emf in the primary =¬-¬,
This emf sends current , through the primary coil of resistarnce R.
E-¬, -RI,
But R is very small, so the term RI, can be neglected.
Then E=¬,
Thus may be regarded as input emf and E, as the output emt.
Outputemf N,
Input emf N, .(1)
The ratio N, / N,, of the number of turns in the secondary to that in the
primary, is called the
turus ratio of the transformer. It is also called transformation ratio
nastev up transformer, N, > Ny le, the turns ratio is greater than 1 and therefore , >E,.
The output voltage is greater than the input voltage.
2

Le a ckon down transformer, N, <NË tne turns ratio is less than 1and therefore &, <E..
than the input voltage.
The output voltage is less
 CHAPTER 7: ALTERNATING CURRENT & ELECTRICAL MACHINES 445

28. How is a current affected in a transformer ?Define efficiency ofa transformer.

Ans. Currents in primary and secondary. Assuming the transformer to be ideal one so that
then
there are no energy losses,
Input power = Output power
or

where I, and I, are the currents in the primary and secondary, respectively.

Hence N, ..2)
1, E, N,
Thus a step up transformer steps up the voltage, but steps down the current exactly in the
same ratio. Similarly, a step down transformer steps down the voltage but steps up the current
exactly in the same ratio.
The efficiency of a transformer is defined as
Power output x 100% ..(3)
F=
Power input
The efficiency of real transformers is fairly high (90 99%) though not 100%.
can they be reduced ? [CBSE OD 11]
29. What are the various energy losses in a tru nsformer ? How
loss in transformers are as
Ans. Energy losses in transformers. The main causes for energy
follows :
copper wires used in the primary and
1. Copppr loss. Some energy is lost due to heating of low
secondary windings. This power loss (=I'R) can be minimised by using thick copper wires of
resistance.
flux induces eddy currents in the iron core
2. Eddy current loss. The alternating magnetic
leads to some energy loss in the form of heat. This loss can be reduced by using laminated
which
iron core.
Hysteresis loss. The alternating current carries the iron core through cycles of
3.
each of these cycles and is lost as heat. This is
magnetisation and demagnetisation. Work is done in
material having narrow hysteresis loop.
called hysteresis loss and can be minimised by using core the
leakage. The magnetic flux produced by the primary may not fully pass through
4. Flux can be minimised by winding the primary
Secondary. Some of the fluxX may leak into air. This loss
and secondary coils over one another.
transformer works, its core lengthens and shortens during each
5. Humming loss. As the
phenomenon called maguetostriction. This gives rise to a
ycle of the alternating voltage due to a
So some of theelectrical energy is lost in the form of humming sound.
numming sound.
transformers.
J0. State some of the inportant uses of
:
Ans. Some uses of transformers etc.
transformers are used in radio receivers, telephones, loud speakers,
1. Small refrigerators, air-conditioners,
computers, etc.
regulators for TV,
2. In voltage
3. In stabilised power supplies. obtaining large current for electric
weldino
transformer is used for
4. A step-down induction furnace for melting metals.
transformer is used in
5. A step-down X-rays.
transformer is used for the production of
6. A step-up stations to the consumers
energy trom the generaing
electric
7. In the transmission of
 onmulae of the Chapter

Instantaneous value of a.c., I =I, sin ot,

(ii) Current, 'rms rms
e peak or maximum value
where isthe
a.C. (ii) Phase angle is given by
value of a.c. over half
Average or mean tan =c_1/oC or cos =R
2
cycle, R R
(iv) Instantaneous current,

: Efective or
rms or virtual value of a.c., I=, sin (at +¢).
1 9. Impedance of a series LCR-ircuit,
2=rus
For alternating voltages, we have
-R+(X,-X,
1
E-E, sin ot, =0.637 Ens
For an a.c. circuit containing inductor only,
() Inductive reactance, X =oL=2n fL 10. Phase angle between current and
voltage is given by
() Current amplitude, I, = R
oL tan = or cos = Z
R
(i) Effective current, 11. Resonant frequency of LCR-series circuit
1

X oL 2. oL (when X, =Xç J2 JLC

6.For an a.c. circuit containing capacitor only, 12. Q-Factor =
a, L_
-=
1L
1 1 R RVC
() Capacitive reactance, X =
oC 2n fC where o, and a, are the frequerncies at
which current falls to 1/ W2 times its
() Current amplitude, Ih resonant value.
1/ oC
(i) Effective current, 13. Average power consumed per cycle in
any a.c circuit, P. ms rms cos ,
rms rms
rms X 1/ oC 2.1/oC smg is the apparent power
14. Power factor,
7. For a series LC-circuit, R R
cos =
() Impedance, Z-ms
rms
15. Average power consumed per cycle in a
pure resistive circuit,

Fav2R0.E..I,
(ü) Current, I,ms rms P. rms "rms
rms

7 R

(m) Phase angle is given by 16. Energy stored in an inductor,

tan oL R
or cos 0=
R R
(0) Instantaneous current, I= , sin (of -) 17. Average power consumed per cycle in pure
0. For a inductive circuit =0
series RC-circuit,
() Impedance, 18. Energy stored in a capacitor,
1
Z:rms
2 2 C
rms