Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

EECE105L

Department of ECE
Dr. Rahul Mukherjee

1
Evaluation Components (EECE105L)

• Mid Term: 15 Marks

• End Term: 35 Marks

• Lab: 25 Marks (Continuous Evaluation (Lab record) 10, Experiment Performance (lab end term) 10, Quiz
(Questions based on experiments at the end of the semester) 5)

• Continuous Evaluation- 15 Marks (Best 3 out of 4 includes LMS Quiz and Assignments)+ 10 Marks
(Tutorial sheets based)

2
While Solving Numerical Problems You may use
Scientific Calculators

3
Text Book

1. ‘Introductory Circuit Analysis’ by Robert L Boylestad, Pearson (Available in Library)

2. ‘Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory’ by Robert L Boylestad and Louis Nasshelsky,
Pearson (Available in Library)

4
Module 1

5
Fundamental Electrical Parameters

▪ Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles that governs how the particles are affected
by an electric or magnetic field, measured in coulombs (C).

▪ The law of conservation of charge states that charge can neither be created nor destroyed, only
transferred. Thus, the algebraic sum of the electric charges in a system does not change.

▪ The electronic charge e = −1.602 × 10−19 C.

▪ Current: Electric current is the time rate of change of charge, measured in amperes (A)
1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second
dq
i=
dt
▪ If the current does not change with time, but remains constant, we call it a direct current (dc). An
alternating current (ac) is a current that varies sinusoidally with time.

6
Fundamental Electrical Parameters…Continued

▪ Electric field is defined as the electric force per unit charge. The direction of the field is considered
to be the direction of the force it exerts on a positive test charge. The electric field is radially
outward from a positive charge and radially inward to a negative point charge.

▪ Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy required to move a unit charge from one point to
another point, measured in volts (V).

dw
v=
dq
▪ Resistance R of an element denotes its ability to resist the flow of electric current; it is measured
in ohms (Ω).
𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒍
l
R=
A
Resistivity ρ

Cross Sectional
Area A
7
Current and Voltage Polarity and Ground

5A -5A
▪ In all the electrical and electronics circuits
there is a reference node called ground which
is considered as 0V. All other node voltages
are measured with respect to this reference
A A ground voltage.
+ -

vAB=+5V vAB=-5V
- +
B B

8
Periodic Signal

▪ A periodic function is one that satisfies f (t) = f (t + nT), for all t and for all integers n.

▪ Consider the sinusoidal voltage

𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin𝜔𝑡
Where,
Vm = the amplitude of the sinusoid
ω = the angular frequency in radians/s
ωt = the argument of the sinusoid

The sinusoid repeats itself every T seconds;

thus, T is called the period of the sinusoid
2𝜋
𝜔𝑇 = 2𝜋 or 𝑇=
𝜔
𝑣 𝑡+𝑇 =𝑣 𝑡

9
Periodic Signal…Continued

▪ The period T of the periodic function is the time of one complete cycle or the number of seconds
per cycle.

▪ The reciprocal of this quantity is the number of cycles per second, known as the cyclic frequency f
of the sinusoid.

10
Few Components of Periodic Signal

Definitions:
Waveform: The path traced by a quantity (for
example: voltage, current) plotted as a function of
some variable (for example time, position, degrees,
radians).

Instantaneous value: The magnitude of a

waveform at any instant of time; denoted by
lowercase letters (v1 in the figure).

Peak amplitude: The maximum value of a

waveform as measured from its average, or mean
value, denoted by uppercase letters. In the
waveform shown in figure, the average value is zero A sinusoidal waveform
volts, and peak amplitude V0 is as defined in figure.

11
Few Components of Periodic Signal…Continued

Peak value: The maximum value of a function as

measured from the zero‐volt level. For the waveform, the
peak amplitude and peak value are the same, since the
average value of the function is zero volts.

Peak‐to‐peak value: Denoted by VPP (as shown in figure),

peak to peak voltage is the full voltage between positive
and negative peaks of the waveform, that is, the sum of
the magnitude of the positive and negative peaks.

Periodic waveform: A waveform that continually repeats

itself after the same time interval. The waveform in
figure is a periodic waveform.

Period (T): The time required for one complete cycle.

Cycle: The portion of a waveform contained in one

period.
12
Few Components of Periodic Signal…Continued

Average Value: Average Value of an ac wave is defined as the average of all the instantaneous values of a
wave over an interval. Generally, average over one complete cycle is considered in electronics. The average
value is estimated by finding area under curve. Mathematically, if f(t) describes the wave equation, then
the area under the curve for a base between two instants t1 and t2 is given by:
𝑡2

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = න 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑡1
The average value is given by: 2 𝑡
‫𝑡𝑑)𝑡(𝑓 𝑡׬‬
1
𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝑡2 − 𝑡1

RMS Value: Root Mean Square or RMS value is defined as the square root of means of squares of
instantaneous values. The RMS value is estimated by finding the area under the square of the curve.
Mathematically, if f(t) describes the wave equation, then the RMS of the wave for a base between two
instants t1 and t2 is given by:

 f 2 ( t ) dt
t2

Vrms =
t1

t2 − t1 13
Phase Difference

Consider the figure. When compared to fr(t), the wave

f(t) has a greater instantaneous value at position t=0. If
fr(t) is given by Eq (1), then f(t) is given by Eq (2).

𝑓𝑟 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑚 sin 𝑤𝑡 (1)

𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑚 sin 𝑤𝑡 + 𝜃 (2)

Thus, f(t) leads fr(t) by an angle θ or in general, it is said that

f(t) and fr(t) are out of phase by an angle θ.

f(t) leads fr(t) by an angle θ

14
Phase Difference…Continued

Now, consider the given fig. When compared to f(t), the

wave fr(t) has a greater instantaneous value at position
t=0. If fr(t) is given by Eq (1), then f(t) is given by Eq (3).

𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑚 sin 𝑤𝑡 − 𝜃 (3)

Thus in general, it is said that fr(t) and f(t) are out of

phase by an angle θ, or more precisely f(t) lags fr(t) by an
angle θ.

fr(t) leads f(t) by an angle θ

15
Ohm’s Law

• Ohm’s law states that the potential difference (or voltage) across any two ends of a conductor is
directly proportional to the current flowing between the two ends provided that the temperature of
the conductor remains constant.

vi v = iR

v
i-v characteristic of a linear resistor
16
Resistance and Conductance

▪ Resistance R of an element denotes its ability to resist the flow of electric current; it is measured in
ohms (Ω).

V
R=
I

• Careful attention must be considered to the current direction and voltage polarity. The direction of
current i and the polarity of voltage v must conform with the passive sign convention.

• If current flows from a higher potential to a lower potential, v = iR.

• If current flows from a lower potential to a higher potential, -v = −iR.

▪ A short circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching zero.

▪ An open circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching infinity.

17
Resistance and Conductance…Continued

• Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct electric current; it is measured in siemens (S).

i = Gv

• The same resistance can be expressed in ohms or siemens. For example, 10 Ω is the same as 0.1 S.

1 i
G= =
R v

18
Power

• Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured in watts (W).

dw dw dq
p= = = vi
dt dq dt
v2 2
p= =i R
R

• The power dissipated in a resistor is a nonlinear function of either current or voltage.

• The power dissipated in a resistor is always positive. Thus, a resistor always absorbs power from the
circuit.

19
Active and Passive Components

• An active element is capable of generating energy.

• Typical active elements include generators, batteries, and operational amplifiers.

• Passive components don’t need an external power source to function. They only require the current
traveling through the connected circuit.

• Passive components like resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes etc. impede the flow of electrons
without introducing more electricity into the system.

20
Resistors Connected in Series

Req = R1 + R2 + R3

▪ The total resistance of a series

configuration is the sum of the
individual resistances.

▪ More resistors in series combination,

the greater the resistance, no matter
what the value of the resistor is.

21
Resistors Connected in Parallel

▪ Two or more resistors are in

parallel if they have two
points in common.
1 1 1 1
= + +
Req R1 R2 R3

▪ Req is always smaller than

the resistance of the
smallest resistor in the
parallel combination

22
Voltage Division Rule

▪ Current through the circuit I is given by

V
I=
RE

▪ Voltage drop across resistors R1, R2, R3:

V1=I.R1 V2=I.R2 V3=I.R3

• V= V1 + V2 + V3

R1 R2 R3
V1 = V V2 = V V3 = V
RE RE RE

 R1 R2 R3 
V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 =  + + V
 RE RE RE 
23
Current Division Rule

1 1 1 1 R1 R2 R3
= + + Req =
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Req R1 R2 R3
▪ Total Current flowing through the circuit:

VAB
I=
RE

• Current I1 through R1 is:

VAB R2 R3
• I1 = i.e., I1 = I
R1 R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1

R1 R3
• Similarly, I 2 = I
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
R1 R2
I3 = I
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
24
Nodes Branches and Loops

▪ A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor

▪ A node is the point of connection between two or more branches

▪ A loop is any closed path in a circuit i.e., a loop is a closed path formed by starting at a node,
passing through a set of nodes, and returning to the starting node without passing through any
node more than once.

▪ A network with b branches, n nodes, and l independent loops will satisfy the fundamental
theorem of network topology:

b=l+n-1

In Fig:
Branches?
Nodes?
Independent loops?

25
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

▪ Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents entering a node (or a
closed boundary) is zero.
N

i
n =1
n =0

▪ The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the currents leaving the node.

▪ By this law, currents entering a node may be regarded as positive, while currents leaving the
node may be taken as negative or vice versa.

i2 i1+(-i2)+(-i3)+i4+(-i5)=0
i1 i3
i1+i4= i2+i3+ i5
i4
i5

26
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

▪ Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed path(or
loop) is zero.
M

v
m =1
m =0

▪ In any closed loop, sum of voltage drops is equal to the sum of voltage rises.

▪ The sign on each voltage depends on the polarity of

the terminal encountered first. The loop may be
considered either clockwise or counterclockwise.
Suppose, we start with the voltage source v1 and go
clockwise around the loop; then voltages would be
−v1, +v2, +v3, −v4, and +v5, in that order. For example,
as we reach branch 3, the positive terminal is met
first; hence we have +v3. For branch 4, we reach the
negative terminal first; hence, −v4.

27
Network Theorems

28
Voltage and Current Sources and Transformations

Voltage Sources

▪ Ideal voltage sources can produce as much current

as is needed to provide power to the rest of the
circuit.

▪ An ideal voltage source has zero internal

resistance.
Ideal Voltage Source
▪ A real voltage source is modeled as an ideal voltage
source in series with a resistor.

▪ There are limits to the current and output voltage

from the source.

Real Voltage Source

29
Voltage Sources….continued

▪ When RL = ∞ no current flows through the load,

the practical source is open-circuited and the
terminal voltage, or open-circuit voltage, is VOC= vS.

▪ When RL = 0, short-circuiting the load terminals,

then a load current or short-circuit current, ILsc = ∞,
would flow.
vL = vS − iL RS

30
Current Sources

• An ideal current source can produce as much

current as is needed to provide power to the rest
of circuit

• An ideal current source has infinite internal

resistance connected in parallel.

• A real current source is modeled as an ideal

current source in parallel with a resistor. Ideal Current Source

• Limitations on the maximum voltage and current.

Real Current Source

31
Current Sources….continued

▪ When RL = ∞ no current flows through the load,

the practical source is open-circuited and the open
circuit current is zero.

▪ When RL = 0, short-circuiting the load terminals,

then a load current or short-circuit current, ILsc = ∞,
would flow.
vL
iL = iS −
RP

32
Source Transformations

▪ An equivalent circuit is one in which the i-v characteristics are identical to that of the original circuit.

▪ RL in both circuits must be identical.

VS RP
IL = IL = IS
RS + RLoad RP + RLoad

The two practical sources are electrically equivalent if

𝑅𝑆 = 𝑅𝑃 and 𝑉𝑆 = 𝑅𝑃 𝐼𝑆

33
Problem1. Use source transformations to reduce the circuit to a single voltage source in
series with a single resistor.

Hints: First convert voltage sources into current sources

Req=5.714Ω, Veq=22.856 V

34
Thevenin’s Theorem

▪ Any two-terminal, linear bilateral dc network can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a
voltage source and a series resistor.

▪ Thevenin’s theorem establishes an equivalence at the terminals.

▪ Internal construction and characteristics of the original network and the Thevenin equivalent are
generally entirely different.

35
To Find RTH

1. Find that portion of the network across which the Thevenin equivalent circuit needs to be found.
2. Load resistor RL is temporarily removed from the network.
3. Mark the terminals of the remaining two-terminal network (say A and B).
4. Identify all voltage and current sources and retain their internal resistances if any.
5. Replace the voltage sources by short circuits.
6. Replace the current sources by open circuits.
7. Find the resistance between terminal A and B.

The resistance between A and B is called as Thevenin’s resistance RTH

36
To Find VTH

1. In the original circuit, remove the load resistor (RL) connected between the marked terminals (A
and B).

2. Find the open-circuit voltage (VTH) between the marked terminals (A and B). VAB is Thevenin voltage,
denoted by symbol VTH.

3. Draw the Thevenin equivalent circuit by keeping VTH, RTH and the load resistor (RL) in series

37
Problem1 Using Thevenin’s theorem, find the voltage across and current through the 12 Ω resistor.

To Find RTH
Step 1: Find that portion of the network across which the Thevenin equivalent circuit needs to be
found. (Identifying the load as 12 Ω resistor, marking the nodes A and B)
Step 2: Load resistor RL is temporarily removed from the network.
Step 3: Mark the terminals of the remaining two-terminal network (say A and B).

38
Step 4: Identify all voltage and current sources and retain their internal resistances if any. There is only
one voltage source 18 V, with zero internal resistance
Step 5: Replace the voltage sources are replaced by short circuits (as there is only one voltage source
in this example, replace it with a short circuit)
Step 6: Replace the current sources by open circuits (as there are no current sources, we won’t act on
this step)
Step 7: Find the resistance between terminal A and B

RTH=4+(6||3)=6

39
To Find VTH

Step 1: In the original circuit, remove the load resistor (RL) connected between the marked
terminals (A and B).
Step 2: Find the open-circuit voltage (VTH) between the marked terminals (A and B). VAB is
Thevenin voltage, denoted by symbol VTH.

1. Voltage across 3 Ω resistance is equal to voltage

between terminals A and B.
2. This is due to the fact that current through 4 Ω is zero.
Hence voltage across is 4 Ω zero.
3. Use voltage divider formula to get voltage across 3 Ω
resistor.

40
Step 3: Draw the Thevenin equivalent circuit by keeping VTH, RTH and the load resistor (RL) in series

1. Use voltage divider formula to get voltage across 12 Ω

resistor. (what was asked in the question)

2. Current through the 12 Ω resistor. (what was asked in

the question)

41
Problem2 Using Thevenin’s theorem, find the voltage across and current through the 7 kΩ resistor.

To Find RTH
Step 1: Find that portion of the network across which the Thevenin equivalent circuit needs to be
found. (Identifying the load as 7 kΩ resistor, marking the nodes A and B)
Step 2: Load resistor RL is temporarily removed from the network.
Step 3: Mark the terminals of the remaining two-terminal network (say A and B).

42
Step 4: Identify all voltage and current sources and retain their internal resistances if any. There
is only one current source 18 mA, with zero internal resistance
Step 5: Replace the voltage sources are replaced by short circuits (as there are no voltage
sources, we won’t act on this step)
Step 6: Replace the current sources by open circuits (as there is only one current source, in this
example, replace it with a open circuit)
Step 7: Find the resistance between terminal A and B

RTH=2+4=6 kΩ

43
To Find VTH

Step 1: In the original circuit, remove the load resistor (RL) connected between the marked
terminals (A and B).

Step 2: Find the open-circuit voltage (VTH) between the marked terminals (A and B). VAB is Thevenin voltage,
denoted by symbol VTH.

44
1. Voltage across 4 kΩ resistance is equal to voltage
between terminals A and B.
2. This is due to the fact that current through 2 k Ω is
zero. Hence voltage across 2 kΩ is zero.
3. Voltage across 12 kΩ and 4 kΩ is given by
V=IR=18mA×(4 kΩ+12 kΩ )=288V

4. Using voltage divider formula, voltage across 4 kΩ is

given by

45
Step 3: Draw the Thevenin equivalent circuit by keeping VTH, RTH and the
load resistor (RL) in series

1. Use voltage divider formula to get voltage

across 7 k resistor. (what was asked in the
question)

2. Current through the 7 kΩ resistor. (what was

asked in the question)
38.77
𝐼7𝑘𝛺 = = 5.54𝑚𝐴
7

46
Norton’s Theorem

▪ Norton’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a current source IN in parallel with a resistor RN, where IN is the short-circuit current
through the terminals and RN is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the
independent sources are turned off.

47
To Find RN

1. Remove that portion of the network across which the Norton’s equivalent circuit needs to be found.
2. Load resistor RL is temporarily removed from the network.
3. Mark the terminals of the remaining two-terminal network (say A and B).
4. Identify all voltage and current sources and retain their internal resistances if any.
5. Replace the voltage sources by short circuits
6. Replace the current sources by open circuits
7. Find the resistance between terminal A and B

The process of finding RTH and RN is exactly same. Hence RTH = RN

48
To Find IN

1. In the original circuit, short the load resistor (RL) connected between the marked terminals (A and B).

2. Find the short-circuit current (IN) through the marked terminals (A and B).

3. IN is called as Norton’s current source.

4. Draw the Norton’s equivalent circuit by keeping IN, RN and the load resistor (RL) in parallel.

Identify that VTH, RTH and IN, RN form a source transformation for the same equivalent
circuit with RTH = RN
49
Problem1 Using Norton’s theorem, find the voltage across and current through the 12 Ω resistor.

To Find RN
Step 1: Find that portion of the network across which the Norton equivalent circuit needs to be
found. (Identifying the load as 12 Ω resistor, marking the nodes A and B)
Step 2: Load resistor RL is temporarily removed from the network.
Step 3: Mark the terminals of the remaining two-terminal network (say A and B).

50
Step 4: Identify all voltage and current sources and retain their internal resistances if any. There is only
one voltage source 18 V, with zero internal resistance
Step 5: Replace the voltage sources are replaced by short circuits (as there is only one voltage source
in this example, replace it with a short circuit)
Step 6: Replace the current sources by open circuits (as there are no current sources, we won’t act on
this step)
Step 7: Find the resistance between terminal A and B

RN=4+(6||3)=6 Ω

51
To Find IN

Step 1: In the original circuit, short the load resistor (RL) connected between the marked terminals
(A and B).
Step 2: Find the short-circuit current (IN) between the marked terminals (A and B). IAB is Norton’s
current, denoted by symbol IN.
1. Current through terminals A and B is given by the
current through 4 Ω resistance.

2. Total current in the circuit is

3. Current through 4 Ω is found by using current division

formula.

52
Step 3: Draw the Norton’s equivalent circuit by keeping IN, RN and the load resistor
(RL) in parallel

1. Use current divider formula Current through

the 12 Ω resistor.

2. Voltage across 12 Ω resistor.

53
Problem2 Using Norton’s theorem, find the voltage across and current through the 7 kΩ resistor.

To Find RN
Step 1: Find that portion of the network across which the Norton equivalent circuit needs to be
found. (Identifying the load as 7 kΩ resistor, marking the nodes A and B)
Step 2: Load resistor RL is temporarily removed from the network.
Step 3: Mark the terminals of the remaining two-terminal network (say A and B).

54
Step 4: Identify all voltage and current sources and retain their internal resistances if any. There is only
one voltage source 18 V, with zero internal resistance
Step 5: Replace the voltage sources are replaced by short circuits (as there is only one voltage source
in this example, replace it with a short circuit)
Step 6: Replace the current sources by open circuits (as there are no current sources, we won’t act on
this step)
Step 7: Find the resistance between terminal A and B

RN=2+4=6 kΩ

55
To Find IN

Step 1: In the original circuit, short the load resistor (RL) connected between the marked terminals (A
and B).
Step 2: Find the short-circuit current (IN) between the marked terminals (A and B). IAB is Norton’s
current, denoted by symbol IN.
1. Current through 2 kΩ resistance passes through the
nodes A and B
2. This is due to the fact that current entering
into 2 kΩ should leave (KCL) and there are
no other sources.
3. Current through 2 kΩ is found by using
current division formula

56
Step 3: Draw the Norton’s equivalent circuit by keeping IN, RN and the load resistor (RL)
in parallel

1. Use current divider formula to get Current through

the 7 kΩ resistor.

2. Voltage across the 7 kΩ resistor is given by

(what was asked in the question)

57
Superposition Theorem

▪ Superposition theorem states that the current through, or voltage across, an element in a linear
bilateral network is equal to the algebraic sum of the currents or voltages produced independently
by each source.

▪ The superposition theorem is useful in finding solutions to the networks with two or more sources
that are not in series or parallel.

▪ The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or the current through) an element in a
linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or currents through) that element due to
each independent source acting alone.

▪ We consider one independent source at a time while all other independent sources are turned off.
This implies that we replace every voltage source by 0 V (or a short circuit), and every current
source by 0 A (or an open circuit). This way we obtain a simpler and more manageable circuit.

58
Steps Required to Apply the Superposition Principle

▪ Turn off all independent sources except one. Find the output (voltage or current) due to the active
source.

▪ Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.

▪ Find the total output by adding algebraically all of the results found in steps 1 & 2 above.

59
Problem1 Using Superposition Theorem find the current through the 0.5 kΩ resistor.

I1

To Find the effect of 5 V source alone, replace the 9 mA source with a open circuit

60
To Find the effect of 9 mA source alone, replace the 5 V source with a short circuit

I2

Total Current is given by I = I1 + I2 = 2 mA + 7.2 mA = 9.2 mA

61
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

▪ In all practical cases, energy sources have non-zero internal resistance. Thus, there are losses
inherent in any real source.

▪ The aim of an energy source is to provide power to a load.

▪ Given a circuit with a known resistance, what is the resistance of the load that will result in the
maximum power being delivered to the load?

▪ Consider the following circuit

62
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

The power delivered to the load (absorbed by RL) is

The power delivered to load is maximum when

63
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

R+RL= 2RL RL =R
▪ Thus, maximum power transfer takes place when the resistance of the load is equal to the
resistance of the circuit

▪ The power dissipated by RL is 50% of the power produced by the ideal source when RL = R.

64
Nodal Analysis

▪ Nodal analysis provides a general procedure for analyzing circuits using node voltages as the
circuit variables.

▪ Steps required for Nodal Analysis:

1. Select a node as the reference node. Assign voltages v1, v2, . . . , vn−1 to the remaining (n − 1)
nodes. The voltages are referenced with respect to the reference node.
2. Apply KCL to each of the (n − 1) nonreference nodes. Use Ohm’s law to express the branch
currents in terms of node voltages.
3. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown node voltages.

65
Mesh Analysis

▪ Steps required for Mesh Analysis:

1. Assign mesh currents i1, i2, . . . , in to the n meshes.

2. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s law to express the voltages in terms of the mesh
currents.
3. Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get the mesh currents.

66
Capacitors and Inductors

67
Complex Numbers

▪ Let Z=a+jb be a complex number

▪ a is known as real part and b as imaginary part

▪ j is defined as j = −1

▪ Complex conjugate of Z is Z = a − jb

▪ Modulus of complex number is defined as Z = Z Z = a 2 + b2

68
Polar Representation of Complex Numbers

▪ A complex number Z=a+jb can be represented in a polar form

▪ In polar form, Z = a + jb = re j
b
▪ where r = Z = a 2 + b2 and  = tan −1  
 a
Z = a − jb = re − j

Z = Z Z = re j re − j = r 2 = r

▪ If we know r and θ, we can obtain a and b as

a = r cos  and b = r sin 

69
Arithmetic Operations of Complex Numbers: Cartesian Representation

Let z1 = a1 + jb1 and z2 = a2 + jb2

Addition: z1 + z2 = ( a1 + a2 ) + j ( b1 + b2 )
Subtraction: z1 − z2 = ( a1 − a2 ) + j ( b1 − b2 )

Multiplication: z1  z2 = ( a1a2 − b1b2 ) + j ( b1a2 + b2 a1 )

z1 ( a1a2 + b1b2 ) + j ( b1a2 − b2 a1 )

Division: =
z2 a2 2 + b2 2

Note: It is easy to add or subtract complex number in Cartesian representation

70
Arithmetic Operations of Complex Numbers: Polar Representation

Let z1 = r1e j1 and z2 = r2 e j2

Multiplication:
z1  z2 = r1r2 e j (1 +2 )
Division: z1 r1 j (1 −2 )
= e
z2 r2
Note: It is easy to multiply or divide complex number in Polar representation

• The idea of phasor representation is based on Euler’s identity

e j = cos   j sin 
cos  = Re ( e j ) sin  = Im ( e j )
71
Capacitors

▪ A capacitor is a passive element designed to store energy

in its electric field.

▪ Capacitors are used extensively in electronics,

communications, computers, and power systems. For
example, they are used in the tuning circuits of radio
receivers and as dynamic memory elements in computer
systems.

▪ Two conductive plates separated by an insulator (or

dielectric) forms a capacitor. Commonly illustrated as two
parallel metal plates separated by a distance, d.
𝜀𝐴
𝐶=
𝑑

where 𝜀 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟
𝜀𝑟 is the relative dielectric constant
𝜀0 is the vacuum permittivity
72
Effect of Dimensions on Capacitors

Capacitance increases with

▪ increasing surface area of the plates,

▪ decreasing spacing between plates

▪ increasing the relative dielectric constant of the

insulator between the two plates.
𝜀𝐴
𝐶=
𝑑

Typically, capacitors have values in the picofarad (pF) to

microfarad (μF) range.

Capacitor Circuit Symbol

73
Types of Capacitors

Fixed Capacitors

– Nonpolarized
▪ May be connected into circuit with either terminal of capacitor connected to
the high voltage side of the circuit.
▪ Insulator: Paper, Mica, Ceramic, Polymer

– Polarized
Mica Capacitor
Electrolytic
▪ The negative terminal must always be at a lower voltage than the positive
terminal
▪ Plates or Electrodes: Aluminum, Tantalum

▪ Difficult to make nonpolarized capacitors that store a large amount of charge

or operate at high voltages.

▪ Tolerance on capacitance values is very large: can be as high as ±20%

Electrolytic Capacitor
74
Types of Capacitors…Continued

Variable Capacitors

• Cross-section area of capacitor plate is changed as one set of plates are

rotated with respect to the other.

Polarized Capacitor Symbol

Variable Capacitor Symbol

https://www.rfparts.com/review/product/list/id/13998/category/1453/

75
MEMS Capacitors

MEMS (Microelectromechanical systems)

• Fabricated on Silicon Substrate

– Can be a variable capacitor by changing the distance between
electrodes.
– Use in sensing applications as well as in RF electronics.

https://www.silvaco.com/tech_lib_TCAD/simulation
Advantages standard/2005/aug/a3/a3.html
• Small in size
• Compact
• Consume low power
• Show faster response

https://www.tf.unikiel.de/matwis/amat/semitech_en
/kap_7/backbone/r713.html 76
Electrical Properties of a Capacitor

• Acts like an open circuit at steady state when connected to a d.c. voltage or current source.

• Voltage on a capacitor must be continuous. There are no abrupt changes to the voltage, but there may
be discontinuities in the current.

• An ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy, it uses power when charging energy and returns power
when discharging energy.

Sign Conventions
The sign convention used with a capacitor is the same as for a power dissipating
device.

• When current flows into the positive side of the voltage across the capacitor, it
is positive, and the capacitor is dissipating power.

• When the capacitor releases energy back into the circuit, the sign of the
current will be negative.
77
Current-Voltage Relationships

When a voltage source vc is applied across a capacitor, a positive charge +q is stored on one
plate and a negative charge −q on the other. The amount of charge stored, represented by q,
is directly proportional to the applied voltage vC.

q = CvC
dq
iC =
dt
dvC
iC = C
dt
t
1 1
vC =  iC dt
C t0
vc

78
Current-Voltage Relationships…Continued

Let vC = V0 sin t
d
iC = C (V0 sin t )
dt
iC = CV0 cos t
 
iC = CV0 sin  − t 
2 
Current through capacitor leads voltage across capacitor The current-voltage relationship is
𝜋
by illustrated in the Figure for a capacitor
2 𝑑𝑣 𝐶
𝑖𝐶 = 𝐶 whose capacitance is independent of
𝑑𝑡
Let voltage. Capacitors that satisfy Equation
𝑣𝐶 = 𝑉0 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑣
𝑖𝐶 = 𝐶 𝐶 are said to be linear. For a
𝑑 𝑑𝑡
𝑖𝐶 = 𝐶 𝑉0 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 = 𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑉0 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 nonlinear capacitor, the plot of the current-
𝑑𝑡
1
voltage relationship is not a straight line.
𝑣𝐶 = 𝑖
𝑗𝜔𝐶 𝐶
79
Reactance and Impedance of a Capacitor

1
𝑣𝐶 = 𝑖𝐶 = −𝑗𝑋𝐶 𝑖𝐶 = 𝑍𝐶 𝑖𝐶
𝑗𝜔𝐶
1
𝑋𝐶 =
𝜔𝐶
1
𝑍𝐶 =
𝑗𝜔𝐶

• XC is called the reactance of the capacitor and ZC, the impedance of the capacitor.

– When 𝜔= 0, XC = ∞, means reactance is infinite i.e., Capacitor blocks DC

– When 𝜔 = ∞, XC = 0, means capacitor behaves like a short at higher frequencies

– Frequency dependent electrical behavior of capacitance on circuit

80
Power and Energy

Charge is stored on the plates of the capacitor.

Equation: Q = CV

Units:
Farad = Coulomb/Voltage; Farad is abbreviated as F

• A capacitor stores energy when charged and gives away energy while
discharging.

• The instantaneous power delivered to the capacitor is

𝑑𝑣𝑐
𝑝𝑐 = 𝑣𝑐 𝑖𝑐 = 𝐶𝑣𝑐
𝑑𝑡
• The energy stored in the capacitor is therefore
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
𝑑𝑣𝑐 1
𝑤𝐶 = න 𝑝𝐶 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐶 න 𝑣𝑐 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐶 න 𝑣𝑐 𝑑𝑣𝑐 = 𝐶 𝑣𝐶2
𝑑𝑡 2
−∞ −∞ −∞
81
Capacitors in Parallel

• Consider capacitors connected in parallel

configuration

– Voltage across the capacitors is equal

– Current is different

Writing KCL,
𝑖𝑖𝑛 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖3

Noting the current voltage relation for a capacitor as

𝑑𝑣
𝑖=𝐶
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
If Ceq is the net capacitance, then 𝑖𝐶 = 𝐶𝑒𝑞
𝑑𝑡

82
Capacitors in Parallel

Writing current voltage relations for individual capacitances as

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑖1 = 𝐶1 𝑖2 = 𝐶2 𝑖3 = 𝐶3
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Substituting into KCL,

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑖𝑖𝑛 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Hence,

𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3
𝑚

𝐶𝑒𝑞 = ෍ 𝐶𝑝
𝑝=1

83
Capacitors in Series

• Consider capacitors connected in series configuration

– Current through the capacitors is same
– Voltage divides

Writing KVL
𝑣𝑖𝑛 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3
• Noting the relation between voltage across the capacitor
and current through a capacitor as
𝑡1 𝑡1 𝑡1
1 1 1
𝑣1 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡 𝑣2 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡 𝑣3 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
𝑡0 𝑡0 𝑡0

• If Ceq is the total capacitance, then

𝑡1
1
𝑣𝑖𝑛 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝐶𝑒𝑞
𝑡0
84
Capacitors in Series…Continued

Substituting back into KVL

𝑡1 𝑡1 𝑡1 𝑡1
1 1 1 1
න 𝑖𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡 + න 𝑖𝑑𝑡 + න 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
𝑡0 𝑡0 𝑡0 𝑡0

Hence,
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3

𝑛 −1

𝐶𝑒𝑞 = ෍ 𝐶𝑠−1
𝑠=1

85
Properties of a Real Capacitor

• A real capacitor does dissipate energy due leakage of charge

through its insulator.

• Real capacitor is modeled by keeping a resistor in parallel with an

ideal capacitor.

86
Charging a capacitor

• One of the functions of capacitor is storing charge (and thus energy).

• Capacitor has an ability to store charge when a potential difference is applied across the
capacitor plates.

• Energy is stored in the electric field between positive and negative plates.

• When a voltage is applied across a capacitor, current flows into the capacitor plates and
develops a potential difference across the capacitor.

• With time, the potential difference between the battery and the capacitor become smaller and
the flow rate of electrons (thus current flow) reduces .

• The charging process continues until the capacitor becomes fully charged.

• The charging current follows an exponential curve.

87
Charging a capacitor…Continued

• Initially, it is easy to store charge in the capacitor.

• As more charge is stored on the plates of the capacitor, it becomes increasingly difficult to
place additional charge on the plates due to Coulombic repulsion.

• As charge is stored on the capacitor plates, the voltage across the capacitor increases
rapidly.

• The charging voltage follows an exponential curve.

88
Charging a capacitor…Continued

Consider the circuit shown in figure:

Applying KVL
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐶

Noting that
𝑞
𝑉𝐶 = and 𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅
𝐶

𝑞
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 +
𝐶
𝑑𝑞
𝑉𝐶 = 𝑅𝐶 +𝑞
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑞
𝑉𝐶 − 𝑞 = 𝑅𝐶 න =න
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶 𝑉𝐶 − 𝑞

89
Charging a capacitor…Continued

𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑞
න =න
𝑅𝐶 𝑉𝐶 − 𝑞

𝑑(𝑉𝐶 − 𝑞) 𝑑𝑡
−඲ =න
𝑉𝐶 − 𝑞 𝑅𝐶
𝑡
−ln 𝑉𝐶 − 𝑞 = 𝐶1 +
𝑅𝐶
𝑡
−
𝑉𝐶 − 𝑞 = 𝐶2 𝑒 𝑅𝐶

Using the initial boundary condition: at time t = 0, when the capacitor is not initially charged, q = 0

𝐶2 = 𝑉𝐶
𝑡  −
t
 q  −
t

𝑉𝐶 − 𝑞 = 𝑉𝐶𝑒 −𝑅𝐶
q = VC 1 − e RC vC = = V 1 − e RC

 
C  
dq V − RCt
i= = e
dt R 90
91
Time Constant

• The rate of charging is determined by the charging equation determined by the RC constant in the
exponential term.
q  −
t

vC = = V 1 − e RC
C  
• The term RC is termed the time constant (mostly RC time constant) since it affects the rate of charge.

• Mathematically, this is the time taken for the capacitor to reach 0.632 of the fully charged value.

• According to the charging equation, theoretically, capacitors takes infinite time to charge completely.

• For all practical purposes, it is assumed that a capacitor can be charged completely in only five times of
the time constant, meaning the capacitor is said fully charged after 5×RC.

• After 5 time constant, q, Vc and current will be over 99% (1-e-5 = 0.9932) to their final values.

92
Charging an Initially Charged Capacitor

• The ability to add charge to a capacitor depends on:

--the amount of charge already on the plates of the capacitor and the force (voltage) driving the charge
towards the plates (i.e., current).

• If at the start of charging, the capacitor is charged to a voltage of V1 Volts, then the initial condition gets
modified as at t = 0, q = CV1

• Thus, applying boundary condition

𝐶2 = 𝐶(𝑉 − 𝑉1 ) 𝑉𝐶 − 𝐶𝑉1 = 𝐶2

𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
−𝑅𝐶 −𝑅𝐶 −𝑅𝐶
𝑉𝐶 − 𝑞 = 𝐶(𝑉 − 𝑉1 )𝑒 𝑞 = 𝑉𝐶(1 − 𝑒 ) + 𝑉1 𝐶𝑒

𝑞 𝑡
−𝑅𝐶
𝑡
−𝑅𝐶 𝑞 𝑡
−𝑅𝐶
𝑉𝐶 = = 𝑉 − 𝑉𝑒 + 𝑉1 𝐶𝑒 𝑉𝐶 = = 𝑉 + (𝑉1 − 𝑉)𝑒
𝐶 𝐶

93
Discharging a Capacitor

• Coulombic repulsion between charges already existing the plates creates a force that lets charges
to discharge out of the capacitor once the voltage on the charge in the capacitor is decreased

• Coulombic repulsion decreases as more charges are removed from the capacitor plates.

• Initially, voltage across the capacitor decreases rapidly as charge is removed from the plates.

• As more and more charge is removed, voltage across the capacitor decreases more slowly as it
becomes difficult to force the remaining charge out of the capacitor.

94
Discharging a Capacitor

• Applying KVL

𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐶 = 0
𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑞
𝑖𝑅 + = 0 𝑅+ =0
𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝐶
𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑡 𝑡
න = −න ln𝑞 = − + 𝐶1
𝑞 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶
𝑡 𝑡
− +𝐶1 −
𝑞= 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 𝑞 = 𝐶2 𝑒 𝑅𝐶

Substitute boundary condition: at t = 0, Voltage across C = V, q = VC

𝑡
−
𝐶2 = 𝑉𝐶 𝑞 = 𝑉𝐶𝑒 𝑅𝐶

𝑞 𝑡
−𝑅𝐶 𝑑𝑞 𝑉 −𝑡
𝑉𝐶 = = 𝑉𝑒 𝑖= = − 𝑒 𝑅𝐶
𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝑅
• Note that the negative sign indicate that the current is opposite to the charging current’s direction
95
Discharging a Capacitor

96
Inductors

• Inductor stores energy in a magnetic field created by

an electric current flowing through it.

• Inductor opposes change (chokes) in current flowing

through a conductor.

• Current through an inductor is continuous; voltage

can be discontinuous.

Structure

• Generally formed by a coil of conducting wire

• Conducting wire is usually wrapped around a

solid core.

• In the absence of a core, the inductor is said to

have an ‘air core’.
97
Inductors…Continued

Circuit Symbols

Calculations of L

𝑁 2 𝜇𝐴 𝑁 2 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐴
𝐿= =
𝑙 𝑙
N is the number of turns of wire
A is the cross-sectional area of the toroid in m2.
μr is the relative permeability of the core material
μo is the vacuum permeability (4π × 10-7 H/m)
l is the length of the wire used to wrap the toroid in meters
98
 Properties of an Inductor

• Inductor acts like a short circuit in steady state.

• Current through an inductor must be continuous, meaning there are no abrupt

changes to the current but there can be abrupt changes in the voltage across an
inductor.

• No energy or power is dissipated by an ideal inductor. Ideal inductor absorbs energy

or power from the circuit when storing energy and restores energy into circuit while
discharging

Properties of a Real Inductor

• Due to resistive losses and capacitive coupling between turns of wire

99
Sign Convention

• When current flows into the positive side of the voltage across
the inductor, the current is positive, and the inductor is
dissipating power

• When an inductor releases energy back into the circuit, the sign
of the current is negative.

Current Voltage Relationship

• the voltage across the inductor is directly proportional to the time
rate of change of the current.
𝑑𝑖
𝑣𝐿 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝑡1
1
𝑖𝐿 = න 𝑣𝐿 𝑑𝑡
𝐿
𝑡0
100
Current Voltage Relationship

Let 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼0 sin(𝜔𝑡) XL is called as reluctance (in ohm) of an inductor

𝑑 – When 𝜔= 0, XL= 0, means reactance is zero
𝑣𝐿 = 𝐿 𝐼 sin(𝜔𝑡) and inductor behaves like a short at DC
𝑑𝑡 0
– When 𝜔 = ∞, XL = ∞, means inductor behaves
𝑣𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡)
like an open circuit at higher frequencies
𝜋
= 𝜔𝐿𝐼0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 + – Frequency dependent electrical behavior of
2 inductance on circuit
• Voltage across inductor leads current through inductor
𝜋
by
2
𝑑𝑖
Let 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼0 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑣𝐿 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝑣𝐿 = 𝐿 𝐼0 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝐼0 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑣𝐿 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝑖𝐿

Comparing the equation (similar to that of V= IR)

𝑗𝜔𝐿 = 𝑗𝑋𝐿 = 𝑍𝐿
101
Power and Energy

𝑑𝑖𝐿
𝑝𝐿 = 𝑣𝐿 𝑖𝐿 = 𝐿𝑖𝐿
𝑑𝑡

𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
𝑑𝑖𝐿 1 2
𝑤𝐿 = න 𝑝𝐿 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝐿 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿 න 𝑖𝐿 𝑑 𝑖𝐿 = 𝐿𝑖𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 2
−∞ −∞ −∞

102
Inductors in Series

• Consider inductors connected in a series

configuration as shown in the circuit

• Applying KVL
𝑣 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3
• Noting the relation between voltage across and
current through inductor,
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝑣1 = 𝐿1 𝑣2 = 𝐿2 𝑣3 = 𝐿3
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
• If Leq is the total inductance of the circuit, then
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝑣𝑖𝑛 = 𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑁

𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3 𝐿𝑒𝑞 = ෍ 𝐿𝑠
𝑠=1

103
Inductors in Parallel

• Consider inductors connected in a parallel

configuration as shown in the circuit

• Applying KCL
𝑖𝑖𝑛 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖3
• Noting the relation between voltage across the
inductor and current through inductor
𝑡1 𝑡1 𝑡1
1 1 1
𝑖1 = න 𝑣𝑑𝑡 𝑖2 = න 𝑣𝑑𝑡 𝑖3 = න 𝑣𝑑𝑡
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3
𝑡0 𝑡0 𝑡0

• If Leq is the total inductance of the circuit, then 𝑁 −1

𝑡1 𝑡1 𝑡1 𝑡1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑖𝑖𝑛 = න 𝑣𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑣𝑑𝑡 + න 𝑣𝑑𝑡 + න 𝑣𝑑𝑡 = + + 𝐿𝑒𝑞 = ෎
𝐿𝑒𝑞 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3 𝐿𝑒𝑞 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3 𝐿𝑝
𝑡0 𝑡0 𝑡0 𝑡0 𝑝=1

104
Charging of an Inductor
• Consider the circuit shown in figure
• Applying KVL
𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐿
𝑑𝑖
𝑉0 = 𝑖𝑅 + 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝐿𝑑𝑖
= 𝑑𝑡
𝑉0 − 𝑅𝑖
𝐿𝑑𝑖
න = න𝑑𝑡
𝑉0 − 𝑅𝑖

𝐿
− ln 𝑉0 − 𝑅𝑖 = 𝑡 + 𝑘
𝑅
𝐿
Using the initial boundary condition: at time t = 0, i(t)=0 𝑘 = − ln𝑉0
𝑅
𝐿 𝑉0 − 𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝑡 𝑉0 𝑅𝑡
−𝐿
− ln 𝑉0 − 𝑅𝑖 − ln 𝑉0 =𝑡 −𝐿
𝑅 =𝑒 𝑖 = (1 − 𝑒 ൰
𝑉0 𝑅
105
Discharge Current through an Inductor

Applying KVL to the circuit:

𝑣L(𝑡) + 𝑅𝑖(𝑡) = 0
𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖(𝑡) = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖(𝑡) 𝑅
= − 𝑑𝑡
𝑖(𝑡) 𝐿
𝑖(𝑡) 𝑅
ln =− 𝑡
𝑖(0) 𝐿
𝑅
−𝐿 𝑡
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼0 𝑒

Time constant τ is given by

𝐿
𝜏=
𝑅

106
Discharge Current through an Inductor

107
Passive Filters

108
Filter Applications

• Filters are specifically used to

– remove unwanted frequency components from the signal
– to enhance wanted ones
– or both.

• Filters are essential building blocks in many systems,

– Example: used in communication and instrumentation systems

• A common need for filter circuits is in high-performance stereo systems, where certain ranges of
audio frequencies need to be amplified or suppressed for best sound quality and power efficiency

Filter Characteristics
• Filter is an electrical network that modifies the amplitude and phase characteristics of a signal with
respect to frequency

• In electronic systems, filters are useful in emphasizing signals in certain frequency ranges and
reject signals in other frequency ranges.
109
Different types of Filters

• Low-pass filter: low frequencies are passed; high frequencies are attenuated.

• High-pass filter: high frequencies are passed; low frequencies are attenuated.

• Band-pass filter: only frequencies in a frequency band are passed.

• Band-stop filter or band-reject filter: only frequencies in a frequency band are attenuated

110
Filter Characteristics

• Filter is characterized by two important observations

➢ Transfer Function or Transfer Characteristics: A mathematical function describing the output response
of a filter system to the input or stimulus. Transfer function in filters is studied as a frequency response

➢ Phase response: How the phase of filter changes with frequency

• The order of the filter is decided by the order of the differential equation that need to be solved.

➢ 1st order differential equation- 1st order filter

➢ 2nd order differential equation- 2nd order filter

➢ Important properties of filter

• 3 dB Frequency or cut-off frequency: The frequency at which the transfer function becomes half.

111
RC Filters

RC Low Pass Filters

• Low pass filter passes low frequency signals and attenuates
high frequency signals.

• Consider an input signal vin. Output vout is taken across

capacitor.

• Transfer function H(ω):

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝐶
𝐻(𝜔) = =
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐶
1
𝑗𝜔𝐶 1
𝐻(𝜔) = =
1 1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶
𝑅+
𝑗𝜔𝐶
1
|𝐻(𝜔)| =
1 + 𝜔𝑅𝐶 2 112
RC Low Pass Filters

Cut-off Frequency (fc) Phase Angle (φ)

1 𝜙 = −tan−1 𝜔𝑅𝐶
|𝐻(𝜔)| =
2
1 1 −1
𝜔 −1
𝑓
= 𝜙 = −tan = −tan
2 2 𝜔𝐶 𝑓𝐶
1 + 𝜔𝑅𝐶
1
𝜔𝐶 =
𝑅𝐶
1
𝑓𝐶 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶
1
|𝐻(𝜔)| =
2
𝜔
1+
𝜔𝐶

113
RC High Pass Filters

• High pass filter passes high frequency signals and attenuates

low frequency signals

• Consider an input signal vin. Output vout is taken across resistor.

• Transfer function H(ω):

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑅
𝐻(𝜔) = =
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐶

𝑅 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶
𝐻(𝜔) = =
1 1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶
𝑅+
𝑗𝜔𝐶
𝜔𝑅𝐶
|𝐻(𝜔)| =
1 + 𝜔𝑅𝐶 2

114
RC High Pass Filters

Cut-off Frequency (fc) Phase Angle (φ)

𝜋
1 𝜙 = − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝜔𝑅𝐶
|𝐻(𝜔)| = 2
2 𝜋 𝜔
𝜔𝑅𝐶 1 = − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
= 2 𝜔𝐶
1 + 𝜔𝑅𝐶 2 2 𝜋 𝑓
= − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
1 2 𝑓𝐶
𝜔𝐶 =
𝑅𝐶
1
𝑓𝐶 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶

1
|𝐻 𝜔 | =
𝜔 2
1+ 𝐶
𝜔

115
RL Filters

RL Low Pass Filters

• Transfer function H(ω):

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑅
𝐻(𝜔) = =
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐿

𝑅 1
𝐻(𝜔) = =
𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 1 + 𝑗𝜔 𝐿
𝑅
1
|𝐻 𝜔 | =
𝜔𝐿 2
1+
𝑅

116
RL Low Pass Filters

Cut-off Frequency (fc) Phase Angle (φ)

1 𝜔𝐿
|𝐻(𝜔)| = 𝜙 = −tan−1
2 𝑅
1 1 𝜔 −1
𝑓
|𝐻 𝜔 | = 2
= 𝜙 = −tan−1 = −tan
𝜔𝐿 2 𝜔𝐶 𝑓𝐶
1+ 𝑅

𝑅
𝜔𝐶 =
𝐿
𝑅
𝑓𝐶 =
2𝜋𝐿

117
RL High Pass Filters

• Transfer function H(ω):

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝐿
𝐻(𝜔) = =
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐿
𝑗𝜔𝐿 1
𝐻(𝜔) = 𝐻 𝜔 =
𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 𝑅
1+
𝑗𝜔𝐿
1
|𝐻 𝜔 | =
2
𝑅
1+
𝜔𝐿

118
RL High Pass Filters

Cut-off Frequency (fc) Phase Angle (φ)

1 𝜋 𝜔𝐿
|𝐻(𝜔)| = 𝜙= − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
2 2 𝑅
𝜋 𝜔
1 1 𝜙 = − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝐻 𝜔 = = 2 𝜔𝐶
𝑅 2 2
1+ 𝜔𝐿 𝜋 𝑓
= − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
2 𝑓𝐶
𝑅
𝜔𝐶 =
𝐿
𝑅
𝑓𝐶 =
2𝜋𝐿

119