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[LLA] Set 17 — Summarising

Introduction
A summary is a synthesis of the key ideas of a piece of writing, restated in your own
words – i.e., paraphrased. You may write a summary as a stand- alone assignment
or as part of a longer paper. Whenever you summarize, you must be careful not to
copy the exact wording of the original source.

Definition
A summary is a restatement of someone else's words in your own
words. There are many different kinds of summaries, and they vary
according to the degree to which you interpret or analyse the source.
Some are pages long, while others are just one or two sentences.
However, for all types of summary, the writer is responsible for
generally stating, in his or her own words, the main information or
argument of another writer.

Purposes of the summary

Before you write the summary, consider why your audience (professor,
boss, client) wants to read it. Why should not the reader just read the
original? Summaries benefit the reader because they offer a concise,
general version of the original information. For a busy reader,
summaries provide quick overviews of material. Summaries also show
readers that you have understood the general point of a text, and in
this way, teachers can test your knowledge. The process of
summarizing someone else's material enables you to understand
better that material. Finally, summaries allow you to introduce
knowledge within a research context: you can summarize someone's
argument in order to analyse or critique it.

What and when to summarize

Many student writers tend to quote when they should summarize
material. Quote only when the author expresses a point in a
particularly telling or interesting language. Otherwise, simply
summarize. Use a summary to restate an entire argument. Use a
summary to present information. A summary is more economical than
quotation because a summary allows the writer more control over the
argument.

How to summarize (main steps)

 Read the original passage or text very carefully.
 Use a pencil to highlight or underline what you take to be the
main point of the original text, or make notes in the margins or
on another sheet of paper.
 If you are summarizing an entire essay, outline the writer's
argument.
 Now tell your audience what the original source argued.

How to summarise (step by step)

1. Read the article.

2. Re-read the article. Underline important ideas. Circle key terms. Find
the main point of the article. Divide the article into sections or stages
of thought, and label each section or stage of thought in the margins.
Note the main idea of each paragraph if the article is short.

3. Write brief summaries of each stage of thought or if appropriate

each paragraph. Use a separate piece of paper for this step. This
should be a brief outline of the article.

4. Write the main point of the article. Use your own words. This should
be a sentence that expresses the central idea of the article as you have
determined it from the steps above.

5. Write your rough draft of the summary. Combine the information

from the first four steps into paragraphs.

 Include all the important ideas.

  Use the author's key words.
 Follow the original organization where possible.
 Include any important data.
 Include any important conclusions.

6. Edit your version. Be concise. Eliminate needless words and

repetitions. (Avoid using "the author says...," "the author argues...,"
etc.)

7. Compare your version to the original.

 Do not use quotations, but if you use them be sure to quote

correctly. Indicate quotations with quotation marks. Cite each
quotation correctly (give the page number).
 Do not plagiarize. Cite any paraphrases by citing the page
number the information appears on. Avoid paraphrasing
whenever possible. Use your own words to state the ideas
presented in the article.

(Adapted from Writing Across the Curriculum 4th edition, L. Behrens

and L. Rosen, eds., 1991, Harper/Collins, pp. 6-7.)

In the summary, you should include only the information your readers
need.

1. State the main point first.

2. Use a lower level of technicality than the authors of the original

article use. Do not write a summary your readers cannot understand.

3. Make the summary clear and understandable to someone who has

not read the original article. Your summary should stand on its own.

4. Write a summary rather than a table of contents.

“This article covers point X. Then the article covers point Y”. � [wrong]

“Glacial advances have been rapid as shown by x, y, and z”. � [right]

5. Add no new data and none of your own ideas.

6. Use a simple organization:

• main point

• main results: give the main results

• conclusions/recommendations

7. Unless the examples in the article are essential, do not include the
examples in your summary. If you include them, remember to
explain them.

Here is an easy way to begin a summary: In "[name of article]"

[author] states . . . . [State the main point of the article first.] For
example: In "Computer Chess"* Hans Berliner states that the CYBER
170 series computer can perform well in a chess tournament.

Cite the source with correct bibliographic form. For example:

*Berliner, H.J. (1981). Computer Chess. Nature, 274(567), 745-748.

[author. article title. journal title. vol.(number)/month: pages. ]

So when you write a summary:

1. State the main point first.

2. Emphasize the main stages of thought.

3. State the article’s conclusion.

4. Summarize rather than give a table of contents.

5. Keep summary short: 3 to 7 sentences.

Example:

Wrong

This article covers the topic of measuring the extent of global

deforestation. The article discusses reasons for concern, the technique,
the results, and the project’s current goal.

Right

According to the author of “Seeing the Forest,” the extent of global

deforestation was difficult to measure until satellite remote sensing
techniques were applied. Measuring the extent of global deforestation
is important because of concerns about global warming and species
extinctions. The technique compares old infrared LANDSAT images with
new images. The authors conclude the method is accurate and cost
effective.

Summary conventions
 Summaries can range in length from two sentences to several
pages. In any case, use complete sentences to describe an
author's general points to your reader. Do not quote extensively.
If you quote, use quotation marks and document the quotation. If
you fail to document the quotation, even one word that the
author used, you are plagiarizing material (presenting another
person's information as if it were your own).
 Use the author's last name as a tag to introduce information:
"Smith argues that population growth and environmental
degradation are causally related." "Brown notes that education in
the U.S. has undergone major revolutions in the past 20 years."
 Use the present tense (often called the historical present tense)
to summarize the author's argument. "Green contends that the
Republican and Democratic parties are funded by the same major
corporations."

Academic summaries
[Prepared by the Southeastern Writing Center. Updated by Melanie
Marse. Last updated on January 12, 2008.]

An academic summary tells the main points of a source text in brief

form. As a condensed version of the source material, it can range
anywhere from a couple of sentences to a short summary article,
depending on the length of the source and your purposes for writing. In
writing a summary, you need to select the most important points of the
source text and report on (vs. react to) them using your own words.
You can combine several important points from the source into a brief
general statement, or go more in depth and relate minor points as well,
again depending on the purpose of your summary. Experts suggest,
however, that a good rule of thumb to follow is that a summary is
never more than about one-quarter the length of the original, though in
most cases it is much briefer. In addition, keep in mind that a summary
must always be written in your own words, or if not, should contain
direct quotations. To ignore this rule is plagiarism.

Some Purposes and Uses of Summaries:

• preparing for exams

• taking notes on your readings

A summary typically contains this information in the first sentence.

• collecting and condensing information for research papers

• integrating sources into your writing

A good academic summary succeeds when it does the

following:

• It identifies the author and the source (book or article). A summary

typically contains this information in the first sentence. Expressions
you can use to introduce this information include: “According to [the
author]. . . .”; “In his/her book [title], [the author] states that . . . .”

• It gives credit to the author throughout. To make it clear that the

ideas presented are the author’s and not your own, you should
frequently use signals like “[The author] also states that . . . .”

• It begins by offering a broad overview of the material (one or two

sentences), which is then developed in more detail in the body of the
summary.

• It uses quotation marks and page references whenever a phrase, a

part of a sentence, or a complete sentence is taken directly from the
source text. However, it also quotes selectively and sparingly.

• It is brief, but thorough enough to accomplish its purposes.

• It is an accurate reflection of the author’s viewpoint throughout.
Therefore, carefully reading of the source is essential.

How to summarise
A good summary:

 Identifies the writer of the original text.

 Synthesizes the writer’s key ideas.
 Presents the information neutrally.

Summaries can vary in length. Follow the directions given by your

instructor for how long the summary should be.

Weak summary (the author describes the article rather than

summarizes)

Chepesiuk, R. (2005, January). Decibel hell. Environmental Health

Perspectives, 113. A35-A41.

This article focuses on the growing problem and cause of noise

pollution. It explores the effects of population growth, urban sprawl,
and the increase of traffic and aircraft prevalence on noise levels. This
article offers specific information regarding decibel measurements and
risks of prolonged exposure. The author provides specific decibel levels
for a variety of machines and situations.

I plan to use this information in the final report section dealing with
health risks caused by high noise levels. <evaluation

Better: (the author summarizes by providing key details)

Chepesiuk, R. (2005, January). Decibel hell. Environmental Health

Perspectives, 113. A35-A41.

This article provides information on the growing problem and causes of

noise pollution. Population growth, urban sprawl, and increases in
traffic and aircraft transportation are having a marked effect on noise
levels. Escalating decibel levels and prolonged exposure increase the
risks to hearing and health. In the United States, 30 million employees
are vulnerable to the possibility of hearing loss because of hazardous
noise levels on the job. Children and animals are also at risk to the
physical effects of noise, such as stress, elevated blood pressure, and
increased heart rate. Various decibel-measuring machines are
available for various situations. In conclusion, the article shows that
health and hearing risks due to combined decibel levels and extended
exposures occur in everyday life.

I plan to use this information in the final report section dealing with
health risks caused by high noise levels. <evaluation

Examples
Original text 1

America has changed dramatically during recent years. Not only has
the number of graduates in traditional engineering disciplines such as
mechanical, civil, electrical, chemical, and aeronautical engineering
declined, but in most of the premier American universities engineering
curricula now concentrate on and encourage largely the study of
engineering science. As a result, there are declining offerings in
engineering subjects dealing with infrastructure, the environment, and
related issues, and greater concentration on high technology subjects,
largely supporting increasingly complex scientific developments. While
the latter is important, it should not be at the expense of more
traditional engineering.

Rapidly developing economies such as China and India, as well as other

industrial countries in Europe and Asia, continue to encourage and
advance the teaching of engineering. Both China and India,
respectively, graduate six and eight times as many traditional
engineers as does the United States. Other industrial countries at
minimum maintain their output, while America suffers an increasingly
serious decline in the number of engineering graduates and a lack of
well-educated engineers. (169 words)
(Source: Excerpted from Frankel, E.G. (2008, May/June) Change in
education: The cost of sacrificing fundamentals. MIT Faculty
Newsletter, XX, 5, 13.)

One-paragraph summary
In a 2008 Faculty Newsletter article, “Change in Education: The cost of
sacrificing fundamentals,” MIT Professor Emeritus Ernst G. Frankel
expresses his concerns regarding the current state of American
engineering education. He notes that the number of students focusing
on traditional areas of engineering has decreased while the number
interested in the high-technology end of the field has increased.
Frankel points out that other industrial nations produce far more
traditionally-trained engineers than we do, and believes we have fallen
seriously behind. (81 words)

Why is this a good summary?

The summary identifies the writer, the date of publication, and the
source, and restates the key ideas using original wording. The
summary reports on the author’s point of view, but reports this
neutrally.

One-line summary

MIT Professor Emeritus Ernst G. Frankel (2008) has called for a return
to a course of study that emphasizes the traditional skills of
engineering, noting that the number of American engineering
graduates with these skills has fallen sharply when compared to the
number coming from other countries. (47 words)

Why is this a good summary?

This one-line summary identifies the writer and synthesizes the key
ideas. A short summary like this might appear in the literature review
of research paper in which the student gathers the findings or opinions
of scholars on a given subject.
 Original text 2
Today, pornography attempts to make its audience focus their
fantasies on specific people. The "Playmate of the Month" is a
particular woman about whom the reader is meant to have particular
fantasies. In my view, this has a more baneful effect on people--makes
them demented, in fact, in a way that earlier pornography didn't.
Today's pornography promises them that there exists, somewhere on
this earth, a life of endlessly desirable and available women and
endlessly potent men. The promise that this life is just around the
corner--in Hugh Hefner's mansion, or even just in the next joint or the
next snort--is maddening and disorienting. And in its futility, it makes
for rage and self-hatred. The traditional argument against censorship--
that "no one can be seduced by a book"--was probably valid when
pornography was impersonal and anonymous, purely an aid to
fantasizing about sexual utopia. Today, however, there is addiction and
seduction in pornography. (Midge Decter)

Summary
Decter argues that because pornography is more realistic now, using
photographs of people with names and identities, it is more harmful to
its readers and viewers, who can easily grow dissatisfied and frustrated
with fantasies.

Original text 3
'At a typical football match we are likely to see players committing
deliberate fouls, often behind the referee's back. They might try to take
a throw-in or a free kick from an incorrect but more advantageous
position in defiance of the clearly stated rules of the game. They
sometimes challenge the rulings of the referee or linesmen in an
offensive way, which often deserves exemplary punishment or even
sending-off. No wonder spectators fight amongst themselves, damage
stadiums, or take the law into their own hands by invading the pitch in
the hope of affecting the outcome of the match.' [100 words]
Summary

Unsportsmanlike behaviour by footballers may cause hooliganism

among spectators. [9 words]

What is the difference between paraphrasing and

summarizing?
Summarizing and paraphrasing are somewhat different. A paraphrase
is about the same length as the original source, while a summary is
much shorter. Nevertheless, when you summarize, you must be careful
not to copy the exact wording of the original source. Follow the same
rules as you would for paraphrase.

Summarising and mind maps

Mind mapping can help you understand and remember the important
issues in your readings. We suggest you follow five steps in creating
mind maps, which summarise your readings.

1. Skim
Firstly, read the abstract, introduction, conclusion, key headings or
chapter headings. When skimming through the text observe any
diagrams, pictures or graphs. This gives you an overview of what you
are about to read, puts it in context and may already give you some
clues as to where the most relevant parts are located.

2. Read
Read the article in one sitting (or chunk it into sections/chapters if it is
a whole book) and go over any parts of which you are not quite sure.

3. Mind Map
It is important to do the mind map from memory at this stage so do not
consult the article or any other source of information.
 4. Study
The mind map you have just done (in steps 1-3) is very valuable as it
will show the areas you have understood and also areas about which
you are unsure. Study your mind map to discover the gaps in your
knowledge and refer back to the source material to fill in any of these
gaps.

5. Personalise
Using different colours or symbols, add your own comments and
questions to the mind map. Questions relating to relationships,
implications, alternative approaches, usefulness, clarity and personal
experience could all be considered at this stage. It is in this
personalising stage where your mind map really starts to help you with
your learning. The trick now is to address all those questions you have
raised and to keep returning to your mind map with the answers!

Tips on summarizing
In academic writing, there are a few things to keep in mind when
summarizing outside sources:

 Use your own words

 Include the key relevant elements of the original and keep it brief
- you're just going for the original's essence
 Do not include your interpretation/analysis within the summary –
make a clear distinction between your thoughts and someone
else's
 Vary how you introduce or attribute your sources, like "according
to..." or "so-and- so concludes that..." so your readers don't get
bored
 Always include a citation

Here is an example of a good summary:

Original
Despite decades of research into the sociocultural model of eating
disorders, we still do not understand how such sociocultural influences
produce disordered eating in any given individual (or why a similar
person in the same cultural milieu does not become disordered).
Clearly, though, one source of vulnerability lies in a woman's body
image. To the extent that a woman's self-image is challenged or
threatened by an unattainable ideal of an impossibly thin female
physique, she may well become susceptible to disruption of her self-
regard, and may be more likely to develop an eating disorder. In short,
the sociocultural model argues that exposure to idealized media
images (a) makes women feel bad about themselves and (b) impels
women to undertake the sort of "remedial" eating patterns that easily
and often deteriorate into eating disorders.

Summary in Paper (APA)

Polivy and Herman (2004) noted that we still do not know how or why
sociocultural influences like the media contribute to some individuals
developing eating disorders while others do not. In some cases, the
ubiquitous message of thinness and ideal beauty broadcast by the
media can challenge a woman's self-image, disrupting her sense of
self-esteem. However, not all women are influenced by the same
media messages in the same way. The sociocultural model explores
the ways women internalize the media's ideal of unattainable thinness
and beauty, and how that internalization in turn can result in
disordered eating and a distorted sense of body image (pp. 1-2).

Note: APA does not require a page number reference for summaries,
but you are encouraged to include it when it would help the reader find
the relevant information in a long text. Be sure to ask your professor
whether page numbers are needed for summaries in papers written for
his/her class.

This complete citation appears in the reference list:

Polivy, J., & Herman, C. P. (2004). Sociocultural idealization of thin

female body shapes: An introduction to the special issue on body
image and eating disorders. Journal of Social & Clinical Psychology, 23,
1-6. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.134.3.460

Key ideas when summarising

1. A summary –or précis– is a shorter version of a longer piece of
writing. The summary captures all the most important parts of the
original, but expresses them in a [much] shorter space.

2. Summarizing exercises are usually set to test your understanding of

the original, and your ability to re-state its main purpose.

3. Summarizing is also a useful skill when gathering information or

doing research.

4. The summary should be expressed –as far as possible– in your own

words. It is not enough to merely copy out parts of the original.

5. The question will usually set a maximum number of words. If not,

aim for something like one tenth (10%) of the original. [A summary
which was half the length of the original would not be a summary.]

6. Read the original quickly, and try to understand its main subject or
purpose.

7. Then you will need to read it again to understand it in more detail.

8. Underline or make a marginal note of the main issues. Use a

highlighter if this helps.

9. Look up any words or concepts you do not know, so that you

understand the author's sentences and how they relate to each other.

10. Work through the text to identify its main sections or arguments.
These might be expressed as paragraphs or web pages.

11. Remember that the purpose [and definition] of a paragraph is that

it deals with one issue or topic.

12. Draw up a list of the topics - or make a diagram. [A simple picture

of boxes or a spider diagram can often be helpful.]
13. Write a one or two-sentence account of each section you identify.
Focus your attention on the main point. Leave out any illustrative
examples.

14. Write a sentence which states the central idea of the original text.

15. Use this as the starting point for writing a paragraph which
combines all the points you have made.

16. The final summary should concisely and accurately capture

the central meaning of the original.

17. Remember that it must be in your own words. By writing in this

way, you help to re-create the meaning of the original in a way which
makes sense for you.

Some extra tips

Even though notes are only for your own use, they will be more
effective if they are recorded clearly and neatly. Good layout will help
you to recall and assess material more readily. If in doubt, use the
following general guidelines.

• Before you even start, make a note of your source(s). If this is a book,
an article, or a journal, write the following information at the head of
your notes: Author, title, publisher, publication date, and edition of
book.

• Use loose-leaf A4 paper. This is now the international standard for

almost all educational printed matter. Do not use small notepads. You
will find it easier to keep track of your notes if they fit easily alongside
your other study materials.

• Write clearly and leave a space between each note. Do not try to
cram as much as possible onto one page. Keeping the items separate
will make them easier to recall. The act of laying out information in this
way will cause you to assess the importance of each detail.
• Use a new page for each set of notes. This will help you to store and
identify them later. Keep topics separate, and have them clearly titled
and labelled to facilitate easy recall.

• Write on one side of the page only. Number these pages. Leave the
blank sides free for possible future additions, and for any details which
may be needed later.