CHAPTER

5
The Skeletal
System

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

The Skeletal System

•Parts of the skeletal system

•Bones (skeleton)
•Joints
•Cartilages
•Ligaments
•Two subdivisions of the skeleton
•Axial skeleton
•Appendicular skeleton
Functions of Bones

•Support the body

•Protect soft organs
•Skull and vertebrae for brain and spinal cord
•Rib cage for thoracic cavity organs
•Allow movement due to attached skeletal muscles
•Store minerals and fats
•Calcium and phosphorus
•Fat in the internal marrow cavity
•Blood cell formation (hematopoiesis)
Bones of the Human Body

•The adult skeleton has 206 bones

•Two basic types of bone tissue
•Compact bone
•Homogeneous
•Spongy bone
•Small needle-like pieces of bone
•Many open spaces
Spongy
bone

Compact
bone
Figure 5.1
Classification of Bones on the Basis of
Shape
•Bones are classified as:
•Long
•Short
•Flat
•Irregular
Figure 5.2
Classification of Bones

•Long bones
• Typically longer than they are wide
• Shaft with heads situated at both ends
• Contain mostly compact bone
• All of the bones of the limbs (except wrist,
ankle, and kneecap bones)
• Example:
• Femur
• Humerus
Figure 5.2a
Classification of Bones

•Short bones
•Generally cube-shaped
•Contain mostly spongy bone
•Includes bones of the wrist and ankle
•Sesamoid bones are a type of short bone
which form within tendons (patella)
•Example:
•Carpals
•Tarsals
Figure 5.2d
Classification of Bones

•Flat bones
•Thin, flattened, and usually curved
•Two thin layers of compact bone surround a
layer of spongy bone
•Example:
•Skull
•Ribs
•Sternum
Spongy
bone

Compact
bone
Figure 5.1
Figure 5.2c
Classification of Bones

•Irregular bones
•Irregular shape
•Do not fit into other bone classification
categories
•Example:
•Vertebrae
•Hip bones
Figure 5.2b
Anatomy of a Long Bone

•Diaphysis
•Shaft
•Composed of compact bone
•Epiphysis
•Ends of the bone
•Composed mostly of spongy
bone
 Articular
cartilage

Proximal
epiphysis Spongy bone
Epiphyseal
line
Periosteum
Compact bone
Medullary
cavity (lined
by endosteum)
Diaphysis

Distal
epiphysis
(a)
Figure 5.3a
Anatomy of a Long Bone

•Periosteum
•Outside covering of the diaphysis
•Fibrous connective tissue membrane
•Perforating (Sharpey’s) fibers
•Secure periosteum to underlying bone
•Arteries
•Supply bone cells with nutrients
 Endosteum

Yellow
bone marrow
Compact bone
Periosteum
Perforating
(Sharpey’s)
fibers
Nutrient
arteries
(c)
Figure 5.3c
Anatomy of a Long Bone

•Articular cartilage
•Covers the external surface of the
epiphyses
•Made of hyaline cartilage
•Decreases friction at joint surfaces
Articular
cartilage

Compact bone

Spongy bone

(b)

Figure 5.3b
Anatomy of a Long Bone

•Epiphyseal plate
•Flat plate of hyaline cartilage seen in
young, growing bone
•Epiphyseal line
•Remnant of the epiphyseal plate
•Seen in adult bones
 Articular
cartilage

Proximal
epiphysis Spongy bone
Epiphyseal
line
Periosteum
Compact bone
Medullary
cavity (lined
by endosteum)
Diaphysis

Distal
epiphysis
(a)
Figure 5.3a
Anatomy of a Long Bone

•Marrow (medullary) cavity

•Cavity inside of the shaft
•Contains yellow marrow (mostly fat) in
adults
•Contains red marrow for blood cell formation
in infants
•In adults, red marrow is situated in cavities of
spongy bone and epiphyses of some long
bones
 Articular
cartilage

Proximal
epiphysis Spongy bone
Epiphyseal
line
Periosteum
Compact bone
Medullary
cavity (lined
by endosteum)
Diaphysis

Distal
epiphysis
(a)
Figure 5.3a
Bone Markings

•Surface features of bones

•Sites of attachments for muscles,
tendons, and ligaments
•Passages for nerves and blood vessels
•Categories of bone markings
•Projections or processes—grow out from
the bone surface
•Depressions or cavities—indentations
Microscopic Anatomy of Compact Bone

•Osteon (Haversian system)

•A unit of bone containing central canal and
matrix rings
•Central (Haversian) canal
•Opening in the center of an osteon
•Carries blood vessels and nerves
•Perforating (Volkmann’s) canal
•Canal perpendicular to the central canal
•Carries blood vessels and nerves
 Osteon
(Haversian system)

Lamellae

Blood vessel continues into

medullary cavity containing marrow
Spongy bone
Perforating
fibers
Compact
bone
Periosteal
blood vessel Central (Haversian) canal
Periosteum
Perforating
(a) (Volkmann’s) canal
Blood vessel

Figure 5.4a
Microscopic Anatomy of Bone

•Lacunae
•Cavities containing bone cells
(osteocytes)
•Arranged in concentric rings called
lamellae
•Lamellae
•Rings around the central canal
•Sites of lacunae
 Lamella
Osteocyte

Canaliculus
(b) Lacuna
Central (Haversian) canal

Figure 5.4b
 Osteon

Lacuna

(c) Central Interstitial

canal lamellae Figure 5.4c
Microscopic Anatomy of Bone

•Canaliculi
•Tiny canals
•Radiate from the central canal to
lacunae
•Form a transport system connecting
all bone cells to a nutrient supply
 Lamella
Osteocyte

Canaliculus
(b) Lacuna
Central (Haversian) canal

Figure 5.4b
Formation of the Human Skeleton

•In embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline

cartilage
•During development, much of this cartilage is
replaced by bone
•Cartilage remains in isolated areas
•Bridge of the nose
•Parts of ribs
•Joints
Bone Growth (Ossification)

•Epiphyseal plates allow for lengthwise growth

of long bones during childhood
•New cartilage is continuously formed
•Older cartilage becomes ossified
•Cartilage is broken down
•Enclosed cartilage is digested away,
opening up a medullary cavity
•Bone replaces cartilage through the action
of osteoblasts
Bone Growth (Ossification)

•Bones are remodeled and lengthened until

growth stops
•Bones are remodeled in response to two
factors
•Blood calcium levels
•Pull of gravity and muscles on the
skeleton
•Bones grow in width (called appositional
growth)
 Articular
cartilage
Hyaline Spongy
cartilage bone
New center of
bone growth New bone
Epiphyseal forming
plate
cartilage Growth
Medullary in bone
cavity width
Bone starting Invading
to replace Growth blood
cartilage in bone vessels
length
New bone
Bone collar forming
Hyaline Epiphyseal
cartilage plate cartilage
model
In an embryo In a fetus In a child

Figure 5.5
 Bone starting
to replace
cartilage

Bone collar
Hyaline
cartilage
model

In an embryo
Figure 5.5, step 1
 Hyaline
cartilage
New center of
bone growth

Medullary
cavity
Invading
Growth blood
in bone vessels
length

In a fetus
Figure 5.5, step 2
Articular
cartilage
Spongy
bone

New bone
Epiphyseal forming
plate
cartilage Growth
in bone
width

Invading
blood
vessels

New bone
forming
Epiphyseal
plate cartilage

In a child

Figure 5.5, step 3

Types of Bone Cells

•Osteocytes—mature bone cells

•Osteoblasts—bone-forming cells
•Osteoclasts—giant bone-destroying
cells
•Break down bone matrix for
remodeling and release of calcium in
response to parathyroid hormone
•Bone remodeling is performed by both
osteoblasts and osteoclasts
Bone Fractures

•Fracture—break in a bone
•Types of bone fractures
•Closed (simple) fracture—break that
does not penetrate the skin
•Open (compound) fracture—broken
bone penetrates through the skin
•Bone fractures are treated by
reduction and immobilization
The Axial Skeleton
•Forms the longitudinal axis of the
body
•Consists of 80 bones
•Divided into three parts
•Skull
•Vertebral column
•Bony thorax
 Cranium
Skull
Facial bones

Clavicle
Thoracic cage Scapula
(ribs and
sternum) Sternum
Rib
Humerus

Vertebra
Vertebral
column Radius
Ulna
Sacrum
Carpals

Phalanges
Metacarpals
Femur
Patella

Tibia

Fibula

Tarsals
Metatarsals
Phalanges
(a) Anterior view
Figure 5.8a
Cranium

Bones of
Clavicle pectoral
girdle
Scapula
Upper
limb
Rib
Humerus

Vertebra
Radius Bones
Ulna of
pelvic
Carpals girdle

Phalanges
Metacarpals
Femur

Lower
limb
Tibia

Fibula

(b) Posterior view

Figure 5.8b
The Skull
•Two sets of bones
•Cranium
•Facial bones
•Bones are joined by sutures
•Only the mandible is attached by a
freely movable joint
The Skull

• Two sets of bones

1. Cranial bones
• Enclose the brain in the cranial cavity
• Cranial vault (calvaria)
• Cranial base: anterior, middle, and
posterior cranial fossae
• Provide sites of attachment for head
and neck muscles
The Skull

2. Facial bones
• Framework of face
• Cavities for special sense organs for
sight, taste, and smell
• Openings for air and food passage
• Sties of attachment for teeth and
muscles of facial expression
Cranial Bones

•Frontal bone
•Parietal bones (2)
•Occipital bone
•Temporal bones (2)
•Sphenoid bone
•Ethmoid bone
Frontal Bone
•Anterior portion of cranium
•Most of anterior cranial fossa
•Superior wall of orbits
•Contains air-filled frontal sinus
 Frontal
bone
Glabell
Parietal a
Frontonasal
bone suture
Supraorbital
Squamous part
foramen
of frontal bone
(notch)
Supraorbital
Nasal
bone margin
Superior
Sphenoid
orbital
bone
fissure
Optic
(greater wing)
Temporal
canal
Inferior
bone
Ethmoid
orbital
bone
Lacrimal fissure
Middle
bone
Zygomatic nasal Ethmoid
bone
Infraorbital concha
Perpendicula bone
foramen
Maxilla r
Mandibl Inferior nasal
plate
e concha
Vome
Mental r
forame
n
(a) Anterior view Mandibular
symphysis Figure 7.4a
Parietal Bones and Major
Associated Sutures

• Superior and lateral aspects of

cranial vault
Coronal Frontal bone
suture Sphenoid bone
Parietal bone (greater wing)
Ethmoid bone
Temporal bone
Lacrimal bone
Lambdoi Lacrimal
d fossa
suture
Squamou
s Nasal bone
Occipital
suture
bone Zygomatic
Zygomati bone
c
process Maxilla
Occipitomastoi
d
suture
External
acoustic
meatus
Mastoid Alveolar
process
Styloid margins
process Mandibular Mandible
condyle
Mandibular Mental
notch foramen
Mandibular
ramus
Mandibular Coronoid
angle process
(a) External anatomy of the right side of the skull

Figure 7.5a
Occipital Bone

•Most of skull’s posterior wall and posterior

cranial fossa
•Articulates with 1st vertebra
 Sagittal suture

Parieta
l
bone
Sutural
bone

Lambdoid
suture

Occipital bone

Superior nuchal line

External
occipital Mastoid
protuberance process
Inferior
Occipitomastoid nuchal
External Occipital
suture line
occipital condyle
(b) Posterior crest
view
Figure 7.4b
Temporal Bones

•Inferolateral aspects of skull and parts of

cranial floor
•Four major regions
•Squamous
•Tympanic
•Mastoid
•Petrous
 Squamous
region
External
acoustic
meatus
Mastoi
d
region

Zygomatic process
Mandibular
Mastoid fossa
process Tympanic region
Styloid
process
Figure 7.8
Sphenoid Bone

•Complex, bat-shaped bone

•Keystone bone
•Articulates with all other cranial bones
•Three pairs of processes
•Greater wings
•Lesser wings
•Pterygoid processes
 Lesser wing
Optic canal
Superior
orbital fissure
Greate Foramen
r rotundum
wing Foramen
Hypophyseal
ovale
fossa of Foramen
sella turcica Body of sphenoid spinosum

(a) Superior
view
Figure 7.9a
 Body of Lesser
sphenoid wing
Greater Superio
wing r
orbital
fissure
Pterygoi
d
process

(b) Posterior
view
Figure 7.9b
Ethmoid Bone

•Deepest skull bone

•Superior part of nasal septum, roof of nasal
cavities
•Contributes to medial wall of orbits
 Crista
Olfactor
galli Cribrifor
y
foramina m
plate

Orbita
l Left lateral
plate mass
Ethmoida
l
air cells
Perpendicula
r Middle nasal
plate concha
Figure 7.10
Sutural Bones

•Tiny irregularly shaped bones that appear

within sutures
 Sagittal suture

Parieta
l
bone
Sutural
bone

Lambdoid
suture

Occipital bone

Superior nuchal line

External
occipital Mastoid
protuberance process
Inferior
Occipitomastoid nuchal
External Occipital
suture line
occipital condyle
(b) Posterior crest
view
Figure 7.4b
Paranasal Sinuses

•Hollow portions of bones surrounding the

nasal cavity
•Functions of paranasal sinuses
•Lighten the skull
•Give resonance and amplification to voice
 Frontal sinus
Ethmoid sinus
Sphenoidal sinus
Maxillary sinus

(a) Anterior view

Figure 5.13a
 Frontal sinus
Ethmoid sinus
Sphenoidal sinus
Maxillary sinus

(b) Medial view

Figure 5.13b
The Hyoid Bone

•The only bone that does not articulate with

another bone
•Serves as a moveable base for the tongue
•Aids in swallowing and speech
Greater horn
Lesser horn

Body
Figure 5.14
Facial Bones

•Mandible •Lacrimal bones

•Maxillary bones (2)
(maxillae) (2) •Palatine bones
•Zygomatic bones (2)
(2) •Vomer
•Nasal bones (2) •Inferior nasal
conchae (2)
Mandible

•Lower jaw
•Largest, strongest bone of face
•Temporomandibular joint: only
freely movable joint in skull
Temporomandibula Mandibular
r fossa
joint of temporal bone
Mandibular notch
Mandibula Coronoid
r process
condyle
Mandibular
foramen

Alveola
Ramus r
of margin
Mental
mandibl forame
e n
Mandibula
r
Body of
angle
(a) Mandible, right lateral view
mandible
Figure 7.11a
Maxillary Bones

•Medially fused to form upper jaw and central

portion of facial skeleton
•Keystone bones
•Articulate with all other facial bones except
mandible
 Articulates with
frontal bone
Frontal process

Orbital
surface
Zygomatic Infraorbital
process foramen
(cut) Anterior nasal
spine
Alveolar
margin

(b) Maxilla, right lateral

view Figure 7.11b
 Frontal
bone
Glabell
Parietal a
Frontonasal
bone suture
Supraorbital
Squamous part
foramen
of frontal bone
(notch)
Supraorbital
Nasal
bone margin
Superior
Sphenoid
orbital
bone
fissure
Optic
(greater wing)
Temporal
canal
Inferior
bone
Ethmoid
orbital
bone
Lacrimal fissure
Middle
bone
Zygomatic nasal Ethmoid
bone
Infraorbital concha
Perpendicula bone
foramen
Maxilla r
Mandibl Inferior nasal
plate
e concha
Vome
Mental r
forame
n
(a) Anterior view Mandibular
symphysis Figure 7.4a
Zygomatic Bones

•Cheekbones
•Inferolateral margins of orbits
 Frontal
bone
Glabell
Parietal a
Frontonasal
bone suture
Supraorbital
Squamous part
foramen
of frontal bone
(notch)
Supraorbital
Nasal
bone margin
Superior
Sphenoid
orbital
bone
fissure
Optic
(greater wing)
Temporal
canal
Inferior
bone
Ethmoid
orbital
bone
Lacrimal fissure
Middle
bone
Zygomatic nasal Ethmoid
bone
Infraorbital concha
Perpendicula bone
foramen
Maxilla r
Mandibl Inferior nasal
plate
e concha
Vome
Mental r
forame
n
(a) Anterior view Mandibular
symphysis Figure 7.4a
Nasal Bones and Lacrimal Bones

•Nasal bones
•Form bridge of nose
•Lacrimal bones
•In medial walls of orbits
•Lacrimal fossa houses lacrimal sac
Coronal Frontal bone
suture Sphenoid bone
Parietal bone
(greater wing)
Ethmoid bone
Temporal bone
Lacrimal bone
Lambdoi Lacrimal
d fossa
suture
Squamou
s Nasal bone
Occipital
suture
bone Zygomatic
Zygomati bone
c Maxilla
Occipitomastoi
process
d
External
suture
acoustic
Mastoid
meatus Alveolar
Styloid
process margins
process Mandibular Mandible
condyle
Mandibular Mental
notch
Mandibular foramen
ramus
Mandibular Coronoid
angle process
(a) External anatomy of the right side of the skull

Figure 7.5a
Orbits

•Encase eyes and lacrimal glands

•Sites of attachment for eye muscles
•Formed by parts of seven bones (next slide)
 Superior
Roof of orbit orbital
Supraorbital Optic canal
fissure
• Lesser wing notch
of
sphenoid bone
• Orbital plate
of
frontal bone Medial wall
• Sphenoid
Lateral wall of orbit body
• Orbital plate
• Zygomatic of ethmoid
process bone
• Frontal
of frontal wing
bone process
• Greater
of maxilla
• Lacrimal
of
sphenoid bone bone
• Orbital surface Nasal
of bone
zygomatic bone
Floor of orbit
Inferior orbital
fissure
Infraorbital • Orbital process
groove of
Zygomatic
palatine
• Orbital bone
surface
bone
of
Infraorbital maxillary bone
• Zygomatic
foramen bone
(b) Contribution of each of the seven bones forming the right orbit

Figure 7.13a
The Vertebral Column

•Each vertebrae is given a name according to

its location
•There are 24 single vertebral bones
separated by intervertebral discs
•Seven cervical vertebrae are in the neck
•Twelve thoracic vertebrae are in the chest
region
•Five lumbar vertebrae are associated with
the lower back
The Vertebral Column

•Nine vertebrae fuse to form two composite

bones
•Sacrum
•Coccyx
 Anterior Posterior
1st cervical
vertebra (atlas) Cervical curvature
2nd cervical (concave)
vertebra (axis) 7 vertebrae,
C1 – C7
1st thoracic
vertebra
Transverse
process
Spinous Thoracic curvature
process (convex)
12 vertebrae,
Intervertebral T1 – T12
disc
Intervertebral
foramen
1st lumbar
vertebra Lumbar curvature
(concave)
5 vertebrae,
L1 – L 5

Sacral curvature
(convex)
5 fused vertebrae

Coccyx
4 fused vertebrae
Figure 5.16
The Vertebral Column

•Primary curvatures are the spinal curvatures

of the thoracic and sacral regions
•Present from birth
•Form a C-shaped curvature as in newborns
•Secondary curvatures are the spinal
curvatures of the cervical and lumbar regions
•Develop after birth
•Form an S-shaped curvature as in adults
Figure 5.17
Figure 5.18
A Typical Vertebrae

•Body
•Vertebral arch
•Pedicle
•Lamina
•Vertebral foramen
•Transverse processes
•Spinous process
•Superior and inferior articular processes
General Structure of Vertebrae

•Seven processes per vertebra:

•Spinous process—projects posteriorly
•Transverse processes (2)—project laterally
•Superior articular processes (2)—protrude
superiorly inferiorly
•Inferior articular processes (2)—protrude
inferiorly
 Posterior
Lamina Vertebral
arch
Transverse Spinous
process process

Superior
articular
process
and
facet

Pedicle Vertebral
foramen
Body

Anterior Figure 5.19

(a) ATLAS AND AXIS

Transverse Posterior
process arch

Anterior
arch
Superior view of atlas (C1)

Spinous
Transverse process
process
Facet on
superior
articular
Dens process
Body
Superior view of axis (C2)

Figure 5.20a
(b) TYPICAL CERVICAL VERTEBRAE
Facet on superior Spinous
articular process process
Vertebral
foramen
Transverse
process
Superior view
Superior
articular Body
process
Spinous
process Transverse
process
Facet on inferior
articular process
Right lateral view

Figure 5.20b
(c) THORACIC VERTEBRAE
Spinous process
Transverse Vertebral
process foramen

Facet Facet on
for rib superior
articular
process
Body
Superior view
Facet on Body
superior
articular
process
Facet on
transverse
Costal facet
process Spinous for rib
process
Right lateral view
Figure 5.20c
(d) LUMBAR VERTEBRAE
Spinous process

Vertebral
foramen
Transverse
process

Facet on
Body superior
articular
process
Superior view

Superior Body
articular
process

Spinous Facet on inferior

process articular process
Right lateral view
Figure 5.20d
Sacrum and Coccyx

•Sacrum
•Formed by the fusion of five vertebrae
•Coccyx
•Formed from the fusion of three to five
vertebrae
•“Tailbone,” or remnant of a tail that other
vertebrates have
 Superior Auricular
Sacral articular surface
canal process
Ala

Body

Median
Sacrum sacral
crest

Posterior
sacral
foramina
Sacral
Coccyx hiatus
Figure 5.21
The Bony Thorax

•Forms a cage to protect major organs

•Consists of three parts
•Sternum
•Ribs
•True ribs (pairs 1–7)
•False ribs (pairs 8–12)
•Floating ribs (pairs 11–12)
•Thoracic vertebrae
 T1 vertebra
Jugular notch
Clavicular notch

Manubrium
Sternal angle
Body
Xiphisternal Sternum
True joint
ribs Xiphoid
(1 –7) process

False
ribs
(8 –12)
Intercostal
spaces
L1
Vertebra
Floating Costal cartilage
ribs (11, 12)
(a)
Figure 5.22a
 T2 Jugular
T3 notch
T4 Sternal
angle

Heart

T9 Xiphisternal
joint

(b)
Figure 5.22b
Structure of a Typical Rib

•Main parts:
•Head
•Articulates posteriorly with facets (demifacets) on
bodies of two adjacent vertebrae
•Neck
•Tubercle
•Articulates posteriorly with transverse costal facet of
same-numbered thoracic vertebra
•Shaft
 Transverse costal
facet Superior costal
Angle (for tubercle of rib) facet
of rib (for
Body head
of of rib)
vertebra
Head of rib
Intervertebral
disc
Neck of
rib
Tubercle of rib
Shaft Sternu
m
Cross-
sectio
n Costal Costal
of rib groove
(a) Vertebral and sternal cartilage
articulations of a
typical true rib
Figure 7.23a
 Articular facet
on tubercle of rib Spinous process

Shaft

Transverse
Ligaments costal facet
(for tubercle
of rib)
Neck of rib
Body of
Head of rib
thoracic
Superior costal facet vertebra
(for head of rib)
(b) Superior view of the articulation between
a
rib and a thoracic vertebra Figure 7.23b
The Appendicular Skeleton
•Composed of 126 bones
•Limbs (appendages)
•Pectoral girdle
•Pelvic girdle
 Cranium
Skull
Facial bones

Clavicle
Thoracic cage Scapula
(ribs and
sternum) Sternum
Rib
Humerus

Vertebra
Vertebral
column Radius
Ulna
Sacrum
Carpals

Phalanges
Metacarpals
Femur
Patella

Tibia

Fibula

Tarsals
Metatarsals
Phalanges
(a) Anterior view
Figure 5.8a
Cranium

Bones of
Clavicle pectoral
girdle
Scapula
Upper
limb
Rib
Humerus

Vertebra
Radius Bones
Ulna of
pelvic
Carpals girdle

Phalanges
Metacarpals
Femur

Lower
limb
Tibia

Fibula

(b) Posterior view

Figure 5.8b
The Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle

•Composed of two bones

•Clavicle—collarbone
•Articulates with the sternum medially and
with the scapula laterally
•Scapula—shoulder blade
•Articulates with the clavicle at the
acromioclavicular joint
•Articulates with the arm bone at the
glenoid cavity
•These bones allow the upper limb to have
exceptionally free movement
 Acromio-
clavicular Clavicle
joint

Scapula

(a) Articulated right shoulder (pectoral) girdle

showing the relationship to bones of the
thorax and sternum Figure 5.23a
 Posterior
Sternal (medial)
end

Acromial (lateral)
Anterior
end
Superior view

Acromial end Sternal end

Anterior

Posterior

Inferior view
(b) Right clavicle, superior and inferior views
Figure 5.23b
 Coracoid process
Suprascapular notch

Superior Acromion
angle

Glenoid cavity
at lateral angle
Spine

Medial
border

Lateral border

(c) Right scapula, posterior aspect

Figure 5.23c
 Acromion
Suprascapular notch
Superior border
Coracoid
process Superior
angle

Glenoid
cavity

Lateral
(axillary) Medial
border (vertebral)
border

Inferior angle
(d) Right scapula, anterior aspect
Figure 5.23d
The Upper Limb

•30 bones form the skeletal framework of each

upper limb
•Arm
•Humerus
•Forearm
•Radius and ulna
•Hand
•8 carpal bones in the wrist
•5 metacarpal bones in the palm
•14 phalanges in the fingers
Bones of the Upper Limbs

•Humerus
•Forms the arm
•Single bone
•Proximal end articulation
•Head articulates with the glenoid cavity of
the scapula
•Distal end articulation
•Trochlea and capitulum articulate with the
bones of the forearm
 Head of
Greater humerus
tubercle
Lesser
tubercle Anatomical neck
Intertubercular
sulcus

Deltoid
tuberosity

Radial
fossa Medial
epicondyle
Coronoid
fossa
Capitulum Trochlea
(a)
Figure 5.24a
 Head of
humerus

Anatomical Surgical
neck neck

Radial
groove
Deltoid
tuberosity

Medial
Olecranon
epicondyle
fossa

Lateral
Trochlea epicondyle
(b) Figure 5.24b
Bones of the Upper Limbs

•The forearm has two bones

•Ulna—medial bone in anatomical position
•Proximal end articulation
•Coronoid process and olecranon
articulate with the humerus
•Radius—lateral bone in anatomical position
•Proximal end articulation
•Head articulates with the capitulum of
the humerus
 Trochlear notch
Olecranon
Head Coronoid
Neck process
Radial Proximal
tuberosity radioulnar
joint
Radius

Ulna

Inter-
osseous
membrane

Ulnar styloid
Radial process
styloid Distal
process radioulnar
joint
(c)
Figure 5.24c
Bones of the Upper Limbs

•Hand
•Carpals—wrist
•Eight bones arranged in two rows of four
bones in each hand
•Metacarpals—palm
•Five per hand
•Phalanges—fingers and thumb
•Fourteen phalanges in each hand
•In each finger, there are three bones
•In the thumb, there are only two bones
 Distal
Middle
Phalanges
(fingers)
Proximal

4 3 2
Metacarpals 5
(palm) 1

Hamate Trapezium
Carpals Pisiform Trapezoid
(wrist) Triquetrum Scaphoid
Lunate Capitate
Ulna
Radius Figure 5.25
Pelvic (Hip) Girdle

•Two hip bones (each also called coxal bone or os

coxae)
•Attach the lower limbs to the axial skeleton with
strong ligaments
•Transmit weight of upper body to lower limbs
•Support pelvic organs
•Each hip bone consists of three fused bones:
ilium, ischium, and pubis
•Together with the sacrum and the coccyx, these
bones form the bony pelvis
Bones of the Pelvic Girdle

•The total weight of the upper body

rests on the pelvis
•It protects several organs
•Reproductive organs
•Urinary bladder
•Part of the large intestine
 lliac crest
Sacroiliac
joint

llium
Coxal bone
(or hip bone) Sacrum
Pelvic brim
Pubis Coccyx Ischial spine
Acetabulum
Ischium Pubic symphysis

Pubic arch
(a)

Figure 5.26a
 IIium
Ala

Posterior IIiac crest

superior
iliac Anterior superior
spine iliac spine
Posterior
inferior Anterior inferior
iliac spine iliac spine
Greater sciatic
notch Acetabulum
Ischial body
Body of pubis
Ischial spine
Pubis
Ischial
tuberosity Inferior pubic
ramus
Ischium
Obturator
Ischial ramus foramen
(b)
Figure 5.26b
 False pelvis

Inlet of
true
pelvis

Pelvic brim

Pubic arch
(less than 90°)

False pelvis

Inlet of
true
pelvis

Pelvic brim

Pubic arch
(more than 90°)
(c)
Figure 5.26c
Comparison of Male and Female Pelves

•Female pelvis
•Adapted for childbearing
•True pelvis (inferior to pelvic brim)
defines birth canal
•Cavity of the true pelvis is broad,
shallow, and has greater capacity
Comparison of Male and Female Pelves

•Male pelvis
•Tilted less forward
•Adapted for support of male’s
heavier build and stronger muscles
•Cavity of true pelvis is narrow and
deep
Table 7.4
The Lower Limb
•Carries the weight of the body
•Subjected to exceptional forces
•Three segments of the lower limb
•Thigh: femur
•Leg: tibia and fibula
•Foot: 7 tarsal bones in the ankle, 5
metatarsal bones in the metatarsus, and 14
phalanges in the toes
Femur

•Largest and strongest bone in the body

•Articulates proximally with the acetabulum of
the hip and distally with the tibia and patella
Neck

Head
Inter-
trochanteric
Lesser trochanter
line

Lateral
condyle

Patellar
surface
(a)
Figure 5.27a
 Greater
Head trochanter
Inter-
Lesser trochanter trochanteric
crest
Gluteal tuberosity

Intercondylar
fossa
Medial Lateral
condyle condyle

(b) Figure 5.27b

Bones of the Lower Limbs

•The lower leg has two bones

•Tibia—Shinbone; larger and medially
oriented
•Proximal end articulation
•Medial and lateral condyles articulate
with the femur to form the knee joint
•Fibula—Thin and sticklike; lateral to the
tibia
•Has no role in forming the knee joint
Intercondylar
eminence

Lateral Medial
condyle condyle
Head Tibial
tuberosity
Proximal
tibiofibular
joint
Interosseous
membrane

Anterior
border
Fibula

Tibia

Distal
tibiofibular
joint
Medial
Lateral
malleolus
malleolus
(c) Figure 5.27c
Bones of the Lower Limbs

•The foot
•Tarsals—seven bones
•Two largest tarsals
•Calcaneus (heel bone)
•Talus
•Metatarsals—five bones form the sole of
the foot
•Phalanges—fourteen bones form the toes
 Phalanges:
Distal
Middle
Proximal

Tarsals:
Medial Metatarsals
cuneiform
Tarsals:
Intermediate
cuneiform Lateral
cuneiform
Navicular
Cuboid

Talus

Calcaneus

Figure 5.28
Arches of the Foot
•Bones of the foot are arranged to form
three strong arches
•Two longitudinal
•One transverse
Medial longitudinal arch

Transverse arch

Lateral longitudinal
arch

Figure 5.29
Joints

•Articulations of bones
•Functions of joints
•Hold bones together
•Allow for mobility
•Two ways joints are classified
•Functionally
•Structurally
Functional Classification of Joints
•Synarthroses
•Immovable joints
•Amphiarthroses
•Slightly moveable joints
•Diarthroses
•Freely moveable joints
Structural Classification of Joints
•Fibrous joints
•Generally immovable
•Cartilaginous joints
•Immovable or slightly moveable
•Synovial joints
•Freely moveable
Fibrous Joints
•Bones united by collagenic fibers
•Types
• Sutures
• Immobile
• Syndesmoses
• Allows more movement than sutures but
still immobile
• Example: Distal end of tibia and fibula
• Gomphosis
• Immobile (Teeth)
 Fibrous joints

Fibrous
connective
tissue
(a) Suture

Figure 5.30a
 Fibrous joints

Tibia
Fibula
Fibrous
connective
tissue
(b) Syndesmosis
Figure 5.30b
 (c) Gomphosis

“Peg in socket” fibrous joint.

Periodontal
ligament holds tooth in socket.

Socket
of
alveolar
process

Root
of
tooth

Periodonta
l
ligament Figure 8.1c
Cartilaginous Joints

•Bones connected by cartilage

•Types
•Synchrondrosis
•Immobile
•Symphysis
•Slightly movable
•Example: Pubic symphysis, intervertebral
joints
Cartilaginous joints

First rib

Hyaline
cartilage

Sternum

(c) Synchondrosis

Figure 5.30c
 Cartilaginous joints

Vertebrae

Fibrocartilage

(d) Symphysis

Figure 5.30d
 Cartilaginous joints

Pubis
Fibro-
cartilage

(e) Symphysis
Figure 5.30e
Synovial Joints
•Articulating bones are separated
by a joint cavity
•Synovial fluid is found in the joint
cavity
 Synovial joints

Scapula
Articular
capsule
Articular
(hyaline)
cartilage
Humerus
(f) Multiaxial joint
(shoulder joint)

Figure 5.30f
 Synovial joints

Humerus
Articular
(hyaline)
cartilage
Articular
capsule
Radius
Ulna
(g) Uniaxial joint
(elbow joint)

Figure 5.30g
 Synovial joints

Ulna
Radius
Articular
capsule
Carpals

(h) Biaxial joint

(intercarpal joints of hand)
Figure 5.30h
Features of Synovial Joints

•Articular cartilage (hyaline cartilage)

covers the ends of bones
•Articular capsule encloses joint
surfaces and lined with synovial
membrane
•Joint cavity is filled with synovial fluid
•Reinforcing ligaments
Structures Associated with the Synovial
Joint
•Bursae—flattened fibrous sacs
•Lined with synovial membranes
•Filled with synovial fluid
•Not actually part of the joint
•Tendon sheath
•Elongated bursa that wraps around a
tendon
Acromion of
scapula

Ligament Joint cavity

containing
Bursa synovial fluid
Ligament
Articular
(hyaline)
Tendon cartilage
sheath
Synovial membrane

Tendon of Fibrous layer of the

biceps muscle articular capsule

Humerus

Figure 5.31
Classification of Synovial Joints

•Six types, based on shape of articular

surfaces:
•Plane
•Hinge
•Pivot
•Condyloid
•Saddle
•Ball and socket
Plane Joints

•Nonaxial joints
•Flat articular surfaces
•Short gliding movements
 f

Nonaxia
lUniaxia
lBiaxia
lMultiaxia
l

c b
a Plane joint (intercarpal joint)

a
e
d

Figure 8.7a
Hinge Joints

•Uniaxial joints
•Motion along a single plane
•Flexion and extension only
 f

Nonaxia
lUniaxia
lBiaxia
lMultiaxia
l

c b
b Hinge joint (elbow
joint)

a
e
d

Figure 8.7b
Pivot Joints

•Rounded end of one bone conforms to a

“sleeve,” or ring of another bone
•Uniaxial movement only
 f

Nonaxia
lUniaxia
lBiaxia
lMultiaxia
l

c b

c Pivot joint (proximal radioulnar joint)

a
e
d

Figure 8.7c
Condyloid (Ellipsoidal) Joints

•Biaxial joints
•Both articular surfaces are oval
•Permit all angular movements
 f

Nonaxia
lUniaxia
lBiaxia
lMultiaxia
l

c b
d Condyloid joint
(metacarpophalangeal
joint)

a
e
d

Figure 8.7d
Saddle Joints

•Biaxial
•Allow greater freedom of movement than
condyloid joints
•Each articular surface has both concave and
convex areas
 f

Nonaxia
lUniaxia
lBiaxia
lMultiaxia
l

c b
e Saddle joint (carpometacarpal
joint
of thumb)

a
e
d

Figure 8.7e
Ball-and-Socket Joints

•Multiaxial joints
•The most freely moving synovial joints
 f

Nonaxia
lUniaxia
lBiaxia
lMultiaxia
l

c b
f Ball-and-socket joint (shoulder
joint)

a
e
d

Figure 8.7f