Histo Lab

LBOBIO7 - Histology Lab ; Year 3, A.Y. 24-25 Ray Paolo S.
Montes
Dr. Anthony Joseph Contreras, M.D. BS Bio-Med, Year 3
● Modifications
Major Types of Tissues
○ Cilia
■ Motile structures found on certain cells mostly seen
Important Notes in tubes
■ Found in surface cells of trachea, bronchioles, and
- Goblet cells - excrete mucus
bronchi
- Darkly pigmented cells are mitotically active
■ Uterine tubes and uterus
- Arterioles are more round due to pressure compared to vein
○ Stereocilia
- Pacinian corpuscle detects pressure
■ Long, nonmotile branched microvilli covering the
- Fibroblasts - fusiform-shaped cells
cells in the epididymis and vas deferens
○ Microvilli
■ Small nonmotile projections that cover absorptive
Epithelial Tissue
cells in the small intestine and proximal convoluted
tubules in the kidney
Epithelium; consists of sheets of cells that cover external surfaces of the ● Types of epithelium
body ○ Simple squamous epithelium
● Cell Layers ■ Mesothelium
○ Basement membrane ● Covers external surfaces of the thoracic and
■ A thin noncellular region separating epithelium from digestive organs
the connective tissue ■ Endothelium
● Morphology ● Covers lumina of heart chambers; blood and
○ Simple epithelium lymphatic vessels
■ Single layer of cells ○ Simple cuboidal epithelium
○ Stratified epithelium ■ Lines excretory ducts
■ Multiple layer of cells ■ Apical surfaces of proximal convoluted tubules
○ Pseudostratified epithelium ○ Simple columnar epithelium
■ Single layer of cells attach to the basement ■ Covers digestive organs; cells in small intestine
membrane but not all reach the surface contains microvilli
○ Squamous epithelium ■ Female reproductive tract is lined with cilia
■ Epithelium with flat surface cells ○ Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
○ Cuboidal epithelium ■ Lines the respiratory passages and lumina of the vas
■ Surface cells are round or cuboidal deferens and epididymis
○ Columnar epithelium ○ Stratified epithelium
■ Cells are taller than they are wide
LBOBIO7 - Histology Lab ; Year 3, A.Y. 24-25 Ray Paolo S. Montes
■ Stratified squamous epithelium Glandular Tissue

● Contains multiple cell layers; basement cells
● Consists of the exocrine and endocrine glands
vary from cuboidal to columnar
○ Exocrine glands
● Migrate towards the surface and become
■ End-piece structure ductal portion that is
squamous
epithelial-lined
■ Nonkeratinized epithelium
■ Either unicellular or multicellular
● Less friction
● Unicellular consists of single cells
● Covers moist cavities such as those of the
○ Goblet cells
digestive and reproductive cavities
■ Mucus-secreting cells
● Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, vagina, anal
■ Found in the epithelia of small
canal
and large intestines and
■ Keratinized epithelium
respiratory passages
● Lines external surfaces of the body
● Multicellular characterized by a secretory
● Usually avascular
portion
● Mostly found in palms and soles of the feet
○ Epithelial cells secrete a product
● Surface layers are nonliving cells containing
■ Simple exocrine gland
keratin
● Unbranched duct that may be straight or
○ Stratified cuboidal/columnar epithelium
coiled;
■ Distribution in the body is limited
● Tubular gland
■ Lines the larger excretory ducts of the pancreas,
■ Compound exocrine gland
salivary glands, and sweat glands
● Repeated branching pattern of the ducts that
■ Exhibits two or more layers of cells
drain secretory portions
○ Transitional epithelium
● Acinar/alveolar gland
■ Lines minor and major calyces, pelvis, ureter, and
○ Secretory portions of the gland look
bladder
like a flask
■ Changes shape and can resemble both stratified
● Tubular gland
squamous and stratified cuboidal epithelia
○ Secretory portion of the gland look
depending if its stretched or contracted
like a tube
■ When contracted:
● Tubuloacinar gland
● Appear dome-shaped
○ Mixture of both acinar and secretory
■ When stretched;
portions
● Appear squamous
● Mucus gland
Produce a viscous secretion that may

○
function as a protection of the inner
lining of organs
● Serous gland
○ Produce watery secretions usually
concentrated with enzymes
● Merocrine gland
○ Secretion by exocytosis
■ Pancreas, mammary gland
● Holocrine gland
○ Cells become the secretion
■ Sebaceous gland
○ Endocrine glands
■ Do not have ducts for secretory products
■ Utilizes capillary networks and bloodstream
● Highly vascularized
■ Can be individual cells, endocrine tissue, or endocrine
glands
● Individual cells as enteroendocrine cells in
the digestive organs
● Endocrine tissue in pancreatic islets in
pancreas
● Endocrine gland such as the pituitary, thyroid,
adrenal
■ Present in the dermis of the skin and areas that need

Connective Tissue
strong support
■ Fibroblasts are most abundant cells which are located
● Provides support, binds together and protects tissues and organs of between the dense collagen bundles
the body ● Cells of the connective tissue
● Consists of the cells and matrix ○ Fixed cells
○ Extracellular matrix ■ Resident cells; fibroblasts, adipocytes, macrophages,
■ Tissue fluid mast cells
■ Ground substance ● White adipocyte
● Hyaluronic acid + Extracellular matrix ○ Cells that store fat
● Extracellular Matrix ○ Makes up the adipose tissue
○ In connective tissue ● Brown adipocyte
■ Chondroitin sulfate ○ Found in newborns to generate heat
○ In skin ○ Decrease with age
■ Dermatan sulfate ● Mast cells
○ In liver and other hematopoietic ○ Spherical cells with fine, regular
organs dark-staining basophilic granules
■ Heparan sulfate ○ Widely distributed in skin, digestive,
■ Protein fibers and respiratory organs
● Reticular ● Macrophages
● Elastic ○ Phagocytic cells
● Collagen ○ Difficult to distinguish from fibroblasts
● Types of Connective Tissue ● Plasma cells
○ Loose connective tissue ○ Arise from lymphocytes migrating to
■ Fibroblast is most common cell type the connective tissue
■ More prevalent than DCT ○ Found in LCT and lymphatic tissue of
■ Consists of resident cells the respiratory and digestive tracts
○ Dense connective tissue (DCT) ○ Transient cells
■ Dense irregular connective tissue ■ Leukocytes; WBCs, eosinophils, neutrophils
● Exhibit a random and irregular orientation ● Migrate through the bloodstream into
■ Dense regular connective tissue connective tissue
● Densely packed collagen fibers exhibiting ○ Collagen fibers
regular and parallel alignment ■ Tough, thick, unbranched fibrous proteins
● Found in tendons and ligaments
■ Most abundant in almost all connective tissue ■ Chondroblasts enlarge cartilage by interstitial and
● Type 1 CF appositional growth
○ Found in skin, tendon, ligaments, and ● Also consists of cells and extracellular matrix
bones ○ ECM
○ Provides resistance to tensile stress ■ Connective tissue fibers
● Type 2 CF ■ Ground substance
○ Present in hyaline and elastic ● Nonvascular and receives nutrition via diffusion from the ECM
cartilage ● Exhibits tensile strength, structural support, flexibility, and
○ Provides resistance to pressure resilience to compression
● Type 3 CF ● Consists of chondrocytes and chondroblasts
○ Thin, branching reticular fibers ○ Synthesize extensive ECM
supporting meshwork in lymph ● Types of Cartilage
nodes, spleen, and bone marrow ○ Hyaline
● Type 4 CF ■ Most common type
○ Located in the basal lamina of the ■ Matrix consists of fine type II collagen fibrils
basement membrane where basal ● Embedded in amorphous hydrated matrix rich
cells attach in proteoglycans and structural glycoproteins
○ Reticular fibers ● Often exists as large proteoglycan
■ Consists mostly of Type III collagen aggregates
■ Thin and form a delicate network in the liver, lymph ○ Contains sulfated glycosaminoglycans
nodes, spleen, hematopoietic organs. linked to non sulfated
○ Elastic fibers glycosaminoglycans
■ Thin, small branching fibers allow stretch ● Contains an adhesive glycoprotein,
■ Less tensile strength than CF chondronectin
■ Found in the lungs, bladder, and skin, aortic and ■ Serves as skeletal model for bones
pulmonary walls ■ Cartilage is gradually transformed into bone through
■ Composed of microfibrils and the protein elastin endochondral ossification
● Exception of articular surfaces of bones, ends
Cartilage of ribs or costal cartilage, nose, larynx,
trachea, and bronchi
● Special form of connective tissue developing from the mesenchyme
■ Does not calcify
○ Mesenchymal cells differentiate into chondroblasts
○ Elastic
■ Chondrocytes cells become enclosed in lacunae
■ Similar appearance to hyaline
■ Presence of numerous branching elastic fibers within

the matrix
■ Highly flexible
■ Found in the external ears, walls of the auditory tube,
epiglottis, and the larynx
● Fibrocartilage
○ Characterized by large amounts of irregular and dense
bundles of coarse collagen fibers in the matrix
○ Consists of layers of cartilage matrix and thick dense layers
of Type I collagen fibers
■ Fibers orient themselves in the direction of functional
stress
○ Limited distribution in the body
○ Found in the intervertebral disks, symphysis pubis, and some
joints
● Perichondrium
○ A peripheral layer of vascularized, dense, irregular
connective tissue
○ Outer fibrous layers contains Type 1 collagen fiber
○ Inner layer is cellular and chondrogenic
■ Chondrogenic cells
● Form chondroblasts that secrete cartilage
matrix
○ Absent in hyaline cartilage
○ Not visible in fibrocartilage
● Cartilage matrix
○ Produced and maintained by chondrocytes and
chondroblasts
○ Ground substance contains sulfated glycosaminoglycans and
hyaluronic acid
■ Contains chondroitin sulfate and keratan
glycosaminoglycans
■ Special attachment sites crossing the cardiac cells at

Muscle Tissue
irregular intervals
■ Contains the gap junctions
Skeletal ● Enable ionic communication and continuity
● Skeletal muscle
○ Distinguished by striations Smooth
○ Long, cylindrical, multinucleated cells with peripheral nuclei ● Smooth muscle
○ Multiple nuclei form from myoblasts ○ Contain contractile myosin and actin filaments
○ Surrounded by endomysium, a thin reticular connective tissue ○ Irregular, non-striated, and smooth
fiber ○ Involuntary muscles of smooth muscle origin are under the
■ Interior muscle fibers are divided into smaller bundles autonomic nervous system and hormonal control
called fascicles ○ Small and spindle-shaped, uninucleated
● Surrounded by a less dense irregular ○ Mostly found in the linings of visceral hollow organs and
connective tissue layer called perimysium blood vessels
○ Surrounded by a dense irregular ■ In the digestive tract organs, uterus, and ureters,
connective tissue layer called smooth muscles occur in large sheets or layers
epimysium ■ In the blood vessels, smooth muscles are arranged in
○ Has stretch receptors called neuromuscular spindles a circular pattern
■ Consists of a connective tissue capsule ● Regulation of blood control by alteration of
● Modified muscle fibers called intrafusal fibers luminal diameters
and nerve endings surrounded by fluid
■ Monitors the change in the muscle length to activate
complex reflexes for regulation of muscle activity
Cardiac
● Cardiac muscle
○ Cylindrical, short, and either uninucleated or binucleated
○ Found in the walls and septa of the heart, aorta, and
pulmonary trunk
○ Exhibit cross-striations and branching
○ Terminal ends of adjacent cardiac muscle fibers show a
distinct, dense-staining end-to-end junctional complexes
called intercalated disks
■ Delicate weblike strands of collagen and elastic

Nervous Tissue
fibers
● Attach the arachnoid mater to the pia
Important Notes
- White matter Neurons
- Located in the CNS and does not contain neuronal cell ● Structural and functional units of the nervous tissue
body ● Highly complex intercommunicating networks of nerve cells
- Consists mostly of myelinated axons ● Receive and conduct impulses along neural pathways or axons to the
- Some axons may be unmyelinated central nervous system
- Supportive neuroglial oligodendrocytes ○ For analysis, integration, interpretation, and response
- White color caused by myelin sheaths ● Consists of
- Gray matter ○ Soma/Cell body
- Consists of neurons, dendrites, and neuroglia—the ○ Dendrites
supportive cells ○ Axons
- Represents the site of connections or synapses between ○ Neuroglia
neurons and dendrites ● Types of neurons
- Covers the surface of the brain—cerebrum—and ○ Multipolar
cerebellum ■ Most common
■ Includes motor neurons and interneurons
● Brain, cerebellum, spinal cord
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) ■ Projects numerous branched dendrites
● CSF is a clear and colorless fluid that acts as a cushion for the brain ■ Contains a single axon on the opposite side
and the spinal cord ○ Bipolar
● Continually produced by the choroid plexus in the lateral, third, and ■ Not as common
fourth ventricles of the brain ■ Purely sensory neurons
○ Choroid plexus ■ Single dendrite associated with the cell body
■ Small vascular extensions of dilated and fenestrated ■ Found in the:
capillaries penetrating the interior of the brain ● Retina of the eye, organs of hearing and
vesicles equilibrium in the ear, and the olfactory
● Circulates through the ventricles and the outer surfaces of the brain epithelium
and spinal cord through the subarachnoid space ○ Unipolar
○ Subarachnoid space ■ Two neuronal processes fuse into one during later
■ Space between the arachnoid mater and pia development
■ Sensory in nature Peripheral Nervous System

■ Found in the:
● Consists of neurons, supportive cells, nerves, and axons outside the
● Sensory ganglia of cranial and spinal nerves
CNS
● Includes the cranial and spinal nerves and their respective ganglia
Myelin ○ Ganglia – Accumulations of neurons and supportive glial
● Myelin Sheath cells surrounded by a connective tissue capsule
○ Highly specialized cells of the CNS and PNS that wrap around ● Nerves of PNS contain motor and sensory axons
the axon numerous times ● Tissue layers of the peripheral nervous system
■ Builds up successive layers of modified cell ○ Peripheral nerve
membrane to form a lipid-rich insulating sheath ■ Numerous axons of various sizes surrounded by layers
around the axon of connective tissue, dividing the nerves into bundles
● Nodes of Ranvier called fascicles
○ Gaps in the myelin sheath interspersed along the length of a ○ Epineurium
myelinated axon between individual cells that myelinate ■ Outermost connective tissue layer
axons ■ Strong sheath that binds all fascicles together
● Schwann cells ■ Consists of dense irregular connective tissue
○ Found in the PNS surrounding the peripheral nerve
○ Coating of axons that myelinate axons or envelop ○ Perineurium
unmyelinated axons ■ Thinner connective tissue layer extending into the
● Oligodendrocytes nerve and surrounds one or more individual nerve
○ Neuroglial cells that myelinate axons of the CNS fascicles
○ Schwann cells
Neuroglia ■ Supporting cells of individual axons
○ Endoneurium
● Highly branched, supportive, nonneuronal cells in the CNS
■ Loose vascular connective tissue layer of thin
● Surrounds the neurons, axons, and dendrites
reticular fibers surrounding the individual myelinated
● CNS has 10x more neuroglial cells than neurons
axon or clustered unmyelinated axon associated with
● Types of Neuroglia
a schwann cell
○ Astrocytes
○ Oligodendrocytes
○ Microglia
○ Ependymal cells
● Epidermis
Integumentary System
○ Outer layer of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
● Dermis
Important Notes ○ A distinct membrane separates the epidermis from the dermis
○ The junction with epidermis is irregular
- Stratum granulosum makes skin impenetrable to water due to
○ A layer of dense, irregular connective tissue
presence of lamellar granules formed by lipid bilayers
■ Highly vascular and contains numerous blood and
- Nuclei and other cell organelles are absent in the stratum corneum
lymph vessels, as well as nerves
○ Papillary layer
● Skin ■ Superficial layer has numerous formed projections
○ Covers the outer surface of the body; the largest organ called the dermal papillae that interdigitate with
○ Accessory structures include the hair, sweat and sebaceous evaginations of the epidermis called epidermal ridges
glands, and the nails ■ Layer is filled with loose irregular connective tissue
○ Functions to protect the body from the environment and fibers
prevent water loss ○ Reticular layer
○ Classified into two types: ■ Deeper layer of dermis
■ Thick skin ■ Thicker compared to the papillary layer
● Covers the palms and soles ■ Consists of dense irregular connective tissue fibers,
● Contains numerous sweat glands but lacks mainly type I collagen
the hair follicles, sebaceous glands, and ■ Less cellular
smooth muscle fibers ○ Blends inferiorly with the hypodermis which contains the
● Outer layer consists of stratified keratinized superficial fascia and adipose tissue
squamous epithelium ○ Sensory receptors
■ Thin skin ■ Meissner’s corpuscles
● Covers the rest of the body ● Located closer to the surface in the dermal
● Attached the arrector pili—connective tissue papillae
sheath of hair follicles and dermis ■ Pacinian corpuscles
○ Major functions: ● Found deeper in the connective tissue of the
■ Protection dermis
■ Temperature regulation ○ Exhibit arteriovenous anastomoses
■ Sensory perception ■ Used for temperature regulation
■ Excretion ● Hypodermis
■ Formation of Vitamin D ○ Subcutaneous layer
○ Forms the superficial fascia ● Stratum lucidum

○ In thick skin: translucent and barely visible
Epidermal Cell Layers ○ Lies superior to stratum granulosum and inferior to stratum
corneum
● Stratum basale
○ Cells are flattened tightly packed with keratin filaments;
○ Also called stratum germinativum; serves as stem cells for
without nuclei or organelles
the epidermis
● Stratum corneum
○ Deepest layer of the skin composed of cuboidal cells resting
○ Most superficial layer of the skin
on a basement membrane
○ Nuclei and organelles are totally absent, flattened, and filled
○ Desmosomes are cells attached to one another by cell
with keratin filaments
junctions
■ Through keratinization, hydrolytic enzymes destroy
○ Hemidesmosomes are cells attached to the underlying
nucleus and organelles, filling the cell with keratin
basement membrane
○ Continually shed or desquamated; replaced by new cells
○ Produce and contain intermediate keratin filaments
arising from the inferior layers
increasing in number as cells move superficially
● Stratum spinosum
○ Consists of four to six rows of cells Epidermal Cells
○ In histologic preparation, the spines represent sites where ● Keratinocytes
desmosomes are anchored to bundles of intermediate keratin ○ Surface cells that divide, grow, and migrate upwards and
or tonofilaments undergo keratinization or cornification
○ Tonofilaments are caused by synthesis of keratin filament ○ Forms the protective epidermal layer of the skin
bundles ● Melanocytes
■ Maintain cohesion among cells; ○ Derived from neural crest cells
■ Provide resistance to abrasion ○ Characterized by long, irregular cytoplasmic extensions
● Stratum granulosum branching to the epidermis
○ Filled with basophilic keratohyalin granules ○ Found in between the stratum basale and stratum spinosum
■ Granules are not surrounded by a membrane and are ○ Synthesizes melanin, the brown pigment
associated with tonofilament bundles ■ Increased exposure to sunlight increases synthesis of
■ Keratin tonofilaments + keratohyalin (filaggrin) = melanin
keratin ■ Protects the skin from the harmful effects of radiation
○ Consists of three to five layers of flattened cells ○ Synthesized from the amino acid tyrosine
○ Cytoplasm contains membrane-bound lamellar granules ● Langerhans cell
formed by lipid bilayers ○ Found mainly in the stratum spinosum
■ Makes skin hydrophobic ○ Participates in the body's immune response
○ Also known as the antigen-presenting cell by recognizing ■ Often causes the phenomenon called “Goosebump”
and processing, foreign antigens through phagocytosis; ● Sweat glands
Presents antigen to T lymphocytes ○ Widely distributed in the skin
● Merkel’s cell ○ Eccrine
○ Found in the basal layer of the epidermis ■ Simple, coiled tubular glands
○ Most abundant in the fingertips ■ Secretory portion is found deep in the dermis where a
○ Closely associated with afferent or sensory unmyelinated coiled excretory duct leads to the skin surface
axons and function as mechanoreceptors detecting pressure ■ Contains two cell types
● Clear cells without secretory granules
Skin Derivative and Appendages ○ Secretion is primarily watery
● Dark cells with secretory granules
● Hair
○ Secretion is primarily mucous
○ Hard, cornified cylindrical structures arising from the hair
● Myoepithelial cells line the basal region of the
follicles
secretory portion
○ Hair bulb
■ Sweat glands excrete water, sodium salts, ammonia,
■ Portion of hair that remains embedded in the dermis
uric acid, and urea; assists in temperature regulation
■ Base is indented by a connective tissue papilla
○ Apocrine
● A highly vascularized region bringing
■ Found in the dermis
essential nutrients to the hair follicles
■ Primarily limited to the axilla, anus, and areolar
● Sebaceous glands
regions of the breast
○ Associated with each hair follicle
■ Larger than eccrine glands; ducts open into the hair
○ Produces oily secretion called sebum
follicle
■ Formed when cells die in the gland
■ Secretory portion is coiled and tubular
■ Keeps skin smooth, waterproof, and prevents from
■ Lumina is wide and dilated; secretory cells are low
drying
cuboidal
■ Provides antibacterial protection
■ Secretory portion is lined by contractile
○ Located between the arrector pili muscle and the hair follicle
myoepithelial cells
● Arrector Pili
■ Becomes functional in puberty with sex hormones
○ Bundles of smooth muscle extending from the connective
■ Glands produce a viscous secretion with a distinct
tissue around the hair follicle to the papillary layer of the
and unpleasant odor
dermis
○ Muscles are controlled by the autonomic nervous system
○ Contraction erects the hair shaft and also forces sebum onto
the skin
■ Consists of a submucosal (Meissner’s) nerve plexus

Digestive System
● Contains postganglionic parasympathetic
neurons
● The digestive system is a long, hollow tube ● Controls the motility of the mucosa and
○ Starts with the oral cavity and ends with the anus secretory activities of associated mucosal
● Consists of the following organs glands
○ Oral cavity ■ Contains numerous branched mucous glands in the
○ Esophagus duodenum
○ Small intestine ○ Muscularis externa
■ Duodenum ■ Thick smooth muscle layer inferior to the submucosa
■ Jejunum ■ Consists of an inner layer of circular smooth muscle
■ Ileum and outer layer of longitudinal smooth muscle
○ Large intestine ● With exception of the large intestine
○ Rectum ■ Contains the myenteric (Auerbach’s) nerve plexus in
○ Anal canal between the two smooth muscle layers
● Accessory organs of the digestive system ● Contains postganglionic parasympathetic
○ Salivary glands neurons
○ Liver ● Controls the motility of smooth muscles
○ Pancreas ○ Serosa / Adventitia
● Mucosa ■ A thin layer of loose connective tissue surrounding
○ Innermost layer of the digestive tube the visceral organs
● Four layers of the mucosa ■ Covers the abdominal portion of the esophagus,
○ Mucosa stomach, small intestine, and the anterior and lateral
■ Consists of a covering epithelium and glands surfaces of the ascending and descending colons
extending into the underlying loose connective tissue ■ Visceral organs may or may not be covered by a thin
called lamina propria outer layer of mesothelium
■ Muscularis mucosae forms the outer boundary of the ● If mesothelium covers the visceral organs, the
mucosa organs are in the abdominal or pelvic cavities
● Inner circular and outer longitudinal layer of (intraperitoneal); the outer layer is called the
smooth muscle serosa
○ Submucosa ● If the digestive tube is not covered by
■ Located below the mucosa mesothelium, it lies out of the peritoneal
■ Consists of dense irregular connective tissue with cavity (retroperitoneal); the outermost layer
numerous blood and lymph vessels
adheres to the body wall and consists of a ○ Consists of an outer epithelial layer and an underlying
connective tissue layer called adventitia connective tissue (lamina propria)
● A muscular organ located in the oral cavity
The Oral Cavity ● The core of the tongue consists of connective tissue and interlacing
bundles of skeletal muscle fibers
● Region of mechanical digestion (mastication)
○ Skeletal muscle fibers are typically seen in longitudinal,
● Where food is lubricated by saliva
transverse, or oblique sections
● Lined by a protective nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium
● The dorsal surface of the tongue epithelia is irregular or rough due to
○ Also lines the inner surface of the lips
mucosal projections called papillae
○ Underlying tissue indents the papillae and are called lamina
Lips propria
● Alongside the cheeks, forms a part of the oral cavity ○ There are four types of papillae in the tongue and all are
● Lined by a thin skin covered by stratified squamous keratinized covered by stratified squamous epithelium that are partially
epithelium with desquamating surface cells keratinized
● Red color of the lips are derived from the blood vessels near the lip ■ Filiform papillae
surface ● Most numerous and smallest papillae
● Outer surface of the skin contains hair follicles, sebaceous glands, ● Narrow and conical-shaped
and sweat glands ● Covers the entire dorsal surface of the
● Contains the skeletal muscle orbicularis oris tongue
● Outer lining of the lips transition to a thicker stratified squamous ● Tips show partial keratinization
nonkeratinized oral epithelium, also called mucocutaneous junction ● Surrounds fungiform papillae
○ Tubuloacinar mucus-secreting labial glands are found below ■ Fungiform papillae
the oral epithelium ● Less numerous
○ Surface cells of oral epithelium sloughs off into the fluids of ● Larger, broader, and taller than filiform
the mouth without being cornified ● Exhibits a mushroom-like shape and
● Inner surface of lips are lined with moist, stratified non keratinized numerous taste buds located on the apical
squamous oral epithelium surface of the papillary epithelium
● The underlying connective tissue of the lips contain numerous ● More prevalent in the anterior region of the
adipose cells, blood vessels, and capillaries tongue
● Non-cornified stratified squamous
Tongue epithelium
● Interspersed among the filiform papillae
● Oral cavity is lined by a protective mucosa
● Has a prominent core of lamina propria that ○ Interlobular ducts pass into the larger excretory duct of the
projects into the surface of the epithelium lingual gland that opens into the oral cavity on the ventral
■ Circumvallate papillae surface of the tongue
● Larger than filiform and fungiform
● 8 - 12 of these are located in the posterior Taste Buds
region of the tongue
● Barrel-shaped structures (modified columnar) located in the
● Deep moats or furrows that completely
epithelium of the foliate and fungiform papillae and the lateral sides
encircle it
of the circumvallate papillae
● Excretory ducts from underlying serous
● Found embedded within and extend the full thickness of the stratified
glands empty in the base of the furrows
lingual epithelium of the circumvallate papilla
● Lingual epithelium seen is stratified
● Also found in the epithelium of the soft palate, epiglottis, and
squamous epithelium
pharynx
● Secondary papillae are seen in the lamina
● Free surface of each bud contains an opening—taste pore
propria projecting into overlying epithelium
● Contains sensory neuroepithelial cells extending from the base of
● Oval taste buds are seen in the lateral
the taste bud to the taste pore; also present are elongated supporting
surface of the papilla and in the epithelium of
nonsensory sustentacular cells
the outer wall of the furrow
○ Both are associated with unmyelinated nerve fibers
● Contains a core of serous glands whose
○ Apical surface of both cells exhibit long microvilli protruding
excretory ducts open at the base of the
through the taste pore into the furrow surrounding the
furrows
circumvallate papilla
○ Secretions from the serous secretory
○ Sustentacular cells
acini acts as a solvent for
■ Elongated
taste-inducing substances
■ Exhibit a dark cytoplasm and a dark, slender nucleus
■ Foliate papillae
○ Neuroepithelial cells
● Well developed in some mammals
■ Also known as gustatory or taste cells
● Rudimentary or non-functional in humans
■ Exhibit a lighter cytoplasm and a more oval nucleus
● The ventral surface of the tongue is smooth
● Receptor cells are closely associated with small afferent nerve fibers
● Connective tissue around the muscle bundles may contain blood
● The periphery of the base of each taste bud contains basal stem cells
vessels and nerve fibers
that are undifferentiated
● Lower half of tongue contains a portion of the anterior lingual gland
○ Mixed type gland that contains both serous and mucous acini
Lymphoid Aggregations ● Pulp cavity is filled with fine connective

tissue, fibroblasts, histiocytes, and
● Some lymph nodules contain germinal centers
odontoblasts—dentin-forming cells
● Tonsils
● Blood capillaries and nerves enter through an
○ Aggregates of diffuse lymphoid tissue and nodules located in
apical foramen
the oral pharynx
■ Exhibits wavy, parallel dentinal tubules
● Palatine tonsils
■ Primary dentin is located at the periphery of the root
○ Located on the lateral walls of the oral part of the pharynx
■ Secondary dentin is located along the pulp cavity
○ Lined with stratified squamous nonkeratinized epithelium
■ In the crown of the tooth:
○ Exhibit numerous crypts
● Covered by a thicker layer of enamel
● Pharyngeal tonsils
composed of enamel rods or prisms held
○ Single structure situated in the superior and posterior
together by interprismatic cementing
portion of the pharynx
substance
○ Covered by pseudostratified columnar epithelium
○ Enamel
● Lingual tonsils
■ Not present at the root of the tooth; the dentin is
○ Located on the dorsal surface of the posterior one third of
covered by cementum
the tongue
○ Cementum
○ Several in number and seen as small bulges composed of
■ Contains lacunae with cementum-producing cells
masses of lymphoid aggregations
called cementocytes and their connecting canaliculi
○ Lined by stratified squamous nonkeratinized epithelium
● Dentinoenamel junction
○ Each tonsil is invaginated by the covering epithelium,
○ Located at the crown of a dried tooth
forming numerous crypts with aggregations of lymphatic
○ Numerous, irregular air filled interglobular spaces that
nodules
appear black
■ Interglobular spaces are filled with incompletely
Tooth calcified dentin also known as interglobular dentin
● The tooth are divided into three parts: ● Granular layer of Tomes
○ Dentin ○ Smaller and spaced closer together interglobular spaces are
■ Covered by enamel in the region projecting above the found in the root, close to the dentin-cementum junction
gum ● Lines of Retzius
■ Surrounds the pulp cavity and the root of the tooth as ○ Variations in the rate of enamel deposition
the root canal ● Lines of Schreger
○ Refracted light rays caused by twists that occur in enamel
rods
● Enamel tufts ● Displaced basally by secretory granules

○ Poor calcification of enamel rods extending from the accumulated in the apical region of the
dentinoenamel junction into the enamel cytoplasm
○ Mucous
Salivary Glands ■ Similarly shaped to serous cells
■ Cytoplasm is completely filled with light-staining
● Produce about 1 L/day of saliva
secretory product—mucus
○ Contains water, ions, mucus, enzymes, and antibodies
■ Accumulated secretory granules flatten the nucleus,
○ Formed after autonomic stimulation
displacing it to the base of the cytoplasm
● Salivary amylase and lysozyme are mainly produced by serous acini
● Mixed type acini consists of both serous and mucous cells
● Plasma cells in the salivary glands produce Immunoglobulin A (IgA)
○ Mucous cells predominate
● Composed of cellular secretory units called acini and numerous
○ Serous cells form a crescent cap over the mucous cells
excretory ducts
■ Also called serous demilune
● The secretory units are small saclike dilations located at the end of
● Flattened myoepithelial cells surround serous and mucous acini
the first segment of the first excretory duct system
○ These cells are highly branched and contractile
○ Also called intercalated ducts
○ Located between the cell membrane of the secretory cells in
● Three types of salivary glands
acini and the surrounding membrane
○ Parotid
○ Also called basket cells
■ Largest salivary gland
■ Surrounds acini with branches like a basket
■ Located anterior and inferior to the external ear
○ Submandibular
■ Located inferior to the mandible in the floor of the Salivary Gland Ducts
mouth ● Connective tissue fibers subdivide salivary glands into lobules
○ Sublingual containing the secretory and excretory units
■ Smallest salivary gland ● Types of salivary gland ducts:
■ Aggregates of smaller glands located inferior to the ○ Intercalated ducts
tongue ■ Where acini empty their secretions
■ Smallest ducts in the salivary glands
Salivary Gland Acini ■ Small lumina lined by low cuboidal epithelium
■ Surrounded by contractile myoepithelial cells in some
● Consists of two types of cells:
portions
○ Serous
○ Striated ducts
■ Pyramidal in shape
■ Formed from the merging of several intercalated
■ Nuclei are spherical or round
ducts
■ Lined by columnar epithelium and exhibit basal ○ The intercalated ducts have small lumina lined by simple
striations squamous or low cuboidal epithelium, surrounded by
● Corresponds to basal infoldings myoepithelial cells
○ Excretory intralobular ducts ● Product further drains into larger striated ducts
■ Formed from merged striated ducts ○ The striated ducts have larger lumina lined with simple
■ Gradually increasing in size columnar cells with basal striations
■ Surrounded by increased layers of connective tissue ● Striated ducts empty their products into the intralobular excretory
fibers duct
○ Interlobular and interlobar ducts ○ Found in the lobules of the gland
■ Formed from merged intralobular ducts ● Intralobular excretory ducts join to form the interlobular excretory
■ Terminal portion conveys saliva from the salivary ducts in the connective tissue septa
glands to the oral cavity ○ Lumina is progressively wider
■ Larger interlobular ducts could be lined with ○ Epithelium gets taller as ducts increase in size
stratified epithelium, low cuboidal, or columnar cells. ■ Can vary from columnar to pseudostratified to
stratified columnar
Parotid Salivary Gland
● Large serous compound tubuloacinar gland Submandibular Salivary Gland
● Surrounded by a capsule with numerous interlobular connective ● Compound mixed tubuloacinar gland
tissue septa dividing the gland into lobes or lobules ○ Contains both serous and mucous acini
○ Connective tissue septa contain blood vessels and ● Majority of acini are serous
interlobular excretory ducts ● Mucous acini are intermixed with serous acini
● Each salivary gland lobule exhibit secretory cells forming the serous ○ Mucous acini are surrounded or capped by serous cells
acini forming serous demilunes
● Small secretory granules are seen in the cell apices of serous acini in ● Thin contractile myoepithelial cells surround the serous and mucous
higher magnification acini and the intercalated ducts
○ Secretory granules vary in functional activity of the gland ● Basal striations in the cells are longer than the parotid gland
● All serous acini are surrounded by thin, contractile myoepithelial cells ● Duct system and product flow is the same with the parotid gland
located between the basement membrane and serous cells
● Some lobules may contain numerous adipose cells Sublingual Salivary Gland
○ Appear as clear oval structures
● Compound mixed tubuloacinar gland resembling a submandibular
● Secretory acini empty their product into narrow intercalated ducts
gland
● Acini are predominantly mucous capped with peripheral serous ○ In the upper ⅓, muscularis externa contains striated skeletal
demilunes muscle fibers
● Purely serous acini are less numerous ○ In the middle ⅓, contains both skeletal and smooth muscle
● Contractile myoepithelial cells can be seen at higher magnification fibers
around individual serous and mucous acini ○ In the lower ⅓, contains entirely smooth muscle fibers
● Duct system and product flow is different due to the absence of
intercalated ducts Upper Esophagus
● Intralobular excretory ducts are more prevalent
● The upper esophagus consists of four layers:
● Interlobular connective tissue septa are also more abundant in the
○ Mucosa
sublingual salivary gland
○ Submucosa
○ Septa contains blood vessels, nerve fibers, and interlobular
○ Muscularis Externa
excretory ducts
○ Adventitia
● Interlobular excretory duct epithelia vary
● Mucosa
○ From low columnar to pseudostratified or stratified columnar
○ Consists of three parts:
epithelium in increasing duct size
■ An inner lining of nonkeratinized stratified squamous
● Adipose cells can be seen scattered
epithelium
■ An underlying thin layer of lamina propria
Esophagus ● The connective tissue papillae of lamina
● The esophagus is approximately 10 inches long extending from the propria indents the epithelium
pharynx to the stomach ● Contains small blood vessels, diffuse
● Located posterior to the trachea and in the mediastinum of the lymphatic tissue, and a small lymph node
thoracic cavity ■ A longitudinal layer of smooth muscle fibers, the
● Superior to the thoracic cavity, penetrates the muscular diaphragm muscularis mucosae
● In the thoracic cavity, the esophagus is lined by a connective ● Submucosa
tissue—the adventitia ○ A wide layer of moderately dense irregular connective tissue
● The esophageal lumen is lined with moist, nonkeratinized stratified ■ Often contains adipose tissue
squamous epithelium ○ Contains the mucous acini of esophageal glands
○ When empty, lumen exhibits numerous but temporary ○ The excretory ducts of esophageal glands pass through the
longitudinal folds of mucosa muscularis mucosae and lamina propria, opening into the
● Contains esophageal cardiac glands in the lamina propria esophageal lumen
● Contains small esophageal glands in the submucosa ○ Connective tissue contains the vein and artery
● Muscularis externa contains a mixture of different types of muscle ● Muscularis externa
fibers ○ Located inferior to the submucosa
○ Consists of two layers: ■ In some regions of the esophagus, the glands may be
■ Inner circular muscle layer absent
■ Outer longitudinal muscle layer ● Muscularis externa
○ In humans, ○ Consists entirely of smooth muscle fibers: an inner circular
■ The upper third of the esophagus consists of striated muscle layer, and an outer longitudinal muscle layer
skeletal muscles ● Serosa
■ The middle third exhibit a mixture of smooth and ○ Outermost layer of the esophagus
skeletal muscle fibers in the inner circular layer and ○ Also known as the visceral peritoneum
outer longitudinal layer ○ Consists of a connective tissue layer lined by a simple
■ The lower third of the esophagus consists only of squamous layer of mesothelium
smooth muscle fibers
● Adventitia Esophageal-Stomach Junction
○ Consists of a loose connective tissue layer that blends with
● Region of the esophagus where the nonkeratinized squamous
the adventitia of the trachea and surrounding structures
epithelium transitions into simple columnar, mucus-secreting gastric
○ Adipose tissue, large blood vessels, and nerve fibers are
epithelium of the cardia region of the stomach
prominent in this area
● The esophageal glands proper may be seen in the submucosa
● Excretory ducts of the glands run through muscularis mucosae and
Lower Esophagus the lamina propria of the esophagus to the lumen
● The lower esophagus is the portion of esophagus that has penetrated ● Lamina propria are the esophageal cardiac glands
the diaphragm and entered the peritoneal cavity near the stomach ○ Esophageal glands proper and the cardiac glands secrete
● Consists of four layers: mucus
○ Mucosa ● Lamina propria of the esophagus continues to the stomach
○ Submucosa ○ Lamina propria of the stomach is filled with glands and
○ Muscularis externa diffuse lymphatic tissue
○ Serosa ○ Penetrated by shallow gastric pits emptying the gastric
● Mucosa glands
○ Consists of stratified nonkeratinized squamous epithelium, ● Upper region of stomach contains two types of glands
lamina propria, and muscularis mucosae. ○ Cardiac glands
○ Connective tissue papillae of the lamina propria indent the ■ Limited to the transition region
lining epithelium ■ Lined with pale-staining, mucus-secreting columnar
● Submucosa cells
○ Contains mucous acini of the esophageal glands proper, their ○ Gastric glands
excretory ducts, and adipose tissue. ■ Simple and tubular
■ May exhibit basal branching ■ Comprise ⅔ of the stomach

■ Contain four different cell types ■ Form major portion of the stomach
● Pale-staining mucous neck cells ○ Pylorus
● Large eosinophilic parietal cells ■ Funnel-shaped terminal region
● Basophilic chief or zymogenic cells ● Deep gastric glands produce most gastric secretions for digestion
● Enteroendocrine cells of different types ● All regions exhibit rugae
● Muscularis externa continues with the stomach ○ Longitudinal folds of the mucosa and submucosa
○ Stomach muscularis externa consists of an additional second ○ Temporary and becomes distended with fluid or solid material
layer of smooth muscle layer
● Vascular structures are found in the submucosa
Fundic and Body Region
Stomach ● Four general regions of the stomach wall:
● Expanded hollow organ between the esophagus and small intestine ○ Mucosa
● Exhibits a transition from stratified squamous epithelium of the ○ Submucosa
esophagus to the simple columnar epithelium of the stomach in the ○ Muscularis Externa
esophageal-stomach junction ○ Serosa
● Luminal surface is pitted with numerous tiny openings called gastric ● Mucosa
pits formed by the luminal epithelium invaginating the underlying ○ Consists of surface epithelium, lamina propria, and
lamina propria muscularis mucosae
● Tubular gastric glands below the luminal epithelium open directly ○ Exhibit temporary folds called rugae
into the gastric pits onto the stomach lumen ■ Formed during the contractions of the smooth muscle
● Gastric glands descend through the lamina propria to the muscularis layer
mucosae ■ Disappears and form a smooth mucosa as the
● Dense connective submucosa containing blood vessels and nerves stomach fills
are found beneath the mucosa of the stomach ○ Surface is lined with simple columnar epithelium extending
● Muscularis externa of the stomach exhibit three layers instead of the into and lines the gastric pits
usual two in the esophagus and small intestine ■ In the fundus, gastric pits are shallow and extend into
● Outer layer is covered by serosa ¼ of the mucosa’s thickness
● Stomach is divided into three regions: ○ Lamina propria fills the spaces between gastric glands
○ Cardia ■ Separated from the columnar surface epithelium by a
■ Narrow tube where the esophagus terminates thin basement membrane
○ Fundus and Body ■ Consists of fine reticular and collagen fibers
■ Upper dome-shaped region ■ Better seen in the mucosal ridges
○ Muscularis mucosae consists of an inner circular and an ● Consists mainly of mucous neck cells and
outer longitudinal layer forming the outer boundary of the some parietal cells
mucosa ■ Fundus or base
■ This strands of smooth muscle extend into the lamina ● Located deep in the gland
propria between the gastric glands toward the ● Composed predominantly of chief cells and
surface epithelium few parietal cells
○ Gastric glands packing the lamina propria occupy the whole ● Exhibit basal branching
mucosa opening into the bottom of gastric pits ■ Also contains undifferentiated cells and
○ The cells of the gastric glands can be differentiated into two enteroendocrine cells that secrete different
types: hormones, regulating the digestive system
■ Acidophilic parietal cells ● Submucosa
● Located in the upper portion of the glands ○ Found below the muscularis mucosae
● Produces hydrochloric acid and gastric ○ Contains dense irregular connective tissue and more
intrinsic factor collagen fibers than lamina propria
○ gif is essential for vitamin B12 ○ Contains lymph vessels, capillaries, large arterioles and
absorption and erythropoiesis venules
■ Basophilic chief or zymogenic cells ○ In deeper parts, isolated clusters of parasympathetic ganglia
● Occupy lower regions of the glands of the submucosal (Meissner’s) nerve plexus are seen
● Produce pepsinogen ● Muscularis Externa
○ Converted to pepsin in acidic ○ Consists of three layers of smooth muscle:
environments ■ Inner oblique
○ Pepsin is an enzyme that breaks down ● Not complete and not always seen in sections
proteins of stomach wall
○ The subglandular region of the lamina propria may contain ■ Middle circular
lymphatic tissue or lymph nodes ■ Outer longitudinal
○ Each gastric gland in the mucosa consists of three regions: ○ Myenteric (Aurbach’s) nerve plexus
■ Isthmus ■ Located between the circular and longitudinal smooth
● Located in the junction of the gastric pit muscle layers
● Lined by surface epithelial cells and parietal ● Serosa
cells ○ Consists of a thin layer of connective tissue overlying the
■ Neck muscularis externa
● Located lower in the gland ○ Covered by a simple squamous mesothelium of the visceral
peritoneum
○ May contain adipose cells ● Mucosal ridges of stomach around gastric pits become broader and
more irregular
Pyloric Region ● Coiled tubular pyloric glands in the lamina propria open into the
gastric pits
● Mucosa
● Lymphatic nodules are present
○ Gastric pits are deeper
● Mucus-secreting epithelium of the stomach changes into intestinal
■ Extending not less than half into the full thickness of
epithelium
the mucosa
○ Contains goblet cells and columnar cells with striated
○ Pyloric glands open into the bottom of the gastric pits
microvilli throughout the length of the whole intestine
■ Glands are either branched or coiled tubular
● Duodenum contains villi
■ Glands contain mucous secretions
○ Each villus presents as a leaf-shaped surface projection
■ Consists of tall columnar cells staining lightly due to
○ Separated by intervillous spaces of the intestinal lumen
mucigen
● Intestinal glands also known as crypts of Lieberkuhn are short and
● Nuclei are ovoid or flattened at the base
simple tubular structures
■ Secrete lysozyme
○ Present in the lamina propria of the duodenum
○ Enteroendocrine cells are also present
○ Consists of goblet cells with striated microvilli of the surface
○ Lamina propria contains diffuse lymphatic tissue and
epithelium
occasionally, lymph nodes
● Duodenal glands also known as Brunner’s glands occupy most of the
○ Muscularis mucosae are present below the lymph nodes
submucosa in the upper duodenum
○ Smooth muscle layers from the circular layer of muscularis
○ Characteristic feature of the duodenum
mucosae pass the pyloric glands into the lamina propria
○ Branched tubuloacinar glands
towards the upper region of the mucosa
○ Ducts penetrate the muscularis mucosae and enter the base
● Submucosa
of the intestinal glands
○ Found below the muscularis mucosae
○ Alongside the esophageal glands, the only submucosal
○ Consists of dense irregular connective tissue
glands of the digestive tract
○ Contains blood vessels of varying sizes
● Muscularis externa of the duodenum contains the neurons and axons
of the myenteric nerve plexuses
Pyloric-Duodenal Junction ○ Regulates peristaltic activity
● The pyloric sphincter, a thick smooth muscle layer, separates the
pylorus from the duodenum Small Intestine
○ A thickened circular layer of the muscularis externa of the
● Long, convoluted tube that is about 5 to 7 meters long
stomach
● Longest section of the digestive tract
● Extends from the pyloric-duodenal junction towards the large ○ Lactase, peptase, sucrase, lipase, and
intestine other digestive enzymes
● Divided into three parts: ● Intestinal glands are located between the villi throughout the small
○ Duodenum intestine
○ Jejunum ○ Opens into the intestinal lumen at the base of the villi
○ Ileum ○ Contains the following cells:
● Main function is the digestion of gastric contents and absorption of ■ Absorptive cells
nutrients into blood capillaries and lymphatic lacteals ● Most common cell type in the intestinal
● Surface modifications of the small intestine for absorption epithelium
○ Plicae circulares are permanent spiral folds of the mucosa ● Tall columnar with prominent striated border
extending to the intestinal lumen of microvilli
■ Most prominent in the proximal region of the small ● Covered by a thick glycocalyx
intestine, decreasing toward the ileum ■ Stem cells
○ Villi are permanent fingerlike projections of the lamina ● Exhibit mitotic activity
propria of the mucosa extending to the intestinal lumen ● Located at the base of intestinal glands
■ Covered by simple columnar epithelium ● Replace worn-out cells
■ Also prominent in the proximal region of the small ■ Goblet cells
intestine; decreasing in height toward the ileum ● Interspersed among the columnar absorptive
■ Each villus contain a lymphatic lacteal (artery), blood cells of the intestinal epithelium
capillaries, and individual strands of smooth muscles ● Increase in number toward the ileum
in its connective tissue core (lamina propria) ■ Paneth cells
■ Lamina propria in the villi serves as storehouse for ● Located at the base of the intestinal gland
immune cells ● Characterized by the deep-staining
○ Smooth muscles from muscularis mucosae extend in the core eosinophilic granules in the cytoplasm
of the individual villi for its motility ■ Enteroendocrine cells
■ Increases contact of villi with the digested food ● Scattered throughout the epithelium of villi
products and intestinal glands
○ Microvilli are cytoplasmic extensions that cover the apices of ● Contain fine granules and located in the basal
the intestinal absorptive cells cytoplasm near the lamina propria
■ Visible under a light microscope as striated border ● Take up decarboxylate precursors of biogenic
■ Coated by a glycoprotein coat glycocalyx monoamines
● Contains brush border enzymes such as: ○ Designated as amine precursor uptake
and decarboxylation (APUD) cells
● Peyer’s patches ■ Epithelial lining of columnar cells with microvilli

○ Numerous aggregations of closely packed, permanent ■ Goblet cells
lymphatic nodules ■ Short, tubular intestinal glands
○ Found primarily in the wall of the ileum ● Crypts of Lieberkuhn
○ Occupies a large portion of the lamina propria and submucosa ○ Each villi contains a core of lamina propria, strands of smooth
of the ileum muscle fiber, and a central lacteal (lymphatic vessel)
● M cells ○ Intestinal glands are located in the lamina propria and open
○ Specialized epithelial cells covering the Peyer’s patches and into the intervillous spaces
large lymph nodes ○ The lamina propria contains fine connective tissue fibers with
○ Only found in the ileum reticular cells, diffuse lymphatic tissue, and lymph nodes
○ Phagocytose luminal antigens and presents to the ● Submucosa
lymphocytes and macrophages in the lamina propria ○ Filled with branched, tubular duodenal glands
■ Functions in the production of specific antibodies ■ Disrupt the muscularis mucosae when penetrating the
lamina propria
Duodenum ○ Secretions of the duodenal glands enter the bottom of the
intestinal glands
● Shortest segment of the small intestine
● Muscularis externa
● Villi are broad and numerous with fewer goblet cells
○ Consists of an inner circular layer and an outer longitudinal
● Characterized by branched duodenal glands (Brunner’s glands) that
layer of smooth muscle
secrete mucus located in the submucosa
○ Between the two layers are Myenteric (Auerbach’s) nerve
● Consists of four layers similar to the stomach:
plexuses of the parasympathetic ganglion
○ Mucosa
● Serosa
■ Epithelial lining, lamina propria, muscularis mucosae
● Contains connective tissue cells, blood vessels, and adipose cells
○ Submucosa
● Forms the outermost layer of the duodenum
■ Duodenal (Brunner’s) glands
○ Muscularis externa
■ Two layers similar to the esophagus Jejunum
○ Serosa ● Plica circularis extends into the jejunal lumen
■ Visceral peritoneum ○ Core is formed by the dense irregular connective tissue of
● Mucosa submucosa
○ Contains the following ○ Contains arteries and veins
■ Villi ○ Covered by villi
● Mucosal surface modification ● The base of villi and intestinal glands contains red-staining
● Separated by intervillous spaces eosinophilic secretory granules of the Paneth cells
● Intestinal glands end near the muscularis mucosae inferior to the ■ Intestinal glands
submucosa ■ Lamina propria
● The histology of the layers of the jejunum is similar with the ■ Muscularis mucosae
duodenum except the following: ○ Submucosa
○ Contains shorter and narrower villi compared to the ■ Connective tissue cells and fibers
duodenum ■ Blood vessels
○ More goblet cells ■ Nerves
○ Absence of Brunner’s glands ○ Muscularis externa
■ Inner circular smooth muscle layer
Ileum ● Continuous with the colon wall
■ Outer longitudinal smooth muscle layer
● Contains few villi
● Contains the taenia coli
● Contains more goblet cells than the duodenum and jejunum
○ Three broad longitudinal bands of
● Lymphatic nodules in this area are significantly larger and numerous
muscle
○ Aggregates in the lamina propria and submucosa to from the
● Often discontinuous, interrupted by the taenia
Peyer’s patches
coli
● Peyer’s patches are the characteristic feature of the ileum
■ Between the two bands of muscles are the
○ Located in the wall of the ileum opposite the mesenteric
parasympathetic ganglion cells of the Auerbach’s
attachment
nerve plexus
● Lymphatic nodules originate from the diffuse lymphatic tissue of the
○ Serosa
lamina propria
■ Visceral peritoneum and mesentery
○ Villi are absent in regions where lymph nodes reach the
■ Transverse and sigmoid colon are attached to the
mucosal surface
body wall by the mesentery
○ Usually disrupts the muscularis mucosae as it extends into
the submucosa
Colon Wall
Large Intestine ● Lined by simple columnar epithelium

○ Contains absorptive columnar cells
■ For water absorption
Colon and Mesentery ○ Also contains mucus-filled goblet cells
● Contains the same basic layers of the small intestine ■ Increase in number toward the terminal end of the
○ Mucosa colon
■ Epithelium ● Intestinal glands are deep and straight
● Simple columnar cells
○ Extending through the lamina propria to the muscularis ■ Crypts of Lieberkuhn are less well developed, shorter,
mucosae and spaced farther apart
● Lamina propria and submucosa are filled with aggregations of ■ Diffuse lymphatic tissue is abundant
lymphatic cells and lymph nodes ○ Contains muscularis mucosae
● Mucosa and submucosa are temporarily folded ● Submucosa
● Mucosa ○ May contain diffuse lymphatic tissue
○ Villi are absent ○ Contains numerous blood vessels
○ Lamina propria is indented by long intestinal glands (crypts of ● Muscularis externa
Lieberkuhn) ○ Inner circular layer
■ Extends through the lamina propria to the muscularis ○ Outer longitudinal layer
mucosae ○ Contains the parasympathetic ganglia of the myenteric plexus
○ Lamina propria contains abundant diffuse lymphatic tissue in between
■ Some lymphatic nodules might extend through the ● Serosa
muscularis mucosae into the submucosa ○ Contains adipose cells
● Muscularis externa
○ Longitudinal layer of muscularis externa is arranged into Rectum
strips of smooth muscle, the taenia coli
● Similar in histology to that of the colon
○ Between the muscle layers are the Auerbach’s nerve plexus
● Surface epithelium of the lumen is lined by simple columnar cells
parasympathetic ganglia
with striated borders and goblet cells
● Serosa
● Lamina propria contains the intestinal glands, adipose cells, and
○ Covers the connective tissue and adipose cells in the
lymph nodes
transverse and sigmoid colon
○ Intestinal glands are longer and closer together; filled with
○ The ascending and descending colon are retroperitoneal with
goblet cells
their posterior surfaces lined with adventitia
○ Beneath the lamina propria is the muscularis mucosae
● Contains temporary longitudinal folds
Appendix ○ Contains a core of submucosa covered by the mucosa
● Lymph nodes with germinal centers are numerous ● Permanent longitudinal folds are found in the lower rectum and the
○ Highly characteristic of the appendix anal canal
● Mucosa ● Taenia coli from the colon continues into the rectum and exhibits the
○ Lining epithelium contains numerous goblet cells typical muscularis externa
○ The lamina propria contains intestinal glands (crypts of ● Adventitia covers a portion of the rectum; the remainder is covered by
Lieberkuhn) the serosa
● Blood vessels are found in the submucosa and adventitia
Anorectal Junction ● Hepatic artery from the aorta supplies liver cells with oxygenated
blood
● The lowermost part of the rectum is represented by the anal canal
○ Forms a dual blood supply to the liver with the deoxygenated
above the anorectal junction
blood from the hepatic portal vein
● Simple columnar epithelia transitions to stratified squamous
● Repeating hexagonal units called liver lobules contain a central vein
epithelium
from which hepatocytes and sinusoids radiate toward the periphery
● Rectal mucosa
○ Connective tissue in this region forms portal canals where
○ Intestinal glands are shorter and spaced farther apart
branches of the hepatic artery, hepatic portal vein, bile duct,
○ Lamina propria is more prominent with more lymphatic tissue
and lymph vessels are seen
and lymph nodes that
○ Three to six portal areas per lobule are seen in the human
● Muscularis mucosae and intestinal glands terminate in this region
liver
● Lamina propria of the rectum is replaced by the dense irregular
● Blood from the hepatic veins leave the liver through the inferior vena
connective tissue of the lamina propria of the anal canal
cava
● Submucosa of the rectum merges with the connective tissue of the
● Hepatic sinusoids are tortuous, dilated blood channels lined by a
lamina propria of the anal canal
discontinuous layer of fenestrated endothelial cells
● The internal hemorrhoidal plexus of veins lie in the mucosa of the
○ Separated from underlying hepatocytes by a subendothelial
anal canal
perisinusoidal space (of Disse)
● Circular smooth muscle layer of the muscularis externa increases in
○ Also contain macrophages called Kupffer cells located on the
thickness in the upper region of the anal canal, forming the internal
luminal side of the endothelial cells
anal sphincter
● Hepatocytes secrete bile into tiny channels called bile canaliculi
○ Replaced by the skeletal muscles of the external anal
located between individual hepatocytes
sphincter in the lower anal canal
○ Canaliculi converge at the periphery of liver lobules in the
■ Controlled by the levator ani skeletal muscle
portal areas as bile ducts
■ Bile ducts drain into larger hepatic ducts
Liver ○ Bile drains into the bile canaliculi toward the bile duct while
● Alongside the pancreas from the main pancreatic duct, joins the blood drains toward the central vein; bile and blood don’t mix
duodenal loop to form a common duct penetrating the duodenal wall ● In pigs, connective tissue from the hilum extends between the liver
through the lumen of the small intestine lobes as interlobular septa and defines the hepatic lobules
● All nutrients and liquids absorbed in the small intestine enter the liver ● In humans and primates, connective tissue septa separating the liver
through the hepatic portal vein lobules are not conspicuous; liver sinusoids are continuous
○ Complex lipid products are transported by the lymph vessels ● Portal areas or portal canals contain the portal vein, bile duct, and
○ Products percolate through the liver capillaries and sinusoids hepatic artery
Gallbladder ● Exocrine secretory units or acini contain pyramid-shaped acinar cells

with secretory granules-filled apices
● Small hollow organ attached to the inferior surface of the liver
○ Granules contain the precursors of several pancreatic
● Joins the common bile duct via the cystic duct
digestive enzymes that are secreted in their inactive form into
● Stores bile secreted by the liver
the excretory ducts
○ Drained by the cystic duct, entering the duodenum via the
● Serous acini and zymogenic cells are arranged into small lobules
common bile duct through the major duodenal papilla
which are surrounded by interlobular and interlobular connective
○ Alongside the digestive enzymes from the pancreas, enters
tissue septa containing blood vessels. Interlobular ducts, nerves, and
the duodenum via a common duct with the liver
Pacinian corpuscle
● Concentrate bile by absorbing water
● Secretory acini are divided into lobules bound together by loose
● When the gallbladder is empty, the mucosa exhibits deep folds
connective tissue
○ Between the folds are crypts or diverticula that indent the
● Excretory ducts start from within the centroacinar cells continuing
mucosa deeply
into short intercalated ducts
■ Crypts or diverticula resemble tubular glands
○ Intercalated ducts merge to form into intralobular ducts,
● Mucosa is made up of simple columnar epithelium
forming larger interlobular ducts and empty into the main
○ Underlying lamina propria contains loose connective tissue,
pancreatic duct
diffuse lymphatic tissue, and blood vessels
● Excretory ducts of the pancreas do not have striated ducts
● Muscularis of the gallbladder is made up of bundles of randomly
oriented smooth muscle fibers and interlacing elastic fibers
○ Surrounded by a thick layer of dense connective tissue Endocrine Pancreas
containing blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic tissue ● Endocrine units of the pancreas are scattered among the exocrine
● Serosa covers the entire unattached gallbladder surface acini as isolated, pale-staining vascularized units called the
○ Region of attachment of gallbladder to the liver is covered by pancreatic Islets of Langerhans
adventitia ○ Separated from the exocrine serous acini by a thin connective
tissue capsule
● Each islet is surrounded by fine fibers of reticular connective tissue
Pancreas
and are permeated by capillaries
● A soft, elongated organ located posterior to the stomach
● Islets of Langerhans have special immunocytochemical processes
● Head of the pancreas lies in the duodenal loop; the tail extends
with four cell types:
across the abdominal cavity to the spleen
○ Alpha
○ Beta
Exocrine Pancreas ○ Delta
● Most of the pancreas is an exocrine gland ○ Pancreatic polypeptide cells
● Alpha cells form 20% of the islets and are seen around the islet
periphery
● Beta cells constitute 70% of the islet cells and are primarily
concentrated in the center of the islet
● Remaining cell types are fewer and located in various places around
the islets
○ Type II pneumocytes
Respiratory System
■ Also known as surfactants
● Extrapulmonary passages are lined by pseudostratified ciliated
● Consists of the lungs and numerous air passages epithelium that contains goblet cells
● Consists of a conducting portion and a respiratory portion ○ Trachea, bronchi, bronchioles
○ Conducting portion ● Bronchioles represent the terminal portion of the conducting
■ Consists of passageways outside and inside the passageways and gives way to the respiratory bronchioles,
lungs that conduct air for gaseous exchange representing the transition zone between the conducting and
■ Structural support is provided by a hyaline cartilage respiratory portions
● Also keeps the airways open ● Gaseous exchange take place in the alveoli
● C-shaped hyaline cartilage is seen in the ○ Goblet cells are absent and is lined with thin simple
trachea squamous epithelium
● Irregular hyaline cartilage encircles the
bronchi
■ As the diameter of the passageways decrease, the Olfactory Epithelium
length of the epithelium decreases ● Olfactory epithelium are located in the roof of the nasal cavity, each
● Ciliated pseudostratified epithelium becomes side of the dividing septum, and the surface of the superior concha
simple ciliated epithelium in the terminal ○ Detects and transmits odors
region ● Cells are predominantly pseudostratified tall columnar without
● Smaller bronchioles are lined with simple goblet cells and without motile cilia
cuboidal epithelium ● Consists of three cell types:
● Goblet cells are absent in the terminal regions ○ Supportive
and are replaced with nonciliated, secretory ■ Sustentacular
cuboidal Clara cells ○ Basal
○ Respiratory portion ○ Olfactory
■ Consists of passageways in the lungs that also allows ■ Sensory
for respiration or gaseous exchange aside from the ● Sensory bipolar neurons distributed between the more apical
conduction of air supportive cells and basal cells of the olfactory epithelium
■ Consists of respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, ● Serous olfactory glands and nerves are located below the olfactory
alveolar sacs, and alveoli epithelium
● The alveoli contains two types of cells ● Olfactory cells span the whole thickness of the epithelium and
○ Type I pneumocytes contain small round bulbs at the base called the olfactory vesicles
■ Also known as squamous ● Long, nonmotile olfactory cilia radiate from each olfactory vesicle
alveolar cells
● Branched, tubuloacinar olfactory glands, also known as Bowman’s ● Anterior lingual mucosa is lined with a stratified squamous
glands, produce a serous fluid that serves as solvent to dissolve odor nonkeratinized epithelium
molecules ○ The underlying lamina propria merges with the perichondrium
of the elastic cartilage
Transition Area ○ Covers the apex of the epiglottis and about half of the
laryngeal mucosa
● Supportive, sustentacular cells are elongated with oval nuclei
● Posterior laryngeal mucosa is lined with pseudostratified ciliated
situated apically in the epithelium
columnar epithelium
● Olfactory cells have oval or round nuclei located between the nuclei
○ Lamina propria contains the tubuloacinar seromucous glands
of the supportive and basal cells
● Taste buds and solitary lymph nodes may be seen in the lingual or
● The apices and bases of olfactory cells are slender
laryngeal epithelium of the epiglottis
○ The apical surface contain slender, nonmotile microvilli
extending into the mucus, covering the epithelial surface
● Basal cells are located at the base of the epithelium Larynx
● Axons extend from the olfactory cells into the lamina propria as ● A superior false vocal fold is covered by a mucosa continuous with
bundles of unmyelinated olfactory nerves or fila olfactoria; leaving the posterior surface of the epiglottis
the nasal cavity and pass into the olfactory bulbs at the base of the ○ Lined by pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium with
brain goblet cells
● Transition from the olfactory to respiratory epithelium is abrupt ● Lamina propria contains numerous and mixed seromucous glands
○ From the olfactory epithelium to the pseudostratified ciliated that open into the epithelial surface
columnar epithelium and numerous goblet cells ○ Also contains lymph nodes, blood vessels, and adipose cells
● Lamina propria contains the capillaries, lymphatic vessels, blood ● A deep indentation by the ventricle separates the false vocal fold and
vessels, and the branched tubuloacinar Bowman’s glands the inferior true vocal fold
○ The glands deliver secretions through narrow excretory ducts ○ Lymph nodes are numerous in this area and are called
penetrating the olfactory epithelium laryngeal tonsils
■ Functions to moisten the epithelial surface and ○ Mucosa is lined by nonkeratinized stratified squamous
dissolve odor molecules epithelium and a thin, dense lamina propria without glands
lymphatic tissue, or blood vessels
Epiglottis ○ Vocalis ligament is found in the apex with dense elastic fibers
extending into the adjacent lamina propria and the skeletal
● The superior portion of the larynx that projects upward from its
vocalis muscle
anterior wall
○ Thyroarytenoid muscle and the thyroid cartilage constitute
● Consists of a lingual and laryngeal surface
the remaining wall
● Central elastic cartilage of epiglottis forms its framework
● Lamina propria blends with the perichondrium of the hyaline thyroid ● Lumen is lined by pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium with
cartilage goblet cells
● Lower larynx epithelium changes to pseudostratified ciliated ● Lamina propria contains:
columnar epithelium ○ Fine connective tissue fibers
○ Lamina propria contains mixed seromucous glands ○ Diffuse lymphatic tissue
● Lowermost cartilage of the larynx consists of the hyaline cricoid ○ Occasional solitary lymph nodes
cartilage ● Deeper in the lamina propria is the longitudinal elastic membrane
formed by elastic fibers
Trachea ○ Divides the lamina propria from the submucosa
■ Loose connective tissue of submucosa and lamina
● The wall consists of the following:
propria look identical
○ Mucosa
● A thin basement membrane separates the lining epithelium from the
○ Submucosa
lamina propria
○ Hyaline cartilage
● Submucosa contains the tubuloacinar seromucous tracheal glands
■ Keeps the trachea open
○ Excretory ducts of tracheal glands pass through the lamina
■ Surrounded by dense connective tissue called
propria to the lumen or the epithelial surface
perichondrium
○ Glands may extend to the adventitia
■ Merges with the submucosa and adventitia
○ Serous demilune surrounds a mucous acinus of the
○ Adventitia
seromucous tracheal glands
■ Contains the nerves, blood vessels, and adipose tissue
○ Glands are lined by simple cuboidal epithelium
● Kept open by the C-shaped hyaline cartilage
● Mucosa exhibits mucosal folds along the posterior wall where the
○ The gap between the posterior ends of the hyaline cartilage is
hyaline cartilage is absent
filled by the smooth trachealis muscle
■ The trachealis muscle lies in the connective tissue
deep to the elastic membrane of the mucosa Lungs
● Trachealis muscle fibers insert into the ● All cartilage found in the lungs is hyaline cartilage
perichondrium covering the hyaline cartilage ● Pulmonary vein and pulmonary artery delivers blood in and out of the
○ Hyaline cartilage is surrounded by perichondrium lungs, respectively
○ Larger chondrocytes in the lacunae are located in the interior ○ Branches along the bronchi and bronchioles into the lung
of the hyaline cartilage which becomes progressively flatter ● Small blood vessels are seen in the trabeculae that separates the
towards the perichondrium and blends with the connective lungs into different segments
tissue of the submucosa ● Serosa or visceral pleura surround the lungs
■ Connective tissue of the submucosa contains ○ Consists of the following:
arterioles and venules ■ A thin layer of pleural connective tissue
■ A simple squamous layer of pleural mesothelium ● Bronchial blood vessels are visible in the connective tissue around the
bronchus
Intrapulmonary Bronchus ● The intrapulmonary bronchiole is surrounded by its connective
tissue, hyaline cartilage plates, and the lung alveoli
● Histology is similar to the trachea with the exception of the C-shaped
hyaline cartilage; replaced by cartilage plates
● Hyaline cartilage plates in the wall of the intrapulmonary bronchus Bronchiole
are characteristic feature ● Lined by pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium with
○ Cartilage plates are covered by the perichondrium occasional goblet cells
● Lined by pseudostratified columnar ciliated bronchial epithelium ● Lumen exhibits mucosal folds
with goblet cells ○ Caused by the contractions of the surrounding smooth muscle
○ Supported by a thin layer of lamina propria and lymphocytes ● Bronchial glands and cartilage plates are absent
● Consists of the following: ● Surrounded by adventitia
○ Thin lamina propria ● May be accompanied by lymph nodes and blood vessels
■ Supports the epithelial lining
○ Narrow layer of smooth muscle Terminal Bronchiole
■ Surrounds the lamina propria and separates it from
● Exhibit mucosal folds
the submucosa
● Lined by pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
○ Submucosa
○ Goblet cells are absent
■ Consists of seromucous bronchial glands
○ May also be lined by simple columnar epithelium
● Excretory ducts penetrates the lamina propria
■ Smallest bronchioles may have simple cuboidal
and drain into the bronchial lumen
epithelium
■ Mixed seromucous bronchial glands may exhibit
● Surrounded by a thin layer of lamina propria, smooth muscle, and an
serous demilunes
adventitia
■ Also contains adipose cells
● Subdivide into smaller terminal bronchioles
■ Blends with the adventitia
○ Diameters are <1mm
○ Bronchial glands
● Cartilage plates, bronchial glands, and goblet cells are absent
○ Hyaline cartilage plates
● A small branch of the pulmonary artery lies adjacent to the
○ Adventitia
bronchiole
● Branches into smaller bronchi and bronchioles
● Surrounded by the lung alveoli and its thin interalveolar septa with
○ Epithelial height and cartilage decreases as the
capillaries
intrapulmonary bronchus branches out
● Clara cells are found in the distal portion of the terminal bronchiole
○ When bronchi walls are about 1mm, the cartilage disappears
○ Secrete lipoprotein components of the surfactant and acts as ○ Also known as alveolar cells or type I pneumocyte
stem cell; also functions in the immune response to inhaled ● Adjacent alveoli share a common interalveolar septum or alveolar
toxins, pollutants, or inflammation wall
● Gives rise to respiratory bronchioles ○ Interalveolar septa is made up of simple squamous alveolar
cells, fine connective tissue fibers and fibroblasts, and
Respiratory Bronchiole and Alveoli capillaries
■ Brings capillaries closer to the alveolar cells
● Represents the transition zone between the conducting and
● Alveoli may also contain the following:
respiratory portions of the respiratory system
○ Alveolar macrophages
● Respiratory bronchioles are directly connected to the alveolar ducts
■ Also known as dust cells
and the alveoli
■ May contain carbon or dust particles in the cytoplasm
○ Each respiratory bronchiole divides into several alveolar
○ Great alveolar macrophages
ducts
■ Also known as type II pneumocytes
■ Walls of alveolar ducts are lined by the alveoli that
■ Interspersed among the simple squamous alveolar
directory open into the alveolar duct
cells
■ Clusters of alveoli surrounding and opening into
● Smooth muscle fibers are found at the free ends of the interalveolar
alveolar ducts are called alveolar sacs
septa and around the open ends of the alveoli
■ Lamina propria lining the rim of the alveoli contain
○ Continuous with the muscle layer lining the respiratory
smooth muscle fibers
bronchioles
● Appear as knobs between adjacent alveoli
● Walls of the respiratory bronchiole consist of low columnar
epithelium or cuboidal epithelium that may be ciliated in the
proximal portion of the tubules
● Smooth muscle layer supported by a thin connective tissue surrounds
the epithelium
● Lamina propria has connective tissue with elastic fibers and may be
accompanied by blood vessels
● Alveoli outpocketings are found in the wall of each respiratory
bronchiole
● Cilia may be seen in the proximal portion of the respiratory bronchiole
epithelium but disappears in the distal portion
● Pulmonary arteries can be seen accompanying the respiratory
bronchiole into the lung
● Alveoli are lined by a layer of thin, simple squamous epithelium

Histo Lab

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LBOBIO7 - Histology Lab ; Year 3, A.Y. 24-25 Ray Paolo S.

■ Stratified squamous epithelium Glandular Tissue

Produce a viscous secretion that may

■ Present in the dermis of the skin and areas that need

■ Presence of numerous branching elastic fibers within

■ Special attachment sites crossing the cardiac cells at

■ Delicate weblike strands of collagen and elastic

■ Sensory in nature Peripheral Nervous System

○ Forms the superficial fascia ● Stratum lucidum

■ Consists of a submucosal (Meissner’s) nerve plexus

Lymphoid Aggregations ● Pulp cavity is filled with fine connective

● Enamel tufts ● Displaced basally by secretory granules

■ May exhibit basal branching ■ Comprise ⅔ of the stomach

● Peyer’s patches ■ Epithelial lining of columnar cells with microvilli

Large Intestine ● Lined by simple columnar epithelium

Gallbladder ● Exocrine secretory units or acini contain pyramid-shaped acinar cells

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