DECLARATION

I declare that this is my original work and it has never been submitted for examination to any
institution of higher learning.
Name:
Signature:
Date:

Declaration by the supervisor

DEDICATION
I dedicate this project to my mum and dad for the financial and moral support, and also to the
Almighty God who is our creator and gives us wisdom.
Thank you for standing by me.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to give heartily thanks to my esteemed and renowned guide, Mr. Matei and Mr.
Kemei for giving me full motivation, guidance, discussion and support during the course of my
project. Without them, my project would not be completed.
I owe to Mr. Matei for giving me such an interesting topic and the way to see through the things
it works in nature.
Also my genuine thanks to the lab technician, Mr. Macharia for the support and my parents and
friends who gave me the spirit to accomplish what was assigned to me.

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Table of Contents
DEDICATION...............................................................................................................................iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT..............................................................................................................iv
ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................................vi
CHAPTER ONE..............................................................................................................................1
1.0 INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................1
1.1 Objectives..............................................................................................................................1
1.2 MEANING OF TERMS........................................................................................................1
1.3 TYPES OF RESISTORS.......................................................................................................1
1.4 IMPORTANCE OF RESISTANCE......................................................................................2
CHAPTER TWO.............................................................................................................................3
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW......................................................................................................3
2.1 CARBON RESISTOR...........................................................................................................3
2.2 WHY CARBON RESITOR IS PREFEREED FOR MOST PRACTICALS........................3
2.3 PARTS OF A CARBON RESISTOR...................................................................................3
2.4 METHODS USED TO DETERMINE RESISTANCE IN CARBON RESISTANCE.........4
2.5 USE OF CARBON RESISTOR............................................................................................6
CHAPTER THREE.........................................................................................................................8
3.1 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY..........................................................................................8
CHAPTER FOUR.....................................................................................................................12
4.0 DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS................................................................................12
4.1 DATA ANALYSIS.............................................................................................................12
4.2 DATA COLLECTION........................................................................................................12
4.3 GRAPH TO REPRESENT OHM'S LAW...........................................................................12
4.4 Sample calculation...............................................................................................................14
4.5 Comparison with color code................................................................................................16
4.5 FINDINGS...........................................................................................................................16
4.6 SOURCES OF ERROR.......................................................................................................17
CHAPTER FIVE.......................................................................................................................19
5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENADTION..................................................................19
5.1 CONCLUSION....................................................................................................................19
5.3 RECOMMENDATION.......................................................................................................20
REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................21

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v
TABLES
Table 1.............................................................................................................................................5
Table 2.............................................................................................................................................6
Table 4.1 The following Color band chart was used.....................................................................11
Table 5.3.1.....................................................................................................................................12
Table 6...........................................................................................................................................19

FIGURES
Figure 2 1 Carbon Resistor..............................................................................................................3
Figure 2 2.........................................................................................................................................4
Figure 2 3.........................................................................................................................................4
Figure 2 4.4 Carbon code...............................................................................................................15

Figure 3. 1........................................................................................................................................9
Figure 3. 2 For resistance lower than that of the voltmeter...........................................................10

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ABSTRACT
The purpose of this experiment was to verify the resistance of a carbon resistor using the
ammeter-voltmeter method and compare with the color coded value indicated on the resistor.
The experiment consisted of measuring the current passing through the resistors and the voltage
across it using the ammeter and voltmeter respectively.
The result of the experiment revealed that the resistance value calculated using the ammeter-
voltmeter method was consistent with the resistance value indicated by the color code on the
resistor. This indicates that the ammeter-voltmeter method is an accurate way to verify the
resistance of a carbon resistor.
Overall this experiment demonstrates that ammeter-voltmeter method is a reliable and accurate
way to verify the resistance of a carbon resistor. This method can be used as an alternative to
color-coded value provided on the resistor especially when the color code is unclear or damaged.

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 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Objectives

1. To determine the resistance of a carbon resistor using ammeter-voltmeter method.

2. To determine resistance of a carbon resistor using color-coded value.
3. Compare resistance using ammeter-voltmeter method and color coded value.

1.2 MEANING OF TERMS

Ammeter – is an instrument used to measure electric current.
The unit of electric current is in Amperes (A) and ammeters are designed to measure current in
this unit or in its submultiples (mill amperes or Microamperes).
Voltmeter – is an instrument used to measure electric potential difference or voltage between two
points in an electric circuit.
Resistance – is a measure of opposition that a material or an electric circuit offers to the flow of
electric current.
Resistor – is an electrical component that limits or regulates the flow of electric current in an
electronic circuit.
Carbon-Resistor – is a type of a resistor commonly used in electronic made from a combination
of carbon powder and binders usually a resin.
Color-coded value – it refers to method of indicating resistance value and tolerance of a resistor
using color bands pointed around its body.

1.3 TYPES OF RESISTORS

1. Carbon Resistor.
2. Metal Resistor.
3. Wire wound Resistor.
4. Surface mount Resistor (SMT).
5. Variable Resistor.
6. Photo Resistor.
7. Fusible Resistor.
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1.4 IMPORTANCE OF RESISTANCE
Resistance is a crucial concept in electricity and electronics. It determines how much current will
flow through a compound. Higher resistance means less current, and lower resistance means
more current. This can affect how devices function and their energy efficiency.

2
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 CARBON RESISTOR

There are many materials used to produce resistance, particularly metals and alloy like nichrome,
brass, platinum and tungsten alloys.
However, most of these metals have low electrical resistivity, unlike carbon resistor, which
makes it difficult to produce high resistance without becoming bulky.
Resistance ρ Length * Resistivity
However, they can produce highly accurate value of resistance and hence used to compare
resistance.

Figure 2 1 Carbon Resistor

2.2 WHY CARBON RESITOR IS PREFEREED FOR MOST PRACTICALS

1. They are cheap to produce.
2. Can be directly printed to circuit boards, like the computers, processor in phones and
tablets.
3. They produce resistance fairly within practical requirement.

2.3 PARTS OF A CARBON RESISTOR

a. Ceramic core.
b. Nickel cap.
c. Lead.
d. Carbon Film.
3
 e. Protective Lacquer.

Figure 2 2.

Figure 2 3
2.4 METHODS USED TO DETERMINE RESISTANCE IN CARBON RESISTANCE
The basic method that will be used on the ammeter-voltmeter method and color coded
value.
Other methods include:
 Ohmmeter – using a digital multimeter set.
 Wheatstone bridge.
 Power loss test.
1.) Ammeter-Voltmeter Method.
For this method we require voltmeter of high resistance and ammeter of very low resistance.
The unknown resistance R, is collected in series with the ammeter, a rheostat, a plug key or other
switch and one or more cells.
The voltmeter is connected across the ends of R.
As a safety precaution to avoid damages the ammeter through overload the rheostat should be set
to maximum resistance, before closing the circuit. The rheostat is there altered to give a series of
suitable ammeter and voltmeter readings.
Resistance = Potential Difference / Current
R=V/I
The results are supposed to be recorded in the table as follows:

4
Table 1

voltmeter Ammeter Resistance

v(volts) I(Amperes) R=v/1(ohms)

mean value of R ohms

2.) Color - coded Value

This is the method of indicating resistance value and tolerance of a resistor using color bands
pointed around its body.
Color coded bands on carbon resistors are used to determine the resistance value of the resistor.
Each color represents a specific digit and the combination of color provides the resistors value
according to a standardized color system.
The color bands on the resistor typically consist of 4 to 5 bands with each band representing a
different value or multiplier. The first two bands indicate the first two digits of the resistance
value. The third band represents the multiplier (number of zero to be added after the two digits)
and the fourth band indicates the tolerance level.
For example a resistor with color bands of brown, black, red and gold corresponds to a resistance
value of 10 x 100 (Red multiplier) = 1000 Ω with a tolerance of +/- 5%. By decoding the color
bands according to the color code chart below you can easily determine the resistance value of
the carbon resistor. This color code system simplifies the identification of resistor value and
helps with quickly selecting the right resistor for a specific application without need for
additional testing or measurement equipment.

Table 2

Toleranc
Colour Digit Multiples e
Black 0 1
Brown 1 10
Red 2 100 ±1%
Orange 3 1,000 ±2%
Yellow 4 10,000
Green 5 100,000 ±0.5%

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 blue 6 1,000,000 ±0.25%
Violet 7 10,000,000 ±0.1%
Grey 8 100,000,000 ±0.05%
1,000,000,00
white 9 0
Gold 0.1 ±5%

2.5 USE OF CARBON RESISTOR

Carbon resistors are used in a variety of electrical and electronic applications due to their
reliability, stability and affordability. Some common uses are:
1. Voltage dividing circuit.
2. Current limiting in electrical circuit.
3. Pull up and down resistors in digital circuits.
4. Voltage and current sensing application.
5. Temperature sensors and compensation circuits.
6. Power supply filtering and decoupling.
7. Signal condition and amplifier.
ADVANTAGE OF USING AMMETER VOLTMETER METHOD
1. It is a non-destructive measurement.
2. It produces accurate measurement.
3. Real-time measurement of the resistance allowing for immediate feedback and adjustment if
needed.
4. Minimal equipment required.
DISADVANTAGE
It might not produce accurate results due to voltage drop across the internal resistance of
the voltmeter and the current drawn by the ammeter.
It is time consuming.
ADVANTAGE OF COLOR CODED VALUES
1. It is cost effective.
2. Quick identification.
3. It is easy to apply and read even on tiny components.
DISADVANTAGE
1. Individual with color vision deficiencies may find it difficult to read them.

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2. Inadequate light can make it challenging to distinguish the colors accurately.
3. Limited precision.

CHAPTER THREE

3.1 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents the materials and methods used in carrying out this research. A
detailed description of the materials and their function is represented as well as a step by step
description of methods for the research.
EXP1: To determine resistance of a carbon resistor using Ammeter Voltmeter Method

7
Materials
The following are the materials that were used:
1. Voltmeter.
2. Ammeter (Milliameter)
3. Rheostat.
4. Carbon resistor.
5. Connecting wires.
6. Plug key.
7. 2 Cells.
Procedure
The following steps were used according to the diagram shown in the figure 3:1 below.

Figure 3. 1

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 Connect the +ve terminal of the battery with one terminal of the resistor then from that
terminal connect to the positive terminal of the voltmeter.
In our case we had to use the milliameter and convert the Reading to ammeter.
1. Connect the +ve terminal of the battery with the +ve terminals of the ammeter.
2. Connect the -ve terminal of the ammeter with one terminal of the resistor then from that
terminal connect it to the +ve terminal of the voltmeter.
3. Connect the -ve terminal of the voltmeter to the other terminal of the carbon resistor then from
that terminal connect the wire with the lower terminal of the rheostat.
4. The upper terminal of the rheostat is connected with one terminal of the key and the other
terminal with the -ve terminal of the battery.
5. Close the switch to complete the circuit.
6. Record the results in the table as shown in table 4.1.
Figure 3. 2 For resistance lower than that of the voltmeter.

9
EXPERIMENT 2: To determine the resistance of a carbon resistor using color coded value.
MATERIALS
Color band.
Carbon resistor.
PROCEDURE
The following are the steps that were followed to determine resistance.
1. Identify the color band.
2. The resistance was identified and looked at the color bands.
Most carbon resistors have 4 or 5 color bands.
The third band represents the multiplier.
The fourth band represents the tolerance.
Read the color band from left to right.

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Table 3.1 The following Color band chart was used.

DIGIT MULTIPLIE TOLERANC

COLOR S R E
BLACK 0 X100 ±250
BROWN 1 X101 ±1%
2
RED 2 X10 ±2%
ORANG
E 3 X103 ±0.05%
YELLO
W 4 X104 ±0.02%
5
GREEN 5 X10 ±0.5%
BLUE 6 X106 ±0.25%
7
VIOLET 7 X10 ±0.1%
GREY 8 X108 ±0.05%
9
WHITE 9 X10 ±
GOLD X1010 ±5%

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 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS

In this chapter, the results from the experiment are presented and discussed, since the
investigation was done for different samples, the results are compared to find the best method to
determine resistance of a carbon resistor.

4.1 DATA ANALYSIS

4.2 DATA COLLECTION

The current (I) flowing through the carbon resistor and the voltage (V) across the resistor
were measured using ammeter and voltmeter respectively. The values obtained were recorded for
analysis as shown in the table 4.1 and presented in a graph. During our collection, the ammeter
voltmeter were not giving the correct values, therefore we have to use the milliammeter and then
convert it to ammeter.

4.3 GRAPH TO REPRESENT OHM'S LAW

A graph of voltmeter against ammeter Reading
Table 4.3.1

AMMETER
VOLTMETER READING RESISTANCE

READING(V) I(A)

0.36 0.004 90

0.6 0.006 100

0.96 0.01 96

1.32 0.014 94.28

1.68 0.016 105

1.98 0.020 99

2.16 0.026 83.07

2.64 0.030 88

MEAN VALUE OF R 94
Conversion

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 1 A=1000 mA
if 1 A=1000 mA
4
4 ×1
=0.004
1000
6 ×1
=0.006
1000
10× 1
=0.010
1000
14 ×1
=0.014
1000
16 ×1
=0.016
1000
20× 1
=0.020
1000
26 ×1
=0.026
1000
30× 1
=0.030
1000

Calculation of Resistance
V =IR
V
R=
I
0.36
1. R= =90
0.004

0.60
2. =100
0.004

0.96
3. =96
0.010

1.68
4. =105
0.016
1.32
5. =94.28
0.014

1.98
6. =99
0.020

2.16
7. =83.07
0.026

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 2.64
8. =84
0.030

4.4 Sample calculation

During the experiment, we had to use the milliammeter and then convert to ammeter because the
ammeter were not showing the expected results.
V=IR
Where
V = Voltage V
I = Current A
R = Resistance Ω
Conversion of milliameter values that were obtained to ammeter reading.
Table 4.4.1 TABLE AND CALCULATIONS

Value In Milliameter Value In Ammeter

4 0.004
6 0.006
10 0.01
14 0.014
16 0.016
20 0.02
26 0.026
30 0.03

Type equation here .

Data calculation

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 Ohm’s law was applied to calculate the resistance of a carbon resistor. Ohm's law states
that the current passing through a conductor is directly proportional to potential difference across
its end provided the temperature and other physical conditions are kept constant.
R = V/I (Ω)
The calculated resistance value was determined based on the measurement taken during
the experiment.

Calculating resistance in color code.

In our carbon code we had 4 colors.

Key

Figure 2 4.4 Carbon code

Table 4.6 observation colour code

Resistor 1st 2nd 3rd 4th Theoretical Practical

Strip Strip Strip Strip Ω Ω
Carbon 1 Brown Black Brown Gold 100 ± 5% 100
Resistor

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 In calculating the resistance, the first 2 digits numbers were combined (Brown and Black)
to form the number 10. Then multiply this number by the multiplier Brown.
10 x 10 – 100 Ω
Therefore the resistance of the resistor is 100 Ω with a tolerance +/-5%
100 +/- 5%
Use a multimeter with a resistance measurement function to verify resistance value
obtained from color code.

4.5 Comparison with color code

The color bands on the carbon resistors were using the standardized color code chart. The
expected resistance value of the resistor was determined by matching the color of the bands to
the corresponding digits and multiplier.
Resistance in Ammeter - Voltmeter Method was 94.4 Ω.
Resistance in color coded value was 100 Ω.
Range 100 - 94.4 = 5.6 Ω.

Data interpretation
The calculated resistance of the carbon resistor obtained from the ammeter - voltmeter
method was compared to the resistance value determined from the color coded value. Any
discrepancies or variations between them were noted.

4.5 FINDINGS
Accuracy of measurement
The resistance of a carbon resistor was measured using the ammeter- voltmeter method
and the calculated resistance value closely matched the expected resistance value on the color
coded bands. This indicates that the measurement process was accurate and reliable.
Multiple measurements taken using the ammeter-voltmeter method consistently yielded
similar resistance values from the carbon resistor. This consistency in results further validates the
accuracy of the measurement technique.
Validation of Carbon Resistor in color code system

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 The resistance value obtained in color coded bands on the carbon resistor closely
matched the calculated resistance from the ammeter-voltmeter method. This confirms the
effectiveness and reliability of the color code system in determining the resistance values of a
resistor.
Tolerance analysis
The calculated resistance value fell within the tolerance range specified on the color
coded bands of the resistor. This indicates that the carbon resistors meet the specified tolerance
level and are functioning within the expected range.

4.6 SOURCES OF ERROR

ERRORS IN AMMETER - VOLTMETER METHOD
In the circuit described in (fig 3:2 b), the voltmeter was giving the true p.d across R, but
the ammeter reads the current through Resistance, R plus the current going through the
voltmeter. However, the voltmeter resistance was very high compared to R, the current through
the voltmeter was comparatively small and hence the error made calculating R was negligible.
This circuit would of course give absurd results if the unknown resistance were of the
same order, of magnitude or greater than that of the voltmeter. Under these conditions the true
current through R would only be approximately half that given by the ammeter. Consequently,
the value calculated for R would be about half what it should be.
Fortunately, the difficult was easily overcome by measuring the high resistance (figure
3:1). The voltmeter was connected across R and ammeter together. R and the voltmeter give the
p.d across R plus the p.d across the ammeter.
If it was usually the case the resistance of the ammeter was very small compared with R
the p.d across it was small, hence the error made when calculating R was negligible.
When determining resistance using this method, the ammeter was usually giving zero results. To
minimize this, we had to use a milliammeter so as to get the expected results and by doing so the
value in milliameters was converted to ammeter reading.
ERROR MADE IN COLOR CODED VALUE
Misinterpreted color band–By misreading or misinterpreting color bands usually leads us
to inaccurate identification of the digits and multipliers.

17
 Faded or damaged to color bands–some of the color bands on the resistor were faded,
damaged or not clearly visible, challenging to accurately decode the color code and determine
the resistance value.
Variation in color code– different manufacturers use different color codes schemes for
resistor value, causing confusion and potential errors in identifying the correct resistance value
based on the color band.
Tolerance ignored – the tolerance bands on the resistor were overlooked when
interpreting the color value in the potential leading to inaccurate actual resistance value of the
resistor.
To minimize these errors in the color coded value method when determining the
resistance of a carbon resistor, it was important to cross check the decoded resistance value with
measurement obtained using alternating methods and ensure accurate interpretation of the color
bands on the standard color code chart.

18
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENADTION

5.1 CONCLUSION
The resistance calculated from the ammeter-voltmeter method gives the experimental
resistance value of the carbon resistor. This method can be quite accurate but it may be affected
by the precision of the instruments, connection resistance and measurement errors.
By comparing the calculated resistance value with the color coded value on the resistor,
the resistance is determined within the specified tolerance range. For applications where high
precision and accuracy are paramount, the ammeter-voltmeter method may be preferred.
For quick measurement or situations where equipment is limited color coded value is
advised.
5.2 COMPARISON BETWEEN AMMETER VOLTMETER METHOD AND COLOR
CODED VALUE TO DETERMINE RESISTANCE
Table 5

Ammeter-Voltmeter Method Color Value Method

This method proved to be highly precise with precision of this depends on ability to
error calibration and accuracy use of instruments accurately interpret the color bands . It
may be less precise compared to direct
electrical measurements
accuracy is affected by precision of the relies on interpreting colors band which
instruments and potential errors in the include errors due to misinterpretation of
experiments fading colors

19
 require connecting wires and settling up of generally, quicker and simpliers than
electrical circuits which may be more complex as settling up electrical circuits . If requires
compared to simply reading color band only visual interpretation of the resistor

5.3 RECOMMENDATION

I highly recommend the use of ammeter voltmeter method for determining resistance of a
carbon resistor as it provides an accurate and reliable result. This method involves using an
ammeter to measure the current flowing through the resistor and a voltmeter to measure the
voltage drop across the resistor.
Furthermore, comparing the resistance value obtained through the ammeter voltmeter
method with the color coded value of the resistor can help validate the accuracy of the resistance.
The comparison serves as a useful exercise in understanding the relationship between the color
code on the resistor and its actual resistance value.
By applying ohm's law the resistance of a carbon resistor can be calculated as the ratio of
the voltage drop across the resistor to the current flowing through it. This method is fairly simple
and straightforward, offering a practical and hands on way to determine the resistance of a
resistor.
Utilizing the ammeter-voltmeter method to determine the resistance of a carbon resistor
offers a practical and effective way to verify the accuracy of the resistor’s color coded value. I
strongly recommend incorporating this method into my experimentation or testing to ensure
accurate and reliable results.

20
 REFERENCES
1. Boyle, R, Sherlock, J Developments in lab equipment for the characterization of

materials, General Physics. May-June 2016 Natural Science Times,124 -127.

2. Griffin, E, Boyle R. Determination of Resistance of Material using Basic lab equipment

Primary Governments Standards SF facilities Testing Laboratories ANSI may 2018.

3. Knight, Dodd Thomson, Rab web service Import plug battery Services Sets adopted from

Triskwich 1? Studio () 3 New.Times Atlas Geography houses and Anatric Atmosphere

conferences.

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