Trigonometry

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A MODULE IN

TRIGONOMETRY
Vision
A technologically-advanced university
producing professionals and
competitive leaders for local and
national development.

Mission
To provide quality education
responsive to the national and global
needs focused on generating
knowledge that will improve the lives of
the people.

Core Values
Excellence
Accountability
Service
PREFACE

This module, Trigonometry, has been prepared for tertiary students


which could be learned in a self – paced or individual format. The presentation
of each topic is basically conceptual aided with examples to help them learn the
topics with minimal help from the teacher. However, contents presented in this
module may not be enough for their learning needs, so it is suggested to
consider reading other references related to the topics.
A year ago, faculty members of Eastern Samar State University attended
a training on module-making and were made to come up with a learning
material output. The said output was pilot-tested during the semester that
followed. An evaluation of this material was gathered from faculty and students
alike and was made the basis in the upgrade of this module, a process that
need to be done to come up with a massive printing of this module.
Although this is seen as a remedy to a current problem brought about by
the pandemic, it is also an answer to a recurring problem of lack of references
and materials for this subject for Estehanon learners.

Benjamin Franklin once said, “An investment in knowledge pays the best
interest.” Therefore, the University is venturing into this highly esteemed
investment for the welfare of its clientele, the students.

At this point, the developer hopes that this material will be able to help
the students and serve the purpose for which this was made.

iii
Table of Contents

Title Page i
Vision, Mission, and Core Values ii
Preface iii
Table of Contents iv
General Instructions vi

Chapter 1 Preliminary Concepts 1


Lesson 1 Angle 2
Lesson 2 Pythagorean Theorem 4
Lesson 3 The Real Numbers 6
Lesson 4 Cartesian Rectangular Coordinate System 10
Lesson 5 Relations and Functions 13
Lesson 6 Inverse Relations and Functions 16
Chapter Exercise 19

Chapter 2 Circular Functions 21


Lesson 1 Equation of a Circle 21
Lesson 2 Ways of Measuring Angles 22
Lesson 3 Arc Length of a Circle 25
Lesson 4 The Six Circular Functions 27
Lesson 5 The Circular or Trigonometric Function Values 31
Lesson 6 Trigonometric Functions of Special Angles 33
Lesson 7 Reference Angle 36
Chapter Exercise 38

Chapter 3 The Inverse Circular and Trigonometric Functions 41


Lesson 1 Inverse Trigonometric Relations 41
Lesson 2 Inverse Circular and Trigonometric Functions
and Their Graphs 44
Chapter Exercise 48

Chapter 4 Identities 49
Lesson 1 Identity and Conditional Equations 49
Lesson 2 Fundamental Identities 50
Lesson 3 Sum and Difference Identities 53
Lesson 4 Double – Angle Identities 58
Lesson 5 Half – Angle Formulas 60
Lesson 6 Product – to – Sum / Sum – to – Product Formulas 62
Chapter Exercise 65

Chapter 5 Trigonometric Ratios and Solutions of Right Triangle 66


Lesson 1 Trigonometric Ratios 66
Lesson 2 Angles of Elevation and Depression 71
Lesson 3 Bearing 74

iv
Chapter Exercise 77

Chapter 6 Solutions of Oblique Triangles 78


Lesson 1 Solutions of Oblique Triangles using Sine Law 78
Lesson 2 Solutions of Oblique Triangles using Cosine Law 83
Lesson 3 Areas of Oblique Triangle 86
Chapter Exercise 88

Chapter 3 The Logarithmic and Exponential Functions 90


Lesson 1 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions 90
Lesson 2 Properties of Logarithms 91
Lesson 3 Common Logarithms and Antilogarithms 93
Lesson 4 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 97
Chapter Exercise 99

References 101
Course Guide 102
Quality Policy

v
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS

 Use this module with care.

 Do not write, highlight, erase, alter or tear the


pages of this module.

 In answering activities or exercises, use a


separate sheet of paper or refer to your instructor
for further or other instructions.

 This module must be returned after the end of the


semester.

 If lost, the holder of this module will pay its


equivalent value.

If this module is lost and found, please return to:

EASTERN SAMAR STATE UNIVERSITY


Chapter 1:
Preliminary Concepts

Trigonometry as a branch of mathematics was originally concerned with


measurement of triangles. However, as the study of mathematics progressed, the
triangle – measuring uses of trigonometry were eventually surpasses in importance by
the later development of other aspects of this subject. Today, the concepts and
methods of trigonometry are not only important in dealing with the problems of finding
inaccessible heights and distances; in land measurements; in construction of
buildings, roads, and bridges; in astronomy and navigation but they are also applied
in the study of more advanced physical theories such as those of light, sound, and
electricity.
Any study of trigonometry requires a basic understanding of the concept and
measurement of angles. Hence, the coverage of the first chapter is all about angles.
This will be followed by the topics Pythagorean theorem, Real Numbers, Cartesian
Rectangular Coordinate System, and Relations and Functions.

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this chapter, you are expected to:


1. Explain the following terms or concepts:
a. Angle
b. Pythagorean Theorem
c. Real Numbers
d. Cartesian Rectangular Coordinate System
e. Relations and Functions.
2. Solve problems involving:
a. Angle
b. Pythagorean Theorem
c. Real Numbers
d. Cartesian Rectangular Coordinate System
e. Relations and Functions.

1
Lesson 1:
Angle
Angles

In geometry, an angle is defined as the set of all points formed by the union of
two rays having the same endpoint. In trigonometry and many advanced mathematics
courses, angle is formed by rotating a given ray about its endpoint to some terminal
position. The original ray is the initial side of the angle, and the second ray is the
terminal side of the angle. The common endpoint is the vertex of the angle.
There are several methods used to name an angle. One way is to employ Greek
letters. For example, the angle shown in the figure below can be designated as ∠ α. It
also can be named as ∠ O, ∠ AOB, or ∠ BOA. If you name an angle by using three
points, such as ∠ AOB, it is traditional to list the vertex point between the other two
points.

Angles formed by a counterclockwise rotation are considered positive angles,


and angles formed by a clockwise rotation are considered negative angles.

The common unit of measure of an angle is degree. The measure of an angle


is determined by the amount of rotation of the initial side. An angle formed by rotating
the initial side counterclockwise exactly once until it coincides with itself (one complete
revolution) is defined to have a measure of 360 degrees, which is abbreviated as 360°.

2
The angle β shown in the figure (left) has a measure of 30°. We will use the
notation to denote that the measure of angle β = 30°. The protractor shown in the figure
(right) can be used to measure an angle in degrees or to draw an angle with a given
degree measure.

Angle β = 30° Protractor for measuring angles in degrees

Angles are often classified according to their measure.

An angle superimposed in a Cartesian coordinate system is in standard


position if its vertex is at the origin and its initial side is on the positive x-axis.

An angle in standard position.

3
Two positive angles are complementary angles (left figure) if the sum of the
measures of the angles is 90 °. Each angle is the complement of the other angle. Two
positive angles are supplementary angles (right figure) if the sum of the measures
of the angles is 180°. Each angle is the supplement of the other angle.

Example 1: Find the Measure of the Complement and the Supplement of the
following Angle:
a. θ = 40° b. θ =125°

Solution:
a. The measure of its complement is 90° - 40° = 50°. The measure of its
supplement is 180° - 40° = 140°.
b. The angle does not have a complement because there is no positive
angle x such that x° + 125° = 90°. Meanwhile, the measure of its
supplement is 180° - 125° = 55°.

Lesson 2:
Pythagorean Theorem

To begin, we can identify the parts of a right-angled


triangle:

• The right angle is symbolised by a square.


• The side directly opposite the right angle is called
the hypotenuse. The hypotenuse only exists for
right angle triangles.
• The hypotenuse is always the longest side.
• If we focus on the angle ∠ BAC, the side opposite
is called the opposite side.
• The side touching angle ∠ BAC is called the
adjacent side.
4
Remember!

Pythagorean Theorem
In a right triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the
sum of the squares of the legs.

𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2

To elaborate, look at the image on


the left. The hypotenuse is marked 𝑐.
Thus, if the theory 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 is
applied, the square of 𝑐 should be the
same as the square of 𝑎 and 𝑏 added
together.
There are 16 squares off the side
of 𝑎 and there are 9 squares off the side
of 𝑏. Thus 16 + 9 = 25 and we can see
that there are 25 squares off the
hypotenuse 𝑐.

Example 1: Calculate the length of the unknown side.


Solution: 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2
𝑐 2 = 52 + 122
𝑐 2 = 25 + 144
𝑐 2 = 169
𝑐 = √169
𝑐 = 13

Example 2: Calculate the length of the unknown side.


Solution: 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2
202 = 𝑎2 + 162
400 = 𝑎2 + 256
400 − 256 = 𝑎2
√144 = 𝑎
𝑎 = 12

5
Lesson 3:
The Real Numbers

One of the approaches of the study of trigonometry involves real numbers.


There are concepts necessary to better understand what real numbers are. The
interrelationship among the counting numbers, whole numbers, integers, rational
numbers and real numbers is illustrated in the figure below.

The set of real numbers consist of different categories, such as natural and
whole numbers, integers, rational and irrational numbers. In the table given in the next
page, all these numbers are defined with examples.

6
Set
Set is described as any group or collection of objects whose properties are well
defined. This description means two things: the objects in the set, called elements
must be distinguishable from each other and description of the elements must be clear
and unambiguous. Rational and irrational numbers are elements of the set R. We
denote set by capital letters.
If every element of the set A is also an element of the set B, then we say A ⊂ B
which is read “A is a subset of B”. If A = { positive integers} and B = {whole numbers}
then, A ⊂ B.
There are three ways of describing a set.

1. Roster Method. Indicate a set by listing the elements separated by commas


and enclosing them in braces.
Counting Numbers = {1, 2, 3, ...}
Whole Numbers = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ...}
Integers = { ..., -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...}

2. Rule Method. Describing the the set using words and enclosing them in
braces.
A = { x|x is a counting number}
B = {x|x is a whole number}
C = {x|x is an ineteger}

3. Set Builder Notation. Elements of the set are described using


mathematical symbols.
𝑎
Q = {x|x ∈ R, x = 𝑏 where a, b ∈ Z, b ≠ 0}

7
This is read as “the set of all x such that x is an element of real number
that can be writtten as quotient of two integers a and b where b is not
equal to zero”.

Number Line
Real numbers can be represented geometrically as points on a number line. To
every point on the number line, there corresponds one and only one real number.
The coordinate of a point is the number associated with a point on the number
line.

In the figure, point D is associated with 0, called the origin. The coordinates of
points A, E, B, C are -9, -2, 4, and 7, respectively. On the real number line, the distance
between any two points is given by the absolute value of the difference of the
coordinates of the points. The order of the points in subtraction is regardless if the
notion of absolute value is used.

Absolute Value
Let x ∈ R. The absolute value of x, denoted by | x |, is the distance of x from the
origin on the number line. We can define the absolute value of any real number x using
symbols as shown in the following:

The Absolute Value of x


x if x > 0
|x| 0 if x = 0
-x if x < 0

Note that

The Absolute Value of √𝒙𝟐


x if x > 0

√𝑥 2 0 if x = 0
-x if x < 0

It follows that, | x | = √𝑥 2 .

8
Thus, | 3 | = | -3 | = 3. The distance between any two points, P1 and P2, on the
number line with coordinates x and y, respectively, is | P1P2 | = | x - y | = | y – x |.

Example 1: Find the distance between points whose coordinates are the
following:
a. -5 and 0
b. -3 and 9
c. 4 and 11

Solution:
a. | - 5 – 0 | = | -5 | = 5
b. | -3 – 9 | = | -12 | = 12
c. | 4 – (-11) | = 15 | = 15

Example 2: Solve the value of x.


a. | x | = 10
b. | x – 3 | = 6
c. | 5x | = 45

Solution:
a. | x | = 10, x = 10, x = -10
b. | x – 3 | = x – 3, when x – 3 > 0. Therefore, x – 3 = 6, x = 9.
| x – 3 | = -(x – 3), when x – 3 < 0. Therefore, -(x – 3) = 6, x = -3
c. | 5x | = 5x, when 5x > 0. Therefore, 5x = 45, x = 9.
| x – 3 | = -5x, when 5x < 0. Therefore, -5x = 45, x = -9

Interval Notation
Let a, b ∈ R. The kinds of intervals and their notations are the following:
Closed Interval : [a, b] = {x | a ≤ x ≤ b, x ∈ R}
Half Interval : [a, b) = {x | a ≤ x < b, x ∈ R}
: (a, b] = {x | a < x ≤ b, x ∈ R}
Open Interval : (a, b) = {x | a < x < b, x ∈ R}
Infinite Intervals
a. Open infinite intervals : (a, ∞) = {x | x > a}
: (-∞, a) = { x | x < a}
b. Closed infinite intervals : [a, ∞) = {x | x ≥ a}
: (-∞, a] = { x | x ≤ a}

Notice that the set of real numbers can be written as (-∞, ∞), the set of whole
numbers as [0, ∞), and the negative real numbers as (-∞, 0).

9
Example 3: Let x ∈ R. Use interval notations to write the following:
a. 0<x
b. x ≤ -5
c. 5 ≤ x ≤ 20
d. -15 ≤ x < 15
e. -1 < x ≤ 11
f. Non-negative reals

Solution:
a. (0, ∞) b. (-∞, - 5) c. [5, 20]
d. [-15, 15) e. (-1, 11] f. [0, ∞)

Lesson 4:
Cartesian Rectangular Coordinate System
The construct (x, y), where x and y are whole numbers, is called an ordered
pair of whole numbers. In any ordered pair, order matters. The ordered pair (x, y) is
not the same as the ordered pair (y, x) because the numbers are presented in a
different order. For example, the ordered pair (2, 3) is not the same as (3, 2). Likewise,
(-5,7) is not the same as (7, -5).
To plot ordered pairs, we need two number lines, called the horizontal and
vertical axes, that intersect at the zero location of each line and are at right angles to
one another, as shown in the figure (left). The point where the zero locations touch is
called the origin of the coordinate system and has coordinates (0, 0). In the figure at
the right, we’ve added a grid. The resulting construct is an example of a Cartesian
Rectangular Coordinate System.

10
Now, consider the ordered pair of whole numbers (5, 6). To plot this point on
the “coordinate system” in the figure (left), start at the origin (0, 0), then move 5 units
in the horizontal direction, then 6 units in the vertical direction, then plot a point. The
result is shown in the figure. Adding a grid of horizontal and vertical lines at each whole
number makes plotting the point (5, 6) much clearer, as shown in the right figure.

The numbers in the ordered pair (5, 6) are called the coordinates of the plotted
point. The first number of the ordered pair is called the abscissa and measures the
horizontal distance to the plotted point. The second number is called the ordinate and
measures the vertical distance to the plotted point.

Example 1: Sketch the points (4, 3), (-3, 2), (-2, -4) and (3, -3) on a Cartesian
coordinate system.
Solution:
• To plot the point (4, 3), start at the origin, move 4 units to the right, then 3
units up.
• To plot the point (−3, 2), start at the origin, move 3 units to the left, then 2
units up.
• To plot the point (−2, −4), start at the origin, move 2 units to the left, then 4
units down.
• To plot the point (3, −3), start at the origin, move 3 units to the right, then 3
units down.
These points are plotted as shown in the figure below.

11
The Distance Formula
The distance between any two points of the coordinate plane is the length of
the line segment connecting them which is measured by the number of units along the
line between them. The line segment may be horizontal, vertical or slant.
The Distance Formula is a useful tool in finding the distance between two
points which can be arbitrarily represented as points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2).
The distance formula is given as

Example 2: Find the distance of the point (6,8) from the origin.
Solution: The origin is the red dot with coordinate (0, 0). The other point is the
blue dot having the coordinate (6, 8). If we plot the points on a cartesian plane,
we will get something similar to the one below.

If we let the origin be the first point and the second point (6, 8). Then,

𝑑 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2
𝑑 = √(6 − 0)2 + (8 − 0)2
𝑑 = √62 + 82
𝑑 = √36 + 64
𝑑 = √100
𝑑 = 10

12
Example 2: Find the distance the two points (-3, 2) and (3, 5).
Solution:

𝑑 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2
𝑑 = √(3 − (−3))2 + (5 − 2)2
𝑑 = √62 + 32
𝑑 = √36 + 9
𝑑 = √45
𝑑 = 3√5 ≈ 6.71

Lesson 5:
Relations and Functions

Relation

When you group two or more points in a set, it is referred to as a relation. When
youIf want
we lettothe
show thatbea the
origin set first
of points
point is
anda relation,
the secondyoupoint
list the
(6, points in order pairs. A
8). Then,
relation is just a set of ordered pairs. There is absolutely nothing special at all about
the numbers that are in relation. In other words, any bunch of numbers is a relation so
long as these numbers comes in pair.

Example 1: {(2, 4), (3, 5), (4, 8), (6, 7) usually written in set notation.

where: Domain or inputs (x – values) = {2, 3, 4, 6}


Range or outputs (y – values) = {4, 5, 8, 7}

You will notice in the above example that, relation shows the relationship between
INPUT and OUTPUT, merely the range and domain. There are other ways to write the relation

13
aside from set notation such through tables, plotting in XY coordinates and mapping
diagram as shown below;

Function

A function is a relation when each element of the domain is paired to exactly


one element in the range. In other words, there is one and only one output (y) with
each input (x).

Function can be illustrated as of the following;

1. Set of Order pairs

{(3, 5), (6, 8), (2, 4), (7, 1)} Function

{(4, 2), (3, 2), (5, 2), (6, 2)} Function

{(1, 2), (0, 3), (1, 6), (5, 4)} Not a Function

The first two examples are functions since for every one output there is
one corresponding input unlike the last example that there is two or more output
to a single input, therefore it is not a function. Note that, the first element (x –
Domain) or the independent variable, while the second element (y – range) or
the dependent variable.

2. Mapping or arrow diagram

Examples:

14
3. Graphing

Vertical line test

y y

x x

Function Function Function

Vertical line passes only once in the graph; therefore, it is a function

Not Function Not Function

Vertical line passes through more than one point of the graph, then that
relation is not a function.

15
Lesson 6:
Inverse Relations and Functions
Inverse Relations
An inverse relation is the set of ordered pairs obtained by interchanging the
first and second elements of each pair in the original relation. If the ordered pair of a
relation contains a point (a, b), then the ordered pair of the inverse relation of this
relation contains the point (b, a).
Consider the simple relation R = {(1,2), (3,4), (5,6)}. Its inverse relation is R–1 =
{(2,1), (4,3), (6,5)}
The graph of the relation R and its inverse R–1 are shown below.

Folding the coordinate plane along the line y = x, the graphs of R and R–1 would
coincide. Hence, the graphs are symmetric with respect to the line y = x. The line
segment joining (a, b) and (b, a) is bisected by y = x. This fact provides us with a
simple method pf sketching the graph of the inverse.

Remember!

Graph of an Inverse Relation


The graph of the inverse is the reflection of the graph of f(x) in
the line y = x.

Inverse Functions
Consider the inverse of the relation R = {(-1, 1), (1, 1), (0, 0), (-2, 4), (2, 4)}
which is R–1 = {(0, 0), (1, -1), (1, 1), (4, -2), (4, 2)}.

16
Notice that R is a function while its inverse R–1 is not. Two ordered pairs of R
have the same second elements. These had made R–1 not a function.

Remember!

Inverse Function
Let f be a function where no two of its ordered pairs have the
same second element. The inverse function, f -1 is the set of ordered
pairs obtained from f by interchanging the first and second elements
in each ordered pair.

Example 1: Find the inverse of the relation 𝑓(𝑥) = ±√𝑥 and determine if the
inverse is a function or not. Sketch the graph of both relations.
Solution:
𝑓(𝑥) = ±√𝑥 , 𝑥 ≥ 0 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑦 = ±√𝑥 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥 = ±√ 𝑦 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦
𝑥2 = 𝑦 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑦
−1 2
𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) = ±√𝑥
Graph:

The example is a case of a relation with an inverse function. The vertical


line test on the graph confirms this.

Example 2: Graph the inverse of y = 2x + 3.

Solution:
Consider the straight line, y = 2x + 3, as the original function. It is drawn
in blue. If reflected over the identity line y = x, the original function
becomes the red dotted graph. The new red graph is also a straight
line and passes the vertical line test for functions. The inverse relation
of y = 2x + 3 is also a function. The graph is shown in the next page.

17
The Horizontal Test
If every horizontal line cuts the graph of the given function in at most one point,
then the function has inverse function. On the other hand, if the horizontal line can
intersect the graph of a function in some places at more than one point, then the
function involved can’t have an inverse that is also a function.
Here are some examples of functions that pass the horizontal line test:

18
Here are some examples of functions that fail the horizontal line test:

Chapter Exercise

Direction: Answer the following. Show all pertinent solutions.

1. Find the measure of the complement and supplement of an angle whose


measure is:
a. 78°
b. A
c. 168°
d. 30° + B

2. Find the length of a rectangular lot 14 m wide and with 50 m digonal path.

19
3. From a helicopter 12.8 m above a rest house, a boat is sight at a distance of
30.1 m. How far is the boat from the rest house? (Assume that the two are in
the same level ground.)

4. The radius of the base of a riught circular cone is 2m and its height is 3m.
What is the slant height?

5. Solve te following for x:


a. | x | = 7
b. | x + 3 | = 15
c. | 7x | = 63
d. | 25 – x | = 9

6. Write each of the following using interval notations:


a. {x | -4 ≤ x < 10}
b. {x | x < 0}
c. {x | 12 < x ≤ 22}
d. {x | -3 ≤ x ≤ 7}

7. Show that points (6, 1), (2, - 4), and (-2, 1) belong to an isoscles triangle.

8. The distance between (5, y) and (-3, 5) is 10. Find y.

9. Find the domain and range of the following functions:


a. y = 5x + 6
b. y = x2 – 5
c. y = √𝑥 − 7

10. Determine if the inverse of the following functions are functions.


a. f (x) = 5x – 1
b. f (x) = | x |

20
Chapter 2:
Circular Functions

In the eighteenth century, the definitions of the different trigonometric functions


were broadened by defining them as points on a unit circle, thus the term circular
functions. This development allowed construction of graphs of functions related to the
angles they represent, which were periodic. Today, using the periodic nature of the
trigonometric or circular functions, mathematicians and scientists have developed
mathematical models to predict many natural periodic phenomena.

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this chapter, you are expected to:


1. Explain the following:
a. Circle
b. Degree and Radian Measures
c. Arc length
d. The Six Circular Functions
2. Solve problems involving:
a. Equation of a Circle
b. Measuring Angles
c. Arc Length of a Circle
d. The Six Trigonometric Functions
e. The Circular or Trigonometric Function Values
f. Graphs and Properties of Circular Functions

Lesson 1:
Equation of a Circle
A circle is defined as the set of all points in a plane equidistant from affixed
point called the center of the circle.
The distance between the center of the circle and any point on the circle is
called the radius of the circle.

21
As shown in the figure at the right, P
the given circle has its center at O with
coordinate (h, k) and radius r. Let P, with
coordinates (x, y), be any point in the
circle. By definition, the distance between O
O and P is the radius r. Applying the
distance formula, we have

𝑟 = √(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2

Squaring both sides of the equation gives 𝑟 2 = (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 , the


equation of the circle.

Remember!

The General Form of the Equation of a Circle


𝑟 2 = (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2
where r is the radius and (h, k) is the center

Example 1: Find the equation of a circle with center at (0, 0) and with radius 4.
Solution:
𝑟 2 = (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2
42 = (𝑥 − 0)2 + (𝑦 − 0)2
16 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 or 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 16

Example 2: Write the equation of a circle with center at (4, 8) and a radius of 12.
Solution:
𝑟 2 = (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2
122 = (𝑥 − 4)2 + (𝑦 − 8)2
(𝑥 − 4)2 + (𝑦 − 8)2 = 144

Lesson 2:
Ways of Measuring Angles

Two measures of angles often used are the degree and the radian.

22
The most commonly used in practical works such as surveying and navigation
is the sexagesimal system in which the degree is the fundamental unit. However, in
more advanced Mathematics like Calculus, the circular system, where the unit used is
the radian measure, was found to be very helpful in simplifying formulas.

Degree Measures
There are two popular methods for representing a fractional part of a degree.
One is the decimal degree method. For example, the measure 29.76° is a decimal
degree. It means

29° plus 76 hundredths of 1°.

A second method of measurement is known as the DMS (Degree, Minute,


Second) method. In the DMS method, a degree is subdivided into 60 equal parts,
each of which is called a minute, denoted by ´. Thus 1° = 60´. Furthermore, a minute
is subdivided into 60 equal parts, each of which is called a second, denoted by ´´.
Thus 1´ = 60´´ and 1° = 3600´´. The fractions
1° 1´ 1°
=1, = 1, =1
60´ 60´´ 3600´´
are another way of expressing the relationships among degrees, minutes, and
seconds. Each of the fractions is known as a unit fraction or a conversion factor.
Because all conversion factors are equal to 1, you can multiply a numerical value by
a conversion factor and not change the numerical value, even though you change the
units used to express the numerical value.

Example 1: Express the following in angle measures using degrees, minutes,


and seconds:
a. 16.5°
b. 5°6.25´

Solution:
a. 16.5 ° = 16° + 0.5°
60´
= 16° + 0.5° ( 1° ) , 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 60´ = 1°
= 16° + 30´
Therefore, 16.5° = 16°30´.

b. 5°6.25´ = 5° + 6´ + .25´
60´´
= 5° + 6´ + .25´ ( 1´ )
= 5° + 6´+15´´
Therefore, 5°6.25´ = 5° + 6´+15´´.

23
Example 2: Express 45°12´36´´ in decimal degrees.
Solution:
45°12´36´´ = 45° + 12´ + 36´´
1° 1°
= 45° + 12´ ( ) + 36´´ ( )
60´ 3600´´
= 45° + .2° + .01°
= 45.21°
Thus, 45°12´36´´ = 45.21°

Radian Measures
Another commonly used angle measurement is the radian. To define a radian,
first consider a circle of radius r and two radii OA and OB. The angle θ formed by the
two radii is a central angle. The portion of the circle between and is an arc of the circle
̂ . We say that 𝐴𝐵
and is written 𝐴𝐵 ̂ subtends the angle θ. The length of 𝐴𝐵̂ is s.

Recall that the circumference of a circle is given by the equation 𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑟. The
2𝜋𝑟
radian measure of the central angle θ subtended by the circumference is 𝜃 = 𝑟 =
2𝜋. In degree measure, the central angle θ subtended by the circumference is 360°.
Thus, we have the relationship 360° = 2π radians. Dividing each side of the equation
by 2 gives 180° = π radians. From this last equation, we can establish the following
conversion factors.

Remember!

Radian – Degree Conversion


180°
• To convert from radians to degrees, multiply by (𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠).

𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
• To convert from degrees to radians multiply by ( ).
180°

24
Example 3: Convert each angle in degrees to radians.
a. 60°
b. 315°
c. -150°

Solution:
𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
Multiply each degree measure by ( ) and simplify. In each case,
180°
the degree units in the numerator cancel with the degree units in the
denominator.
𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝟔𝟎𝝅 𝝅
a. 𝟔𝟎° = 𝟔𝟎° ( ) = 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒔 = 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒔
180° 𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝟑
𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝟑𝟏𝟓𝝅 𝟕𝝅
b. 𝟑𝟏𝟓° = 𝟑𝟏𝟓° ( ) = 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒔 = 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒔
180° 𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝟒
𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝝅 𝟓𝝅
c. −𝟏𝟓𝟎° = −𝟏𝟓𝟎° ( ) = − ( 𝟏𝟖𝟎 ) 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒔 = − 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒔
180° 𝟔

Example 4: Convert each angle in radians to degrees


3𝜋
a. 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
4
b. 1 radian
5𝜋
c. − 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
2

Solution:
180°
Multiply each radian measure by (𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠) and simplify. In each case, the
radian units in the numerator cancel with the radian units in the
denominator.
3𝜋 3𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 180° 3∗180°
a. 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 = ( ) (𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 ) = = 135°.
4 4 4
180° 180°
b. 1 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = (1 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛) (𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 ) = = 57.3°.
𝜋
5𝜋 5𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 180° 5∗180°
c. − 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 = (− )( )=− = −450°.
2 2 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 2

Lesson 3:
Arc Length of a Circle

Using circular system of angular measurement, we ca easily find the length of


the intercepted arc.

25
𝑟
Consider a circle of radius r. By solving the formula for 𝜃 = of s, we have an
𝑠
equation for arc length.

Arc Length Formula

Let r be the length of the radius of


a circle and θ the nonnegative radian
measure of a central angle of the circle.
Then the length of the arc s that subtends
the central angle is s = rθ.

Example 1: A circle has a radius of 12.5 cm. Find the length of the arc cut by a
central angle of 5.6 rad.
Solution: Since r = 12.5 cm and θ = 5.6 rad then,
s = rθ
s = 12.5 (5.6)
s = 70 cm (the length of the arc)

Example 2: Find the length of an arc that subtends a central angle of 120° in a
circle of radius 10 centimeters.
Solution:
The formula s = rθ requires that θ be expressed in radians. We first
convert 120° to radian measure and then use the formula s = rθ.

𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅
𝜃 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎° = 𝟏𝟐𝟎° ( ) = 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒔 =
180° 𝟑 𝟑

s = rθ
𝟐𝝅
s = 10 ( )
𝟑
𝟐𝟎𝝅
s= cm
𝟑

𝟑𝝅
Example 3: Find the radius of a circle if a central angle of 𝟖
cuts an arc of length
21.4 cm.
Solution:
𝟑𝝅
𝑊𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝜃 = 𝟖 𝒓𝒂𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟒 𝒄𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏,
s = rθ
𝒓 𝟖
r = 𝒔 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟒 (𝟑𝝅)
𝟏𝟕𝟏.𝟐
r = 𝟗.𝟒𝟐
r = 18.17 cm

26
Lesson 4:
The Six Circular Functions

Definition of the Circular Functions


The Sine and Cosine Functions
The coordinate of points on the unit circle can be described using the functions
we are very much familiar with, namely:
cosine: s → x, where x is the abscissa of P(s)
sine: s → y, where y is the ordinate of P(s)
Cos and sin, which stand for cosine and sine, respectively, are called circular
functions. For each value of s, there is exactly one corresponding value for x and
exactly one value of y.
More generally, if the terminal point P(s) has the rectangular coordinates x and
y

cos = {(s, x) | x = cos s}, s ∈ R


sin = {(s, y) | y = sin s}, s ∈ R

The ordered pair (x, y) can be written as (cos s, sin s) which are the coordinates
of P as shown in the figure below.

The domain of each function is R. The values of x and y range from -1 to 1


since the unit circle has radius 1. That is,

-1 ≤ cos s ≤ 1 and -1 ≤ sin s ≤ 1


We define the points of intersection of the unit circle and coordinate axes as
shown in the table in the next page.

27
s P(s) cos s sin s
0 (1, 0) 1 0
π/2 (0, 1) 0 1
π (-1, 0) -1 0
3π/2 (0, - 1) 0 -1
2π (1, 0) 1 0

The Tangent and Cotangent Functions


If the terminal point P(s) has the rectangular coordinates x and y, then
𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑠 = ,𝑥 ≠ 0
𝑥
This is the defining equation for tangent function.
Since y = sin s and x = cos s, then tangent function can also be defined as

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠
𝑡𝑎𝑛 = {(𝑠, 𝑧) | 𝑧 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑠 = , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑠 ≠ 0}
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑠

𝜋
The domain is the set of R excluding the numbers + 𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍 because cos
2
𝜋
(2 + 𝑛𝜋) = 0 will make the function undefined. The range is the set R.

The three other functions are also defined in terms of the coordinates of P(s) =
(x, y) = (cos s, sin s) as, follows:

𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑠
𝑐𝑜𝑡 = {(𝑠, 𝑤) | 𝑤 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑠 = = , 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠 ≠ 0}
𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠

The domain of the cotangent (cot) functions is the set of R except for nπ, n ∈ Z.
These multiples of π will make sin s = 0 and cot undefined. The range is the set of R.

The Secant and Cosecant Functions

1 1
𝑠𝑒𝑐 = {(𝑠, 𝑢) | 𝑢 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠 = = , 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑠 ≠ 0}
𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑠

The secant function is not defined when cos s = 0. The domain is the set R
𝜋
except for 2 + 2𝑛, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍. The range is the set R except for values in the interval [-1,
1].

28
The last function is cosecant (csc) which defined as

1 1
𝑐𝑠𝑐 = {(𝑠, 𝑣) | 𝑣 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑠 = = , 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠 ≠ 0}
𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠

The csc function does not exist for sin s = 0. The domain is the set R except for
nπ, n ∈ Z and the range takes all real values except those in the interval [-1, 1].

Example 1: Let the following be points on the unit circle. Determine the six
circular functions for each.
𝜋 3 4
a. 𝑃 (2 ) b. 𝑃(𝑠) = (5 , 5)

Solution:
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
a. 𝑃 ( 2 ) = 𝑃(0, 1) = (𝑐𝑜𝑠 , 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 ) . 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒,
2

𝜋 𝜋
𝑐𝑜𝑠 = 0 𝑠𝑒𝑐 = ∞
2 2

𝜋 𝜋
𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 1 𝑐𝑠𝑐 = 1
2 2

𝜋 𝜋
𝑡𝑎𝑛 = ∞ 𝑐𝑜𝑡 = 0
2 2

3 4
b. 𝑃(𝑠) = (5 , 5) = (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑠. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠)

3 5
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑠 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠 =
5 3

4 5
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑠 =
5 4

4 3
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑠 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑠 =
3 4

Signs of the Circular Functions

The signs of the values of the circular functions are determined by the signs of
x and y each of which depends upon the quadrant where the terminal point P(s) lies.
The signs of the six circular functions are given in the illustration below.

29
Note that the reciprocal functions have the same sign in their respective
quadrants.

1 √3
Example 2: Give the six circular functions of 𝑃(𝑠) = (− 2 , ).
5

1 √3
Solution: 𝑃(𝑠) = (− 2 , ) = P(cos s, sin s). Cos s < 0 and sin s > 0 in
5
Quadrant II. Therefore, the six circular functions are:
1
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑠 = − 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠 = −2

√3 √3
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠 = 2
𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑠 = 2 3

√3
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑠 = −√3 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑠 = −
3

Since P (cos s, sin s) lies on the unit circle x2 + y2 = 1 then,

cos2s + sin2s = 1

30
3
Example 3: Find the other circular functions if 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑠 = − 5 and s is in Quadrant
III.
Solution: cos2s + sin2s = 1, therefore,

3 2
(− ) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑠 = 1
5
9
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑠 = 1 − 25
4
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑠 = ± 5
4
Since sin s < 0 in Quadrant III, we take 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠 = − 5. Hence, the other
circular functions are
4 5
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑠 = 3 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑠 = − 4
3 5
𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑠 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠 = −
4 3

Lesson 5:
The Circular or Trigonometric Function Values

The study of trigonometry, which means “triangle measurement,” began more


than 2000 years ago, partially as a means of solving surveying problems. Early
trigonometry used the length of a line segment between two points of a circle as the
value of a trigonometric function. In the sixteenth century, right triangles were used
to define a trigonometric function. We will use a modification of this approach.
When working with right triangles, it is convenient to refer to the side opposite
an angle or the side adjacent to (next to) an angle. The figure at the left shows the
sides opposite and adjacent to the angle θ. Meanwhile, the figure at the right shows
the sides opposite and adjacent to the angle β. In both cases, the hypotenuse remains
the same.

Six ratios can be formed by using two lengths of the three sides of a right
triangle. Each ratio defines a value of a trigonometric function of a given acute angle

31
θ. The functions are sine (sin), cosine (cos), tangent (tan), cosecant (csc), secant
(sec), and cotangent (cot).

We will write opp, adj, and hyp as abbreviations for the length of the opposite
side, adjacent side, and hypotenuse, respectively.
The six trigonometric functions can be also represented as

Example 4: Let P (-4, 3) be on the terminal side of θ in standard position. Find


the six trigonometric functions of θ.
Solution: P(-4, 3) is on the second quadrant. Hence, x = -4, y = 3 and 𝑟 =
√−42 + 32 = 5. Therefore, the six trigonometric functions of θ are:
3 5
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝜃 = 3
5

−4 5
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 =
5 −4

3 −4
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝜃 =
−4 3
32
−5
Example 5: Find the other five trigonometric functions if 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 13
and tan θ >
0.
𝑥
Solution: Since 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑟 , then x = -5 and r = 13. Solving for y, we have y =
√132 − (−5)2 = √144 = ±12. Sin θ < 0 and tan θ > 0 in Quadrant
III where y > 0, so we take y = -12. Hence, the other five
trigonometric functions are:
−12 12
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝜃 =
13 5

5 13
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝜃 = −5
12

13
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 = −12

Lesson 6:
Trigonometric Functions of Special Angles

Special acute angles are 30°, 45°, and 60°.


Values of angles of trigonometric functions of special
acute angles can be found by geometric methods.
First, we will find the values of the six trigonometric
functions of 45°. (This discussion is based on angles
measured in degrees. Radian measure could have
been used without changing the results.) The figure
at the left shows a right triangle with angles 45°, 45°,
and 90°. Because ∠ A = ∠ B, the lengths of the sides
opposite these angles are equal. Let the length of
each equal side be denoted by a. From the
Pythagorean Theorem,
𝑟 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑎2 = 2𝑎2

𝑟 = √2𝑎2 = √2𝑎

The values of the six trigonometric functions of 45° are:

33
The values of the trigonometric functions of the special angles 30° and 60° can
be found by drawing an equilateral triangle and bisecting one of the angles, as shown
in the figure below. The angle bisector also bisects one of the sides. Thus, the length
of the side opposite the 30° angle is one-half the length of the hypotenuse of triangle
OAB.
Let a denote the length of the hypotenuse.
Then the length of the side opposite the 30°
𝑎
angle is 2 . The length of the side adjacent to the
30° angle, h, is found by using the Pythagorean
Theorem.
𝑎 2
𝑎2 = ( ) + ℎ2
2
𝑎2
𝑎2 = ( ) + ℎ2
4

3𝑎2
= ℎ2
4
√3𝑎
ℎ =
2

The values of the six trigonometric functions of 30° are:

The values of the trigonometric functions of 60° can be found by again using the figure
√3𝑎
above. The length of the side opposite the 60° angle is and the length of the side adjacent
2
𝑎
to the 60° angle is . The values of the trigonometric functions of are:
2

34
The table below summarizes the values of the trigonometric functions of the
special angles 30° (π/6), 45° (π/4) and 60° (π/3).

Example 1: Find the coordinates of the following:


3𝜋 5𝜋 4𝜋
a. 𝑃 ( ) b. 𝑃 ( ) c. 𝑃 ( )
4 6 3

Solution:
3𝜋 3𝜋
a. An arc length subtends an angle of 135°. 𝑃 ( 4 ) is in Quadrant II,
4
3𝜋 3𝜋 √2 √2
where 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4
and 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4
which is equal to 𝑥 = − 2
and 𝑦 = 2
,
3𝜋 3𝜋 3𝜋 √2 √2
respectively. Hence, 𝑃 ( 4 ) = (𝑐𝑜𝑠 , 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ) = (− , ).
4 4 2 2
5𝜋 5𝜋
b. 𝑃 ( 6 ) is found in Quadrant II where cos is negative. Hence, 𝑃 ( 6 ) =
5𝜋 5𝜋 √3 1
(𝑐𝑜𝑠 , 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ) = (− , ).
6 6 2 2
4𝜋 4𝜋 4𝜋 1 √3
c. 𝑃 ( 3 ) = (𝑐𝑜𝑠 , 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ) = (− 2 , − ).
3 3 2

Example 2: Evaluate the following:


a. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 120° 𝑐𝑜𝑠 30° + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 120° 𝑠𝑖𝑛 30°
𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋 11𝜋
b. (𝑐𝑜𝑠 3
∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 6 ) ÷ (𝑠𝑒𝑐 6
+ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 6
)

Solution:
a. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 120° 𝑐𝑜𝑠 30° + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 120° 𝑠𝑖𝑛 30°
√3 √3 1 1 3 1
= ( 2 ) ( 2 ) + (− 2 ) (2 ) = (4 ) − (4 )
1
= 2

𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋 11𝜋
b. (𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 6 ) ÷ (𝑠𝑒𝑐 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 )
3 6 6
1 √3 √3 √3 √3 √3
= [(2 ) ( 2 )] ÷ [(−2 ) + ( 2 )] = ( 4 ) ÷ (− )
2 2
1
= −
2

35
Lesson 7:
Reference Angle

We will often find it convenient to evaluate trigonometric functions by making


use of the concept of a reference angle.

Remember!

Reference Angle
Given ∠θ in standard position, its reference angle θ´ is the
acute angle formed by the terminal side of ∠θ and the x-axis.

The figure below shows ∠θ and its reference angle θ´ for four cases. In every
case the reference angle θ´ is formed by the terminal side of ∠θ and the x-axis (never
the y-axis). The process of determining the measure of ∠θ´ varies according to which
quadrant contains the terminal side of ∠θ.

Example 1: Find the measure of the reference angle θ´.


7𝜋
a. θ = 120° c. 𝜃 = 4
13𝜋
b. θ = 345° d. 𝜃 = 6

Solution: For any angle in standard position, the measure of its reference angle
is the measure of the acute angle formed by its terminal side and the x-
axis.

36
The following theorem states an important relationship that exists between sin
θ and sin θ´, where θ´ is the reference angle for angle θ.

Remember!

Reference Angle Theorem


To evaluate sin θ, determine sin θ´. Then use either sin θ´ or
its opposite as the answer, depending on which has the correct sign.

In the following example, we illustrate how to evaluate a trigonometric function


of θ by first evaluating the trigonometric function of θ´.

Example 2: Determine the exact value of each function.


5𝜋
a. sin 210° c. 𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 3
b. cos = 405°

Solution:
a. We know that sin 210° is negative. The reference angle for θ = 210°
is θ´ = 30°. By the reference angle theorem, we know that sin 210°
equals either
1 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 30° = or − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 30° = − 2
2

1
Thus, sin 210° = − 2

37
b. Because θ = 405° is a Quadrant I angle, we know that cos 405° > 0.
The reference angle for θ = 405° is θ´ = 45°. By the reference angle
theorem, cos 405° equals either
√2 √2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 45° = or − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 45° = −
2 2

√2
Thus, cos 405° = .
2
5𝜋 5𝜋
c. Beacuse 𝜃 = is a Quadrant IV angle, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 = < 0. The
3 3
5𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋
reference angle for 𝜃 = is 𝜃´ = 3. Hence 𝑡𝑎𝑛 = equals
3 3
either
𝜋 𝜋
𝑡𝑎𝑛 = = √3 or − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 = = − √3
3 3

5𝜋
Thus, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 = = − √3.
3

Chapter Exercise

Direction: Answer the following. Show all pertinent solutions.

1. Give the center and radius of each of the following equations of circles and
sketch the graph.
a. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 225
b. (𝑥 + 5)2 + (𝑦 − 6)2 = 10
c. (𝑥 + 5)2 + 𝑦 2 = 23

2. Give the equations of the following circles:


a. C (0, 0) , r = 81
b. C (4, -1), r = 5
c. C (-1, -3), r = 2
d. C (3, 5), r = 11

3. Convert each of the following degree measures to radians. Leave your


answeras as multiple of π.
a. 63°
b. 75°
c. 402°
d. 150°

38
4. Express the following in degrees:
𝜋
a. 5
3𝜋
b. − 4
11𝜋
c. 15

5. Covert the following degrees to radians:


a. 35°24´
b. 180° 15´ 15´´
c. 13´ 33´´
d. 5 revolutions

6. Reduce the following to degrees, minutes and seconds:


a. 5 rad
b. – 3 rad
c. 12 rad

7. How many radians are there between the hands of a clock at eight o’çlock?

8. Determine the quadrants in which the corresponding P(s) lie under the following
conditions:
a. sin s > 0 and cos s > 0
b. sin s < 0 and tan s > 0
c. csc s > 0 and tan s < 0
d. cos s > 0 and sin s < 0
e. cot s < 0 and sec s > 0

9. Find the value of the five circular functions under the given conditions:
−13
a. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑠 = , 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠 > 0
85
2
b. 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑠 = 3
, 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠 < 0

10. Find the values of the other five trigonometric functions under the following
conditions:
a. sec θ = -2, θ ∈ Q III
1
b. tan θ = -3, θ ∈ Q II
24
c. cot θ = , θ ∈ Q III
7

11. Evaluate each of the following:


a. sin 30° cos 60° + cos 30° sin 60°
𝜋 𝜋
b. cos 0° - sin 6 – tan 4

39
𝑠𝑖𝑛 45° 𝑐𝑜𝑠 45°
c. 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 45° 𝑐𝑜𝑡 45°

12. Complete the following chart:

s θ sin cos tan cot sec csc


2π/3 120°
3π/4 135°
5π/6 150°
π 180°

13. Reduce each of the following to a function of an acute angle:


a. sin 150°
b. cos 210°

40
Chapter 3: The Inverse Circular
and Trigonometric Functions

In Chapter 1, we discussed the processes pf finding the inverse function of a


given function and how to determine if the new function is the inverse, both
algebraically and geometrically. These processes will be applied in determining the
inverses of circular functions.

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this chapter, you are expected to:


1. Determine the general solutions of the inverse trigonometric relations
of special real numbers and angles.
2. Write the inverse of the given trigonometric relation.

Lesson 1:
Inverse Trigonometric Relations
We know that the inverse of a relation is formed by first interchanging the
variables. Thus, to find the inverse of y = sin x, we interchange the variables to obtain
x = sin y which means y is an angle whose sine is x. To be able to solve the equation
algebraically for y in terms of x, we can write
y = sin-1x.
which is read, “y is the inverse of x”. The inverse sine relation can also be written as
y = arcsin x.
1
Remember that the 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 ≠ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥. It is just a notation for inverse sine. If
√3 2𝜋
𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 ,𝑦 = . The inverse of a relation can be graphed by interchanging
2 3
the x and y coordinates of points on the graph of the relation.
The figure at the next page shows the graph of y = sin x and y = arcsin x on
the same coordinate plane.

41
Note that the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 can be drawn by reflecting the graph of y =
sin x about the line y = x.
Drawing a vertical line on the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 will show that y = arcsin x
is not a function. For each x in the domain, there corresponds infinite values of y. For
example,
arcsin 0 = …, -2π, -π, 0, π, 2π, …
√2 𝜋 3𝜋 13𝜋 15𝜋
arcsin = ...,4, , , , . ..
2 4 4 4

The inverse circular or trigonometric relations are defined in the following:

Their graphs are shown below.

42
Example 1: Express the following as inverse relations and then solve for x.
𝑥
a. y = cos 5x b. y = 3sec 2x c. y = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2

Solution:
a. 5x = arccos y
1
x = 5 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑦

𝑦
b. 2x = arcsec 3
1 𝑦
x = 2 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑒𝑐 3

𝑥
c. = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑦
2
x = 2 arcsin y

43
Example 2: Five the values of the following in the (0, 360°):
√3
a. 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 b. 2 arccsc (-2) c. arccot (-1)
3

Solution:
√3 √3
a. Let y = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 . Then tan y = ; 𝑦 = 30° , 210°.
3 3
b. Let y = arccsc (-2). Then csc y = -2; y = 210°, 330°.
c. Let y = arccot (-1). Then cot y = -1; y = 135°, 315°.

Example 3: Find the general solutions of the following:


1 √3
a. 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 = b. 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 (− ) c. 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑒𝑐 (−√2)
2 3

Solution:
1 √3
a. Let 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 . Then cos 𝑦 = − .
2 3

𝜋 5𝜋
Therefore, 𝑦 = + 2𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = + 2𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍.
3 3

√3 √3
b. Let 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 (− ) . Then tan 𝑦 = .
3 3

5𝜋 11𝜋
Therefore, 𝑦 = + 2𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = + 2𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍.
6 6

c. Let 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑒𝑐 (−√2) . Then sec 𝑦 = −√2


3𝜋 5𝜋
Therefore, 𝑦 = + 2𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = + 2𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍.
4 4

Lesson 2:
Inverse Circular and Trigonometric Functions and Their Graphs

In the preceding section, we solved for the general solutions of the inverse
circular or trigonometric functions. We learned that the inverses are not functions.
If we restrict the domain of each function to a suitable interval, the inverse of
this restricted function is a function.

Inverse Sine Function


−𝜋 𝜋
If the domain of the sine function is restricted to [ 2 , 2 ] then the inverse sine is
now a function. Such interval gives a range [-1, 1] that is the same as unrestricted
function y = sin x. This is equivalent to saying that if we restrict the range of the relation
y = arcsin x to

44
−𝜋 𝜋
𝑦 ∈[ , ], then we have a function. Hence,
2 2

𝑦 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦


−𝜋 𝜋
∈[ , ]
2 2

The domain of 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 is [-1, 1]. The capital letters S and A distinguish
−𝜋 𝜋
the function from the relation y = arcsin x. The values in the range from 2 𝑡𝑜 2 are
called principal values.
√2
Example 1. Evaluate 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 = (− ) in radians.
2

Solution:
√2 √2
Let y = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 = (− ). Then sin y = − .
2 2

−𝜋 √2 √2 −𝜋 𝜋
Since sin ( )=− and − ∈[ , ]
4 2 2 2 2

√2 −𝜋
Then y = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 = (− ) =
2 4

It is also possible to restrict the domains of the other five circular functions in a
manner that their inverse are functions.

Inverse Cosine Function

𝑦 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦


∈ [0, 𝜋 ]

The domain of y = Arccos x is [-1, 1].


1
Example 2. Evaluate 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 2
in degrees.

Solution:
1 1
Let y = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 2. Then cos y = 2.
1 1
Since cos 60° = 2 and 60° ∈ [0, 180°], then 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 = 60°.
2

Inverse Tangent Function

𝑦 = 𝑇𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦


−𝜋 𝜋
∈[ , ]
2 2
45
The domain of 𝑦 = 𝑇𝑎𝑛−1 x is R.

Example 3. Evaluate 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 (−√3).

Solution:

Let y = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 (−√3). Then tan y = −√3.


𝜋 𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋
Since sin (− 3 ) = −√3 and − 3 ∈ [ 2 , 2 ].
𝜋
Then 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 (−√3) = = 60° .
3

Inverse Cotangent Function

𝑦 = 𝐶𝑜𝑡 −1 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦


∈ [0, 𝜋 ]

The domain of y = Arctan is x.

Example 4. Evaluate 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑡 (−1).


Solution:
Let y = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑡 (−1). Then cot y = -1.
Since cot 135° = −1 and 135° ∈ (0, 180°). Therefore y = 135°.

Inverse Secant Function

𝑦 = 𝑆𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦


∈ [0, 𝜋 ]

The domain of Arcsec is (- ∞, -1] ᴗ [1, ∞].

Example 5. Evaluate 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑒𝑐 2.


Solution:
Let y = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑒𝑐 2. Then sec y = 2.
𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
Since sec = ∈ [0, 𝜋], therefore y = 3 .
3 3

46
Inverse Cosecant Function

−𝜋 𝜋
𝑦 = 𝐶𝑠𝑐 −1 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ∈ [ , ],𝑦
2 2
≠ 0.

The domain of y = Arccsc is (- ∞, -1] ᴗ [1, ∞].

Example 5. Evaluate 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑠𝑐 (−√2.).


Solution:

Let y = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑠𝑐 (−√2.). Then csc y = −√2, y ∈ Quadrant IV. Hence,


𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋
𝑦 = − 4 ∈ [ 2 , 2 ].

Graphs of the Inverse Circular Functions

47
Chapter Exercise

Direction: Answer the following. Show all pertinent solutions.

48
Chapter 4: Identities

In this chapter, we shall study trigonometric identities which involve trigonometric


or circular functions.
We will be discussing the fundamental identities, sum and difference, double and
half – angle identities, product sum identities, simplifying and proving identities.
Developing many relations (identities) between the trigonometric or circular functions
makes up the inner structure of trigonometry and these relations are important in both
theoretical and applied mathematics.

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this chapter, you are expected to:

1. Identify the two kinds of equations.


2. Simplify a trigonometric or circular function in terms of another function.
3. Prove trigonometric identities.

Lesson 1:
Identity and Conditional Equations
In mathematics, there are two types of equations. They are the identity and
conditional equations.
An equation is called identity equation when it is true for all permissible values
of the variables involved. The solution set of any identity equation is the set of real
numbers. An equation such as (𝑥 + 2)2 = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4 is an identity, since the left -
hand side (LHS) equals the right – hand side (RHS) no matter what value is assigned
for the variable x. So, if x = 1, the left – hand side is equal to 9 and the right – hand side
is equal also to 9. Furthermore, the RHS is actually obtained from the LHS by factoring.
On the other hand, an equation is a conditional equation if it is true only for
some permissible values of the variables involved in the equation. For instance, the
equation x + 2 = 3 is true only for x =1; and x2 – 4 = 0 is true for x =2 and x = -2. For
conditional equations, solving is often necessary in order to find all solutions.

49
Example 1: Identify which of the following equations is conditional or identity.
a. (x2 + 6x + 8) = (x + 4) (x + 2)
b. x - 3 = 5
c. (x + 2) (x – 5) =0
Solution:
a. Identity equation because it is true to all values of x and the right – hand
side consists of the factors of the left-hand side.
b. Conditional equation because it is true only for x = 8 and no other values
of x makes the equation equal.
c. Conditional equation because it is true for x = -2 and x = 5 only.

Lesson 2:
Fundamental Identities
Consonant with the definition of the circular functions in the previous chapter
using the unit circle, there are six basic or fundamental trigonometric identities which
fall into several groups such as Reciprocal, Ratio and Pythagorean or Squared
Identities. These identities are useful in the application of Trigonometry so these must
be understood very well by you. These can also be used to verify equivalent
Theexpression
trigonometric example is and
a case of a relation
to develop with useful
identities an inverse
in a function.
variety ofThe vertical
mathematical
lineespecially
applications test on the
in graph confirms this.
Calculus.

Reciprocal Identities

One circular function can be expresses as a reciprocal of another function. From


the definition of the six circular functions based on a unit circle, 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑥 and 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝜃 =
1 1
𝑥 ( ) = 1 or 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = . The other reciprocal identities can also be derived similarly.
𝑥 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝜃
These identities are as follows:

Ratio or Quotient Identities

A circular function can also be expressed as a ratio of two circular functions.


Based on the definition of the circular functions, we can obtain the ratio identity

50
Ratio or Quotient Identities
The Pythagorean Identities are sometimes called squared identities because
they are derived from the equation of a unit circle, that is, x2 + y2 = 1 and from the
definitions cos θ = x and sin θ = y. Replacing x by cos θ and y by sin θ in the equation
of the unit circle, we will arrive at a very important identity: cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1. Take note
that (cos θ)2 = cos2 θ and (sin θ)2 = sin2 θ.

Using the identity cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1, two additional squared identities can be
developed as follows:
Dividing sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 by cos2 θ, cos θ ≠ 0, we obtain
sin2 θ cos2 θ 1
+ cos2 θ = cos2 θ which is equivalent to
cos2 θ

sin2 θ 1 2
+ 1 = (cos θ) and simplifying, we arrive at
cos2 θ

tan2 θ + 1 = sec2 θ
This time, dividing sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 by sin2 θ, sin θ ≠ 0, we obtain
sin2 θ cos2 θ 1
+ sin2 θ = sin2 θ
sin2 θ

cos2 θ 1
Simplifying, we arrive at 1 + = sin2 θ which is equivalent to
sin2 θ

cos θ 2 1 2
1 + ( sin θ ) = (sin θ) . Thus, 1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ.

The three squared identities are listed as follows:

51
Example 1: Express 1 + cot2 θ in terms of cos θ only.
cos2 θ cos2 θ
Solution: 1+ =1 +
sin2 θ 1 − cos2 θ

Simplifying the fraction gives


1 − cos2 θ + cos2 θ 1
= 1 − cos2 θ
1 − cos2 θ

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃
Example 2: Express in terms of sin θ only.
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑐𝑠𝑐𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃•
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1
Solution: = 1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑐𝑠𝑐𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃•
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

Simplifying, we arrive at
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 • 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

Example 3: Simplify tan4 θ – sec4 θ.


Solution: By factoring,
tan4 θ – sec4 θ = (tan θ)4 – (sec θ)4

= [(tan θ)2 + (sec θ)2] [(tan θ)2 - (sec θ)2]


= (tan2θ + sec2θ) • (-1)
= - (tan2θ + sec2θ)

Example 4: Prove the identity


𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
− = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥

Solution:

Simplify the left-hand side of the identity by putting the fractions into one
denominator whose least common denominator is equal to the product of (sec x
– tan x) and (sec x + tan x) which gives sec2 x – tan2 x. Thus, the resulting fraction
is
𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
− =
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 1 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
• + 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 • +𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 •
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥
1
+ 1 − 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑥
2 𝑥 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝑥

𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
= − 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
1

52
𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
Therefore, 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 − = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥

Example 5: Show that cot2 x – cos2 x = cot2 x cos2 x is an identity.


Solution:
Work on the LHS expressing it in terms of sine and cosine. We have
𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑥
LHS = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥

Putting the expression in one denominator gives,


𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥

Factoring out 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥, we obtain


𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑥 (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥)
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥

𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥

𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑥
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥

Therefore, cot2 x – cos2 x = cot2 x cos2 x.

Lesson 3:
Sum and Difference Identities

In this section, we shall derive the sum and difference identities or addition
formulas. The following are the trigonometric functions for the sum and difference of two
angles.

We can derive some of the formulas given above. The derivation of cos (α - β) =
cos α cos β + sin α sin β is as follows:

Given the figure at the next page, angles α and β are in standard position, with
P1(x1, y1) and P2 (x2, y2) be the terminal points on the unit circle such that P2 (β) = (cos

53
𝑦1 𝑥1
β, sin β) and P1 (α) = (cos α, sin α). Hence, 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 = = 𝑦1, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 = = 𝑥1 , 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 =
𝑟 𝑟
𝑦2 𝑥2
𝑟
= 𝑦2 , and 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 = 𝑟
= 𝑥2 .

By distance formula, the length of the chord P1P2 is

denoted by d which is

𝑑 = [(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽)2 + (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽)2 ]1/2


= (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 − 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼 − 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽 )1/2
= (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼) + (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽) − 2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 + )1/2
= [ 2 − 2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽)]1/2 (∎)

Applying the formula for the length of chord, which is connecting the two points
P1 (α – β) and P2, if P2 is at point (1, 0) on the unit circle, its length is the same as d. So,
𝑑 = 𝑃1 𝑃2 = √(𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼 − 𝛽) − 1)2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝛼 − 𝛽)
𝑑 = 𝑃1 𝑃2 = √2 − 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼 − 𝛽) (∎∎)

Equating (∎) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (∎∎), we obtain

√2 − 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼 − 𝛽) = √2 − 2(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽)

and squaring both sides gives

2 − 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼 − 𝛽) = 2 − 2(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽).

Simplifying, we have the formula

𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼 − 𝛽) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽

Thus, we have derived the cos of the difference of two angles.

At this time, it is evident that any circular function of any real number can be
𝜋
expressed as a function of a real number within the interval 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 . If we replace α by
4
𝜋
in 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼 − 𝛽) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽, we obtain
2

54
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( − 𝛽) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽
2 2 2
𝜋 𝜋
Since cos = 0 and sin = 1, we have
2 2

𝜋
𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( − 𝛽) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽
2

𝜋
Since sin θ and cos (2 − 𝜃) are complementary functions, and let 𝜃 =
𝜋
( 2 − 𝛽) then

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( − 𝛽) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 [ − ( − 𝛽)] = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽
2 2 2

We know that cosine is an even function and sine is an odd function, that is, cos
(-θ) and sin (-θ) = - sin θ, thus, if we take also the tan (-θ) and using the definition of tan
function, then

𝑠𝑖𝑛 (−𝜃) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃


𝑡𝑎𝑛 (−𝜃) = = = − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠 (−𝜃) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

The foregoing discussions will help us determine the other additional functions.

Equation: 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽


Proof:
𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 [𝛼 − (− 𝛽)]

Using 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼 − 𝛽) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 and since cosine is even and
sin is odd, gives
𝑐𝑜𝑠[𝛼 − (−𝛽)] = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠(−𝛽) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛(−𝛽)
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 (− 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 )
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽
Therefore, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽.

Equation: 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽


Proof:
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
In 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 2 − 𝛽) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 [ 2 − (2 − 𝛽)] = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽, let θ = α + β, then

55
𝜋
𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 [ 2 − (𝛼 + 𝛽)]
𝜋
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 [(2 − 𝛼) − 𝛽]
𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (−𝜃) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
Using also 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 2 − 𝛽) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 and 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (−𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (−𝜃) = = − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃, we
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
arrive at
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑐𝑜𝑠 [(2 − 𝛼) − 𝛽] = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 2 − 𝛼) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 2 − 𝛼) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽

= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽

𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽
Equation: 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝛼 + 𝛽) = 1− 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽

Proof:
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
Using the definition of 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃, and if θ = α + β, then
𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝛼 +𝛽)
𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼 +𝛽)

Using equations 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 and 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝛼 + 𝛽) =


𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 and simplifying, we obtain

𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝛼 +𝛽) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽


=
𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼 +𝛽) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽


+
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽

𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽
+
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽
1− ∙
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽

𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽
= 1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽

tan 𝛼 + tan 𝛽
Therefore, tan (𝛼 + 𝛽) =
1− tan 𝛼 tan 𝛽

Example 1: Use an addition formula to find the value of sin 15°.


Solution:
We use α = 45° and β = 30°. Knowing the values of these trigonometric
functions and that their difference is 15°, then
sin 15° = sin (45 ° - 30°)
= sin 45° cos 30° - sin 30° cos 45°
√2 √3 1 √2
=(2 ∙ ) − (2 ∙ )
2 2

56
By substitution and simplication we obtain
√2
sin 15° = (√3 − 1).
4
1 3
Example 2. Suppose 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 = − 3 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 = 4, find

a. sin (α + β) b. cos (α + β) c. tan (α + β)

Solution:
Before solving for a, b, and c, solve for the values of cos α and sin β with
the use of sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1. That is,

1 2 1 8
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 = 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼 = 1 − (− ) = 1 − =
3 9 9
√2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 = 2 , and
3

3 2 9 7
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽 = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽𝛽 = 1 − (4) = 1 − =
16 16

√7
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 = .
4

a. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽


1 3 √7 √2
= (− ) ( ) + ( ) (2 )
34 4 3
1 √14
= −4 + 6
(−3 + 2 √14)
= 12

b. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽


√2 3 1 √7
= (2 ) ( 4) − (− 3) ( 4 )
3

√2 1 √7 √2 1 √7
= ( ) − (− ) ( ) = ( ) + ( ) ( )
2 3 4 2 3 4

6 √2+√7
= 12

𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽
c. 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝛼 + 𝛽) =
1− 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽

−3 + 2√14
= 12
6√2 + √7
12
−3 + 2√14
=
6√2 + √7

57
Example 3: Prove that sin (A + B) sin (A – B) = sin2 A – sin2 B.
Solution:
sin (A + B) sin (A – B) = (sin A cos B + cos A sin B) (sin A cos B – cos A sin B)
= sin2 A cos2 B - cos2 A sin2 B
= sin2 A (1 - sin2 B) - sin2 B (1 - sin2 A)
= sin2 A - sin2 A sin2 B) - sin2 B + sin2 A sin2 B
= sin2 A - sin2 B
‘ Therefore, sin (A + B) sin (A – B) = sin2 A – sin2 B.

Lesson 4:
Double - Angle Identities

In this section, we shall develop formulas of 2α. These sets of identities are useful
in the study of calculus and they are called double – angle identities or formulas.
If we let α = β, then sin (α + β) = sin α cos β + sin β cos α becomes sin (α + α) =
sin α cos α + sin α cos α. Collecting similar terms on the right-hand side of the equation
gives 2 sin α cos α.
Thus,

sin 2 α = 2 sin α cos α =

Similarly, for cos (α + β) and α = β, then


cos (α + α) = cos 2 α
cos (α + α) = cos α cos α + sin α sin α
By multiplication, the right-hand side will become cos2 α – sin2 α. Thus,

cos 2 α = cos2 α – sin2 α

Example 1. Using cos 2 α = cos2 α – sin2 α, show that


a. cos 2α = 1 – 2sin2 α
b. cos 2α = 2scos2 α - 1
2 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼
c. tan 2𝛼 = 1− 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑎

58
Solution:
a. cos 2α = (1 – sin2 α) - sin2 α
= 1 – sin2 α - sin2 α
= 1 – 2sin2 α

Thus, cos 2α = 1 – 2sin2 α


b. cos 2α = cos2 α – (1- cos2 α)
= cos2 α – 1 + cos2 α
= 2 cos2 α – 1

Thus, cos 2α = 2scos2 α - 1


tan 𝛼+tan 𝛽
c. From tan(𝛼 + 𝛽) = and α = β, then
1−tan 𝛼 tan 𝛽

tan 𝛼+tan 𝑎
tan 2𝛼 =
1−tan 𝛼 tan 𝑎

2tan 𝛼
= 1−tan2 𝛼

2 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼
Thus, tan 2𝛼 = 1− 𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝑎

Example 2: Evaluate the following:

a. 2 sin 8 cos 8
b. cos2 10 – sin2 10
1
c. 1 − 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2
1
d. tan
8
Solution:
Using the double angle identities, we have the following:

a. 2 sin 8 cos 8 = sin 2(8) = sin 16

b. cos2 10 – sin2 10 = cos 2(10) = cos 20

1 1
c. 1 − 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2 = cos 2 2 = cos 1

1
1 1 2 tan
16
d. tan 8 = tan 2 (16) = 1
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2
16

59
2 tan 𝐴
Example 3: Show that sin 2A = 1+tan 𝐴
Solution:
LHS: sin 2A = 2sin A cos A

2 sin 𝐴
2 tan 𝐴 cos 𝐴
RHS: 1+tan 𝐴 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝐴

2 sin 𝐴
= (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝐴) = 2 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴
cos 𝐴

2 tan 𝐴
Since LHS = RHS, then sin 2A = 1+tan 𝐴

Lesson 5:
Half- Angle Formulas
The half – angle formulas can be derived by solving for sin2 θ and cos2 θ from
cos 2θ = 1 – 2 sin2 θ and cos 2θ = 2cos2 θ – 1, respectively. Solving for sin θ and cos θ
and taking the square roots of both sides of the resulting equations give

1−cos 2𝜃 1+ cos 2𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = ±√ and 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = ±√
2 2

𝜃
Substituting for θ, we have
2

𝜃 1−cos 𝜃 𝜃 1+ cos 𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛 = ±√ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 = ±√
2 2 2 2

In determining the correct sign in these identities, it is necessary to identify the


𝜃 𝜃
quadrant of 2 . The quadrant of is not determined by the quadrant of θ. Take note that
2
𝜋 9𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
for 𝜃 = 4
and 𝐴 = 4
, both are in QI. In fact, θ and A are coterminal. But for 2
= 9 , this
𝐴 9𝜋 𝜃 𝜃
is in QI while = is in QIII. When 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π, is in QI or QII; when -2π ≤ θ ≤ 0, is
2 8 2 2
in QIII or QIV.

𝜋
Example 1. Find an exact value for cos 8 .
Solution:
𝜃 𝜋 𝜋
Using the equation cos 2α = 2scos2 α – 1, = 8 . This gives 𝜃 = 4 , hence
2

𝜋
𝜋 1 𝜋 1−𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑐𝑜𝑠 8 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (4 ) = √ 2
4

60
√2
1−
= √ 22

2−√2
= √ 2
𝜋
The sign is positive because is in the first quadrant.
8
𝜃
In here, there is a formula for tan that involves neither radicals nor the ± sign.
2
𝜃
Substituting 2 for α in sin 2α and cos 2α formula, yields
𝜃 𝜃
sin 𝜃 = 2 sin 2 cos 2
𝜃
1 + cos 𝜃 = 2 cos 2 2

Dividing the LHS of the first equation by the LHS of the second equation above
will give a quotient equal to the corresponding quotient of the RHS.
𝜃 𝜃 𝜃
sin 𝜃 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 cos sin 𝜃
2 2 2
1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
= 𝜃 = 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2
2 cos2 cos
2 2

An alternate form can be derived as shown below.


sin 𝜃 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 sin 𝜃 ( 1−cos 𝜃)
∙ =
1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1− cos2𝜃
sin 𝜃 ( 1−cos 𝜃)
= sin2𝜃
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
= sin 𝜃

Hence, the tangent half – angle formula can be written as

𝜃 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑡𝑎𝑛 =
2 sin 𝜃

7𝜋
Example 2: Evaluate 𝑡𝑎𝑛 12
Solution:
7𝜋 1 7𝜋
𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 ( 6 )
12

7𝜋
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠
6
= 7𝜋
𝑠𝑖𝑛
6
√3
1−(− )
2
= 1

2
2+ √3
= ∙ −2
2
= −2 − √3

61
𝛼
Example 3: Prove: 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( ) − 1
2
Solution:
2
2 𝛼 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼
2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (2 ) − 1 = 2 (±√ ) −1
2

1+cos 𝛼
=2 ( )−1
2

= 1 + cos 𝛼 − 1

= cos 𝛼

Lesson 6:
Product – to – Sum / Sum – to – Product Formulas
Sometimes, conversion of a sum of two sine or cosine functions into a product,
or vice – versa, is necessary. We call such a conversion product – to – sum formulas.
If we add 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝛼 − 𝛽) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 and 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝛼 + 𝛽) =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 for the sine, we get 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝛼 + 𝛽) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝛼 − 𝛽) = 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽.
Dividing both sides of the sum by 2, we obtain

1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 = [𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝛼 + 𝛽) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝛼 − 𝛽)
2

Subtracting the same equations and dividing both sides of the difference by 2,
gives

1
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 = [𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝛼 + 𝛽) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝛼 − 𝛽)
2

In the same manner, if we 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼 − 𝛽) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼 +
𝛽) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 for the cosine, we have 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼 + 𝛽) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼 − 𝛽) =
2 cos 𝛼 cos 𝛽.

Dividing both sides by 2, we arrive at

1
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 = [𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼 + 𝛽) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼 − 𝛽)
2

62
Subtracting the same formulas, we obtain

1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 = [𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼 − 𝛽) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼 + 𝛽)
2

These formulas are often used in integral calculus and also play important role
in physics, especially in the concept of waves.

Example 1: Convert sin 5A sin A into a sum.


Solution:
1
Using 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 = 2 [𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼 − 𝛽) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼 + 𝛽)
1
sin 5A sin A = [𝑐𝑜𝑠 (5𝐴 − 𝐴) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (5𝐴 + 𝐴)]
2
1
= (𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝐴 − cos 6𝐴).
2

√3−1
Example 2: Show that (sin 45°) (cos 15°) = 4
1
Solution: Substituting in equation 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 = [𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝛼 + 𝛽) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝛼 − 𝛽)
2
1
(sin 45°) (cos 15°) = 2 [𝑠𝑖𝑛 (45° + 15°) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (15° − 45°)

1
= 2 (𝑠𝑖𝑛 60° − sin 30°)

1 √3 1
= 2 ( 2 − 2)

1
= (√3 − 1).
4

The sum – to – product formulas derivation is similar to that of the product – to –


sum formulas. The sine addition and subtraction formulas can be added or subtracted,
and this is similar to the cosine formulas. Make the following substitution for the
variables:

Let θ = α + β and ∅ = α – β

Solving the two equations for α and β yields

1 1
𝛼= (𝜃 + ∅) 𝛽= (𝜃 − ∅)
2 2

We obtain the following sum – to – product formulas:

63
𝜃+ ∅ 𝜃− ∅
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∅ = 2 sin cos
2 2
𝜃+ ∅ 𝜃− ∅
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∅ = 2 cos sin
2 2
𝜃+ ∅ 𝜃− ∅
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∅ = 2 cos cos
2 2
𝜃+ ∅ 𝜃− ∅
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∅ = − 2 sin sin
2 2

The above formulas have many applications especially in the study of sound.

sin 3𝐴+sin 𝐴
Example 1: Prove the identity cos 3𝐴+cos 𝐴 = tan 2𝐴
Solution:
sin 3𝐴+sin 𝐴 2 sin 2𝐴 cos 𝐴
=
cos 3𝐴+cos 𝐴 2 cos 2𝐴 cos 𝐴

sin 2𝐴
= cos 2𝐴

= tan 2𝐴

sin 3𝐴+sin 𝐴
Therefore, cos 3𝐴+cos 𝐴 = tan 2𝐴

Example 2: Express sin 6A + sin 2A as a product of functions.


Solution:
𝐴+𝐵 𝐴−𝐵
sin 𝐴 + sin 𝐵 = 2 sin 2 cos 2 , hence

6𝐴+2𝐴 6𝐴−2𝐴
sin 6𝐴 + sin 2A = 2 sin cos
2 2

= 2 sin 4𝐴 cos 2𝐴

64
Chapter Exercise

Direction: Prove each of the following identities. Use A4 Bond Paper. Show all
necessary solutions.

65
Chapter 5: Trigonometric Ratios
and Solutions of Right Triangle

In this chapter, we shall deal with solutions to problems with practical application
to right triangles. This focuses on solutions to problems about indirect measurements,
that is, those measurements that are inaccessible such as width of a river, the height of
a building, a tower, or an airplane. In other words, we shall tackle application of this
subject matter to construction, architecture, surveying, navigation, sports as well as
astronomy.

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this chapter, you are expected to:

1. Define angle of elevation, angle of depression, and bearing.


2. Solve right triangles using trigomometric ratios.
3. Solve problems involving right triangles, angle of elevation, angle of
depression, and bearing.

Lesson 1:
Trigonometric Ratios

In Chapter 2, we learned that the name given to the six circular functions are
the names of the six trigonometric functions. The two are closely related, except for
the fact that lengths of arcs of circular functions are associated with real numbers
while angles of the trigonometric ratios are associated with the unit circle.
We further recall that the definitions of the six trigonometric functions are
anchored on the unit circle. On the other hand, they will be defined in this chapter
using triangle as reference.

66
B

c= =a

A =b C

Considering the figure above which shows that a right triangle ABC with θ or ∠A
in the standard position. The coordinates of B are x and y, where x = b and y = a. The
hypotenuse is r = c. Right triangle can be used to express the values of trigonometric
ratios in terms of the sides of the triangle, where
a = length of leg opposite to A
b = length of leg adjacent to A

c = hypotenuse = √𝑎2 + 𝑏2
Using theses representations, we have the following relations:
Trigonometric
Right Triangle Ratios
Functions
𝑎
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴 =
𝑦 𝑐
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑔 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝐴
𝑟 =
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
𝑏
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴 =
𝑥 𝑐
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑔 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝐴
𝑟 =
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
𝑎
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐴 =
𝑦 𝑏
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑔 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝐴
𝑥 =
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑔 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝐴
𝑐
𝑟 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝐴 =
𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝜃 = 𝑎
𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
=
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑔 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝐴
𝑐
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝐴 =
𝑟 𝑏
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
𝑥 =
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑔 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝐴

67
𝑏
𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝐴 =
𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝜃 = 𝑎
𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑔 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝐴
=
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑔 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝐴

The right triangle ratios can be used to solve a right triangle. To solve a right
triangle means to find the unknown parts using the given parts.

68

69
70
Lesson 2:
Angles of Elevation and Depression

In the figure above, the observer (man) sights an object above (airplane). The
angle formed between the horizontal line and his line of sight is called angle of
elevation, if the line of sight is above the horizontal.

In the same manner, the observer (man) sights an object below (dog). The angle
formed between the horizontal line and his line of sight is called angle of depressin, if
the line of sight below the horizontal.

Example 1. A campsite is 9.41 miles from a point directly below the mountain top. If
the angle of elevation is 12º from the camp to the top of the mountain, how
high is the mountain?

Solution: You can see a right triangle with the side adjacent to the 12º angle measuring
9.41 miles. To find the height of the mountain, or the side opposite the 12º
angle, the tangent is the best choice.

71
𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝟏𝟐° = 𝟗.𝟒𝟏 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒆𝒔

(9.41𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠)(𝑡𝑎𝑛 12°) = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

(9.41𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠)(.2126) = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

2 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠 = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

Example 2. At a point 42.3 feet from the base of a building, the angle of elevation of the
top is 75º. How tall is the building?

Solution:

Example 3. A nursery plants a new tree and attaches a guy wire to help support the
tree while its roots take hold. An eight-foot wire is attached to the tree and
to a stake in the ground. From the stake in the ground the angle of
elevation of the connection with the tree is 42º. Find to the nearest tenth
of a foot, the height of the connection point on the tree.

• A "guy" wire is a support wire used to hold


Solution: a newly planted tree in place, preventing it
from bending or up-rooting during high
winds.
• The "angle of elevation" is from the ground
up.
• It is assumed that the tree is vertical,
making it perpendicular with the ground.
• This problem deals with "opposite" and
"hypotenuse" making it a sine problem.

72
Example 4. From the top of a fire tower, a forest ranger sees his partner on the ground
at an angle of depression of 40º. If the tower is 45 feet in height, how far is
the partner from the base of the tower, to the nearest tenth of a foot?

Solution: • Remember that the "angle of


depression" is from a horizontal line of
sight downward.
• It is assumed that the tower is vertical,
making it perpendicular with the ground.
• This solution will use alternate interior
angles from the parallel horizontal lines,
so place 40º inside the triangle by the
partner (bottom right).
• This solution deals with "opposite" and
"adjacent" making it a tangent problem.

Example 5. Find the shadow cast by a 10-foot lamp post when the angle of elevation
of the sun is 58º. Find the length to the nearest tenth of a foot.
Solution:
• Remember that the "angle of elevation" is
from the horizontal ground line upward.
• It is assumed that the lamp post is
vertical, making it perpendicular with the
ground.
• Shadows are on the ground! If you place
the "shadow" on the hypotenuse you
have created an apparition (a "ghost"),
not a shadow!
• This solution deals with "opposite" and
"adjacent" making it a tangent problem.

73
Lesson 3:
Bearing
Right triangle can be used to solve problems in navigation, surveying and
construction, specifically using the concept of bearing.

In surveying and sea navigation, the acute angle measured clockwise from north
to the reference point is called the bearing. In air transportation, the clockwise angles
from north to the line or a ray along which a plane flies is called the course.

Course

Directions are also denoted by south and north references using acute angles.
In traveling by land and by sea, the direction of a line along which a vehicle travels is
expressed as measure of an acute angle which this line makes with the horizontal.
In the figure below, he direction of A from O is N 30º E. B is N 60º W from O. C is
S 70º E from O. D is S 80º W from O.

Note: N 30º E means the direction is 30º east of north.

74
75
Example 2. A boat sails from a certain port in the direction N30ºW. After the boat has
sailed 20 km, how far is it west of the port?
Solution: Let the boat be x km west of the port.

So, the boat is 10 km west of the port.

Example 3: A cyclist travels 10 km south, then 8 km east. Find the cyclist's bearing from
her starting point to the nearest degree.

Solution:

So, the cyclist's bearing is 141º from her starting point.

76
Chapter Exercise

Direction: Solve the following problems. Show all necessary solutions.

1. Draw a diagram of a right triangle which has an angle of 23°. Find


a. the size of the third angle
b. the sine, cosine and tangent ratios of each angle correct to the nearest
thousandth.
2. In ∆ABC, ∠C is a right angle, b = 3.4 and c = 4.5. Find
a. the length of the third side of the triangle, correct to one decimal place.
b. sin A, cos A, and tan A, approximated correct to the nearest thousandth
c. sin B, cos B, and tan B, approximated correct to the nearest thousandth.

3. How far from the door must a ramp begin in order to rise three feet with an 8º
angle of elevation?

4. How far from the door must a ramp begin in order to rise three feet with an 8º
angle of elevation?

5. Isaac’s camp is 5,280 feet from a point directly beneath Mt. Monadnock. What
is the hiking distance along the ridge if the angle of elevation is 25º 16'?

6. In reference to number 3 problem, how many feet higher is the top of the
mountain than his campsite?

7. The map of an island is shown below:

What is the bearing from the tower, of each pace shown on the map?

77
Chapter 6: Solutions of Oblique
Triangles

Oblique triangles are triangles that in any case have no right angle. The three
angles in any oblique triangle could be all acute. Another possibility is that one angle
could be obtuse and the other two angles are acute. In the solution of oblique triangles,
we are to solve for the angles or the sides depending on the given conditions. The area
of oblique triangles could be solved in different ways. By the basic formula, the area is
equal to one half the product of any two sides multiplied by the sine of the included
angle. By Heron’s formula, the area is equal to the square root of the product of one
half the sum of the sides multiplied by the difference of one half the sum of the sides
with the first side, the second side, and the third side.

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this chapter, you are expected to:

1. Explain the law of sine and law of cosine.


2. Solve word problems using the law of sine and law of cosine.
3. Solve the areas of oblique triangles.

Lesson 1:
Solutions of Oblique Triangles Using the Sine Law

78
Considering the figure above which shows that a right triangle ABC with θ or ∠A
in the standard position. The coordinates of B are x and y, where x = b and y = a. The
hypotenuse is r = c. Right triangle can be used to express the values of trigonometric
ratios in terms of the sides of the triangle, where

79
80
81

82
Lesson 2:
Solution of Oblique Triangles Using the Cosine Law

83
84
85
Lesson 3:
Areas of Oblique Triangles

86
87
Chapter Exercise

Direction: Solve the following problems. Show all necessary solutions.

1. Find the value of the side labeled x or the angle labeled θ correct to the nearest
tenth of a unit.

2. A hot air balloon is kept at a constant altitude by two ropes anchored at two points
on the ground. One rope is 150 feet long and makes an angle of 68° with the
ground. How long is the second rope, to the nearest ten feet, if it makes an angle
of 75° with the ground?

3. An observer in the street notes that the angle of elevation to the top of the building
is 44° (diagram below.). He walks 100 feet directly towards the building and finds
that the angle of elevation is 56°. Find the height of the building to the nearest
foot.

4. Find the value of the side labeled x or the angle labeled θ correct to the nearest
tenth of a unit.

5. The sides of a parallelogram are 20 cm and 16 cm and the longest diagonal is


32 cm. Find
a. the angles of the parallelogram to the nearest degree.
b. the length of the shortest diagonal to the nearest cm.

88
6. Two trees (at points A and B) are on the opposite side of a lake from an observer
(at point C.) The observer notes that the angles between the lines of sight to the
trees is 35°, the distance from the observation point to one tree (A) is 352 m and
to the other tree (B) is 286 m. Find the distance between the two trees to the
nearest meter.

7. To estimate the area of a small lake, students take the following measurements:

AB = 250 m
BC = 180 m
CD = 60 m
DE = 100 m
EF = 280 m
AF = 120 m
∠A = 90°
∠D = 105°
∠BCE = 80°

Find the area of the lake to the nearest hundred square meters.

89
Chapter 7: The Logarithmic and
Exponential Functions

The study of logarithm is very important not only in Mathematics but also in the
other sciences such as Statistics, Physics, and so forth. It facilitates computation in the
absence of calculators and computers.

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this chapter, you are expected to:


1. Transform logarithmic to exponential forms, and vice versa.
2. Identify the properties of logarithms.
3. Apply the properties of logarithms involving logarithmic equations.
4. Identify the parts of logarithm
5. Relate logarithm and antilogarithm.
6. Evaluate logarithmic and exponential functions.
7. Graph exponential and logarithmic functions.

Lesson 1:
Logarithmic and Exponential Forms

Logarithm means exponent. If a positive number s is expresses as m raised to a


power x, such that m > 0 and m ≠ 1, then s = mx. The exponent x is the logarithm of the
numbers s to the base m. therefore, the logarithm of a number to a given base is the
exponent or the power to which the base must be raised to yield the number. In symbols,

Remember!
𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒔 𝒎 = 𝒙 𝒊𝒇 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒏𝒍𝒚 𝒊𝒇 𝒎𝒙 = 𝒔

Example 1. Write the exponential forms of the following:


a. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒙 𝒔 = 𝒎 b. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 𝟏𝟔 = 𝟒 c. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝟏 = 𝟎

90
Solution:
a. 𝒙𝒎 = 𝒔 b. 𝟐𝟒 = 𝟏𝟔 c. 𝒃𝟎 = 𝟏

Example 2. Write the logarithmic forms of the following:


a. 𝒃𝒔 = 𝒎 b. 𝟐𝟑 = 𝟖 c. 𝟑𝟑 = 𝟐𝟕

Solution:
𝒂. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝒎 = 𝒔 b. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 𝟖 = 𝟑 c.
𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟑 𝟐𝟕 = 𝟑

Example 3. Find the values of the unknown variables.


𝟏
a. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟑 𝟖𝟏 = 𝒙 c. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝟗 = 𝟐
b. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟖 𝒔 = 𝟐 d. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝟖 = −𝟑

Solution:
a. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟑 𝟖𝟏 = 𝒙 can be expressed as 𝟑𝒙 = 𝟖𝟏 = 𝟑𝟒 . Therefore, x = 4.
b. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟖 𝒔 = 𝟐 implies 𝟖𝟐 = 𝒔 = 𝟔𝟒. Therefore, s = 64.
1 1 2
𝟏
c. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝟗 = means 𝑏2 = 9. Squaring both sides gives (𝑏2 ) = 𝑏 =
𝟐
92 Therefore, b = 81
1 1
d. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝟖 = −𝟑 means 𝑏 −3 = 8. This means = 8 or 𝑏3 = 8. Raising
𝑏3
1 1
both sides to 3 , 𝑏 = 2.

Lesson 2:
Properties of Logarithms

The fundamental properties of logarithms use the properties of exponents and


radicals since logarithms are also exponents. These properties apply to the product and
quotient of two or more numbers and the number raised to a rational exponent.

For the following three properties, x, y, and b are all positive real numbers, b ≠1,
and r is any real number.

91
Example 1. Expand the following using the properties of logarithms.

a. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝟏𝟔 d. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 (𝟖)(𝟑)


𝟒𝒙 𝒙𝒚
b. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 e. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝒘𝒛
𝒛
𝒙𝒚𝟐
c. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝟒𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝒄𝟑 f. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝟑𝒛𝟐 𝒘

Solution:
a. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝟏𝟔 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 (𝟖)(𝟐) = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝟐 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝟖
𝟒𝒙
b. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝟒 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝒙 − 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝒛
𝒛
c. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝟒𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝒄𝟑 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝟒 + 𝟐 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝒂 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝒃 + 𝟑 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝒄
d. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 (𝟖)(𝟑) = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝟖 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝟑
𝒙𝒚
e. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝒘𝒛 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝒙 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝒚 − 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝒘 − 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝒛
𝒙𝒚𝟐
f. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝟑𝒛𝟐 𝒘 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝒙 + 𝟐 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝒚 − 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝟑 − 𝟐 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝒛 − 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝒘

Example 2. Find the logarithms of the following:

a. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟑 (𝟗)(𝟐𝟕) b. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 (𝟖)(𝟐𝟓𝟔)

Solution:
a. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟑 (𝟗)(𝟐𝟕) = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟑 𝟗 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟑 𝟐𝟕

= 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟑 𝟑𝟐 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟑 𝟑𝟑
=𝟐 + 𝟑
=5

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b. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 (𝟖)(𝟐𝟓𝟔) = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 𝟖 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 𝟐𝟓𝟔

= 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 𝟐𝟑 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 𝟐𝟖
=𝟑 + 𝟖
= 11

Example 3. Find the values of x in the following:


a. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟑 𝒙 − 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒙 (𝒙 − 𝟐) = 𝟐 b. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 𝒙 = 𝟑

Solution:
a. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟑 𝒙 − 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒙 (𝒙 − 𝟐) = 𝟐
𝒙
𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟑 𝒙 − 𝟐 = 𝟐
𝒙
𝟑𝟐 =
𝒙 − 𝟐
𝟗𝒙 − 𝟏𝟖 = 𝒙
𝟗
𝒙 = 𝟒

b. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 𝒙 = 𝟑

𝒙𝟐
𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 𝒙 = 𝟑

𝒙𝟐
𝟐𝟑 =
𝒙
𝒙 = 𝟖

Lesson 3:
Common Logarithm and Antilogarithm

3.1 Common Logarithm

Common Logarithm is a logarithm with the base 10. It is written as log S. Note
that if the base is omitted, it is understood to be base 10.
The logarithm of ay number S consists of two parts: the characteristic, the
integral part, and the mantissa, the decimal part, found in the table of logarithm.

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Table of Logarithm with Base 10

Important Properties to Remember


1. The logarithm of zero does not exist.
2. The logarithm of a negative number is undefined.
3. The logarithm of one is zero.
4. The logarithm of any number greater than one is alwats positive.
5. The logarithm of any number between one and zero is negative.

How to use the Table of Logarithm


To look for the mantissa of the logarithm of the number N, take the first two digits
from the left column and the third digit at the upper row. The intersection of the two –
digit row and third – digit column is the mantissa of the logarithm of N.

Example 1. Find the mantissa of log 4.840.


Solution. Locate 4.8 in the column headed n and move to the right to the column
headed 4. The entry found there is .6848 and is the required mantissa. The
characteristic depends on the location of the decimal point of N.

Rules for Finding the Logarithm

Rule 1. The number is in standard form if the decimal point is right after the first nonzero
digit. Its common logarithm is a number greater than zero but less than one.

Example 1. Find the logarithms of the following:


a. log 8.35 b. log 3.87

Solution:
a. log 8.35; characteristic = 0; mantissa = 0.9217. Therefore, log 8.35 =
0.9217
b. log 3.87; characteristic = 0; mantissa = 0.5877. Therefore, log 3.87 =
0.5877

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Rule 2. If the decimal point of a number is to the right of its standard form, the
characteristic is the number of times the decimal point is moved to the right of
its standard position.

Example 1. Give the logarithms of the following:


a. log 689 b. log 8359

Solution:
a. log 689 = 2.8382 b. log 8359 = 3.9222

Rule 3. If the decimal point of a number is to the left of its standard form, the
characteristic is the number of times the decimal point is moved to the left of
its standard position and it is negative.

Example 1. Find the logarithms of the following:


a. log 0.88 c. Log 0.00354

Solution:
a. log 0.88; characteristics = -1, mantissa = 0.9445. Therefore, log 0.88
= 9.9445 – 10.
b. log 0.00354; characteristics = -3, mantissa = 0.5490. Therefore, log
0.00354 = 7.5490 – 10.

Note that for computational purposes, a negative characteristic is written


as a positive integer minus a multiple of 10.

3.2 Natural Logarithm


Natural logarithm is a logarithm with base e which is written as 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆𝑺 or the
common notation of ln e, where e = 2.71828. it is often encountered in the study of
calculus and in other areas of mathematics.
Scientific calculators have log and ln keys that give the common and natural
logarithms of numbers.

3.3 Antilogarithm
Antilogarithm is the number corresponding to a given logarithm.
If log N = S, then N is the number corresponding to S and is called the
antilogarithm of S. In symbols, the antilog S = N.
Two important aspects to be considered in determining the exact value of the
number S are the characteristic and mantissa. The characteristic of log N indicates the

95
position of the decimal in number S. The mantissa is used to identify the first three
significant digits in the number S.
Example 1. Find N using the given log N.
a. 0.8537 b. 3.8338 c. 8.4800 – 10

Solution:
a. Let log N = 0.8537. Then the characteristic is 0 and the mantissa is
0.8537. In the table, 0.8537 corresponds to the number 7.14, the
standard form of N. Therefore, N = antilog 0. 8537 = 7.14 which can
also be written as N = antilog 0.8537 = 7.14 x 100 = 7.14 x 1 = 7.14.
Note that the exponent of 10 is the characteristic of the logarithm.

b. Let log N = 3.8338. Then the characteristic is 3 and the mantissa is


0.8338. In the table, 3.8338 corresponds to the number 6.82, the
standard form of N. Since the characteristic is positive 3, the decimal
point is moved three times to the right from its standard position.
Therefore, N = antilog 3. 8338 = 6820 which is also N = 6.82 x 103 =
6820.

c. If 8.4800 – 10, then the characteristic is 8 – 10 = - 2 and the mantissa


is 0.4800. The mantissa corresponds to 3.02, the standard form of N.
Since the characteristic is -2, the decimal point is moved two times to
the left from its standard position. Therefore, N = antilog (8.4800 – 10)
= 0.0302 or N = 3.02 x 10-2 = 0.0302.

3.4 Change of Base Formula


When the base of the logarithm of a number is to be changed to another base to
become the logarithm of that same number to some other base, then the formula to be
used is

Remember!
𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝑵
𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒎 𝑵 = = 𝒀
𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝒎

Example 1. Express in logarithm with the indicated base.


a. 𝑙𝑜𝑔5 8 to logarithm with base 3
b. 𝑙𝑛 3 to common logarithms

Solution:
𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟑𝟖
a. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟓 𝟖 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟑𝟓

96
𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝟑
b. ln 3 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 𝟑 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒆

Example 2. Find the value of the following up to three decimal points:


a. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟑 𝟖 b. 𝒍𝒏 (𝟖).𝟏𝟖

Solution:
𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝟖 𝟎.𝟗𝟎𝟑𝟏
a. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟑 𝟖 = = = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟗𝟑
𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝟑 𝟎.𝟒𝟕𝟕𝟏
𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝟖
b. 𝒍𝒏 (𝟖).𝟏𝟖 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 (𝟖).𝟏𝟖 = . 𝟏𝟖 (𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒆)

Example 3. Determine the values of the following as indicated:


a. 3𝑠 = 2.3 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠 b. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 𝒎 = 𝟓. 𝟐𝟕 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒎

Solution:
a. Taking the common logarithm of both sides of 3𝑠 = 2.3, we have s log
3 = log 2.3

𝑙𝑜𝑔 2.3 0.3617


Solving for s, gives 𝑠 = = = 0.7581
𝑙𝑜𝑔 3 0.4771

b. Change the base 2 to base 10, then

𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎𝒎
𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 𝒎 = 𝟓. 𝟐𝟕 = ⇒ 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎𝒎 = 𝟓. 𝟐𝟕 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎𝟐
𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 𝟐

𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎𝑚 = 5.27 (0.3010) = 1.5863. The characteristic is 1 and the


mantissa is 0.5863, corresponds to the number 3.86 in the table.

Hence, m = antilog 1.5863 = 38.6.

Lesson 4:
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
4.1 Exponential Functions
An exponential function is represented by an expression y = Sx where S is a
fixed positive number not equal to 1. As shown by the equation, the domain of the
function is all real numbers and the range is all positive real numbers. The function has
no zeros and increases monotonically, that is, as the domain increases, the range also
increases. The exponential and logarithmic functions are inverses of each other.

Remember!
An exponential function is a function in which
the variable is in the exponent.
97
Example 1. Using the expression y = 3x, find the coordinates of points (x, y) and then
graph.
Solution: Assign values of x to the equation, then solve the corresponding values of y
= 3x. The result is shown in the table below.

P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
x -2 -1 0 1 2
y = 3x 1/9 1/3 1 3 9

To obtain the graph, we plot the points and then join them with a smooth
curve.

4.2 Logarithmic Functions

The logarithmic function is represented by the expression y = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒔 𝒙, where S is


a fixed positive number not equal to 1. Its domain and range are all positive real
numbers. It is the inverse of the exponential function y = Sx. Hence, for the positive real
numbers x and S, S ≠ 1, the inverse of the exponential function y = Sx is the logarithmic
function y = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒔 𝒙.

Example 1. Graph y = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 𝒙 and y = 2x.

Solution: We discussed in Chapter 1 that the domain and range of a function are the
range and domain, respectively, of its inverse function. Hence, we will just
construct table of values for y = 2x from which we will base the table of values
of its inverse, y = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐𝒙

To construct a table of values for y = 2x, we choose values for x and calculate
values of y. This results to the table on the next page.

98
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
x -2 -1 0 1 2
y 1/4 1/2 1 2 4

Interchanging the values of x and y, we have the table of values for y =


𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 𝒙.

P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
x 1/4 1/2 1 2 4
y -2 -1 0 1 2

That the two are inverses of each other is confirmed by the graph below.

Note that the graph of each function is the reflection of the other.

Chapter Exercise

Direction: Solve the following problems. Show all necessary solutions.

1. Find the value of y.

1
a. 𝑙𝑜𝑔5 25 = 𝑦 b. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 32 = 5 c. 𝑙𝑜𝑔9 𝑦 = − 2

2. Evaluate

a. 𝑙𝑜𝑔7 73 b. 𝑙𝑜𝑔2553 c. 16𝑙𝑜𝑔4 8

99
3. Write the following expressions in terms of logs of x, y, and z.

𝑥𝑦 2 𝑥3 𝑦2
a. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 2 𝑦 b. 𝑙𝑜𝑔√ 𝑧 8 c. 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑧

4. Solve the following logarithmic equations.

a. 2𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔(3𝑥 − 4) d. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑥 − 1) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(4𝑥 )

b. 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (𝑥 − 2) + 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (𝑥 + 1) = 2 e. 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 (𝑥 + 25) − 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 (𝑥 − 1) = 3

c. 𝑙𝑜𝑔9 (𝑥 − 5) + 𝑙𝑜𝑔9 (𝑥 + 3) = 1

5. Draw the graph of each of the following logarithmic functions.

a. f(x) = - log x c. f(x) = log – x

b. f(x) = - log (x – 3) d. f(x) = ln (2x + 4)

100
References

Acorda, P., Iringan, E., Aleado, F., Paragas, A., Daez, F., & Chavez, R. (2010).
Trigonometry. TCS Publishing House.
Aufman, R., Barker, V., & Nation, R. (2008). College Trigonometry. Houghton Mifflin
Company, Boston New York.
Barcelon, D., Buquin, S., Magat, M., & Toledo, M. (2003). Plane Trigonometry. Trinitas
Publishing, Inc.
Mangune, U., Galura, O., Guiao, B., Zoleta, J.C., & Favorito, R. (2012). Trigonometry
Worktext. St. Andrews Publishing House.
Sarmiento, A. C. et al. (2009). Plane and Spherical Trigonometry. Books Atbp. Publishing
Corp.

101
Course Guide

Course Title:

Trigonometry

Course Description:
functions and their inverses, including their graphs characteristics, and
applications. It also includes a study of the trigonometric identities and their
applications in problem solving.

Course Guide:
This handout Trigonometry is designed for self – learning of second year
college students as these trying times, we are prompted to pressing concern
COVID-19 pandemic.
This handout is comprising of seven chapters, to wit:
Chapter 1: Preliminary Concepts
Chapter 2: Circular Functions
Chapter 3: The Inverse Circular and Trigonometric Functions
Chapter 4: Identities
Chapter 5: Trigonometric Ratios and Solutions of Right Triangle
Chapter 6: Solutions of Oblique Triangles
Chapter 7: The Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

Each chapter could be learned in a self – paced or individual format and


it is the responsibility of the students to maximize their time and exert with
determination in completing the course with the best learning outcomes.
However, contents presented in this handout may not be enough for their
learning needs, so it is suggested to consider reading other references related
to the topics. For each chapter, there are discussion, examples, and exercises
as a course requirement to contribute 50% of students’ grades. Ideally, all of
the exercises should be done and compiled to be submitted during major
exams. Students may contact their professor for any concern or clarifications
about the topics, tasks, and outputs to be done.
As to major exams, midterm examination will cover Chapter 1 to Chapter 4
and final examination will cover Chapter 5 to Chapter 7.

102
Course Learning Outcomes:
Having completed the handout, the students are anticipated to meet the
following outcomes:

1. Explain, differentiate and illustrate clearly and comprehensively the basic


concepts and principles of trigonometry, using relevant examples as
needed.

2. Demonstrate skills in various problem-solving heuristics.

3. Employ mathematical skills, critical thinking and analytical reasoning in


solving mathematical problems involving trigonometry.

4. Manifest clear understanding of the applications of concepts and skills


trigonometry in real-life situations.

5. Develop lessons and create and utilize learning experiences in the


classroom which develop the learners’ skills in discovery learning,
problem solving and critical thinking.

Course Requirements:

Students are expected to submit the following requirements or outputs


during major exam.

Chapter Chapter Title Requirement/Output


1 Preliminary Concepts
2 Circular Functions Chapter Exercises
3 The Inverse Circular and Midterm Examination
Trigonometric Functions
4 Identities
5 Trigonometric Ratios and
Solutions of Right Triangle Chapter Exercises
6 Solutions of Oblique Triangles Final Examination
7 The Logarithmic and
Exponential Functions

Course Policies:

1. To ensure successful completion of this course, students are expected


to accomplish the assigned tasks prescribed in the Student’s Worksheet
and pass the major examinations.

2. All students are expected to behave with academic honesty. It is not


academically honest to misrepresent another person’s work as your

103
own, to take credit for someone else’s words or ideas, to obtain
advanced information on confidential test materials, or to act in a way
that might harm other students’ chances for academic success. These
students will automatically have a grade of 5.0 after three (3) offenses of
academic dishonesty.

3. Assignments/presentations and other related requirements should be


accomplished on the set deadline. Late requirements will be deducted
accordingly.

4. All students are expected to take Major Exams (Mid-term/Finals) on the


specified schedule. In general, no make-up test or re-test will be given
except when circumstances warrant but with valid supporting documents
presented.

5. All students are expected to strictly observe the proper standards in


handling the module, any form of damage on the said materials will be a
demerit on the students’ performance rating.

Grading System

60% Class Standing (Chapter Exercises, Course Requirements, Class


Participation)
40% Major Exams (Midterm and Final Exams)
100%

104
Quality Policy
We commit to provide quality instruction,
research, extension, and production
grounded on excellence, accountability,
and service as we move towards
exceeding stakeholder’s satisfaction in
compliance with relevant requirements
and well-defined continual improvement
measures.
“Dekalidad nga Edukasyon,
Kinabuhi nga mainuswagon”

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