GROUP DYNAMICS

 the actions, processes, and changes that occur within groups

and between groups
 The influential actions, processes, and changes that occur within
and between groups over time; also, the scientific study of those
processes

GROUP

 Two or more individuals who are connected by and within

social relationships
 A group is a collection of individuals who have relations to
one another” (Cartwright & Zander)
 A group is a social unit which consists of a number of
individuals who stand in (more or less) definite status and role
relationships to one another” (Sherif & Sherif, 1956)
 A bounded set of patterned relations among members” (Arrow,
McGrath, & Berdahl, 2000)

DESCRIBING GROUPS
WHO ARE CONNECTED
 Each one of the billions of groups that exist at this
 The members of any given group are networked together like a moment is a unique configuration of individuals,
series of inter connected computers.
 These connections, or ties, may be based on strong bonds, like processes, and relationships.
the links between the members of a family or a clique of close  A group of five students in university library
friends. reviewing material for an upcoming test displays
 The larger the group, the more ties are needed to join tendencies and qualities that are unlike any other
members to each other and to the group.
study group that has ever existed or ever will exist

BY AND WITHIN SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS

INTERACTION (Robert F. Bales. 1950, 1999)
 Definitions of the word group vary, but many stress one key
consideration: relationships among the members. “What do people do when they are in groups?”
 Just as people who are friends are joined in friendship or all the
 Group members exchanged information with each other,
senior members of a law firm are part of a partnership, people in
through both verbal and nonverbal communication; they got into
a group are said to be linked by their membership
arguments, talked over issues, and made decisions.
 Group relationships link each member to one another and to
 They upset each other, gave one another help and support, and
the group as a whole
took advantage of each other’s weaknesses.
 They also define who is in the group itself, for groups, unlike
 They worked together to accomplish difficult tasks, but they
networks, have boundaries
sometimes slacked off when they thought others would not
notice. off when they thought others would not notice.
MEMBERSHIP  Group members taught each other new things and they touched
each other literally and emotionally. Group interaction is as
 The state of being a part of, or included within, a social group. varied as human behavior itself

Bales concluded that the countless interactions he had witnessed were

of two basic types:
NETWORK
1. RELATIONSHIP INTERACTION (or socio emotional
 A set of interconnected individuals or groups; more generally, interaction)
any set of social or nonsocial objects that are linked by  Actions performed by group members that relate to or
relational ties. influence the emotional and interpersonal bonds within
the group, including both positive actions (social support,
consideration) and negative actions (criticism, conflict).
SOCIAL IDENTITY 2. TASK INTERACTION
 Actions performed by group members that pertain to the
 Aspects of the self-concept that derive from relationships and group’s projects, tasks, and goals.
memberships in groups; in particular, those qualities that are  All group behavior that is focused principally on the
held in common by two or more people who recognize that they group’s work, projects, plans, and goals. In most groups,
are members of the same group or social category. members must coordinate their various skills, resources,
and motivations so that the group can make a decision,
generate a product, or achieve a victory
  The state of being dependent to some degree on other people, as
when one’s outcomes, actions, thoughts, feelings, and
GOALS (Joseph E. McGrath’s, 1984) experiences are determined in whole or in part by others.

 Circumplex Model of Group Tasks brings order

to the many goal-related activities that groups
undertake
 McGrath’s model distinguishes among four
basic group goals: generating ideas or plans,
choosing a solution, negotiating a solution to a
conflict, or executing (performing) a task.
CIRCUMPLEX MODEL OF GROUP TASKS - orders
group tasks in a circular pattern based on two continua:
cooperative–competitive and conceptual–behavioral.
 Mutual, reciprocal interdependence: all members influence
1. Generating: Groups that concoct the strategies they will each other.
use to accomplish their goals  Unilateral Interdependence: leader influence others but is not
influenced by them.
(Type 1: planning tasks) or to create altogether new ideas
and approaches to their problems (Type 2: creativity
 Reciprocal, unequal interdependence: leaders influence over
followers is substantially greater than followers influence on the
tasks)
leader.
2. Choosing: Groups that make decisions about issues that  Sequential, A influence B who influences C.
have correct solutions
(Type 3: intellective tasks) or questions that can be
answered in many ways (Type 4: decision making tasks).
3. Negotiating: Groups that must resolve differences of STRUCTURE
opinion among members regarding their goals or
 Group members are not connected to one another at
decisions
random, but in organized and predictable patterns.
(Type 5: cognitive conflict tasks) or resolve competitive
 The most ephemeral groups, patterns and regularities
disputes among members (Type 6: mixed-motive tasks).
emerge that determine the kinds of actions that are
4. Executing: Groups that do things, including taking part
permitted or condemned:
in competitions
1. who talks to whom
(Type 7: contests/ battles/competitive tasks) or working
2. who likes whom and who dislikes whom
together to create some product or carry out collective
3. who can be counted on to perform particular tasks
actions (Type 8: Performances/psychomotor tasks).
4. whom others look to for guidance and help - Roles,
norms, and other structural aspects of groups,
although unseen and often unnoticed, lie at the heart
of their most dynamic processes.

GROUP STRUCTURE
 The underlying pattern of roles, norms, and
relations among members that organizes groups.
ROLE
 A coherent set of behaviors expected of people
who occupy specific positions within a group.
NORM

INTERDEPENDENCE  A consensual and often implicit standard that

describes what behaviors should and should not be
 When people join groups, they soon discover that they are no
longer masters of their own fate. per formed in a given context.
 Means that members depend on one another; their outcomes,
actions, thoughts, feelings, and experiences are determined in
part by others in the group
UNITY
 A group, viewed holistically, is a unified whole; an TYPES OF GROUPS
entity formed when interpersonal forces bind the  Groups come in a variety of shapes and sizes and perform
members together in a single unit with functions that are vast and varied, so the differences among them
boundaries that mark who is in the group and who are as noteworthy as their similarities.
is outside of it
1. PRIMARY GROUPS
 In consequence, when we speak about groups we  A small, long-term group, such as families and friendship
refer to them as single objects: for example, a gang cliques, characterized by face-to face interaction, solidarity, and
is menacing or the club meets tomorrow. high levels of member to group interdependence and
 The quality of “groupness,” or solidarity, is identification;
 Charles Cooley believed such groups serve as the primary
determined, in part, by group cohesion.
source of socialization for members by shaping their
 Groupness is also related to entitativity. Even attitudes, values, and social orientation.
though an aggregation of individuals may not be  Primary groups, such as family, friends, or tight-knit peer
very cohesive, those who observe the group—and groups, are relatively small, person ally meaningful groups that
even the members themselves—may believe that the are highly unified.
 The members are very involved in the group, so much so that
group is a single, unified entity they feel a part of something larger than themselves.
Group Cohesion - The strength of the bonds linking THOMAS THEOREM
individuals to and in the group.
The theoretical premise, put forward by W. I. Thomas, which
Entitativity - As described by Donald Campbell, the maintains that an individual’s understanding of a social situation,
even if incorrect, will determine how he or she will act in the
extent to which an assemblage of individuals is
situation; “If men define situations as real, they are real in their
perceived to be a group rather than an aggregation of consequences”
independent, unrelated individuals; the quality of being
ESSENTIALISM
an entity.
The belief that all things, including individuals and groups, have a
Entitativity, according to Campbell, is substantially basic nature which makes them what they are and distinguishes
influenced by: them from others; this basic essence, even though hidden, is
relatively unchanging and gives rise to surface-level qualities.
a. Common fate: Do the individuals experience the
same or interrelated outcomes?
b. Similarity: Do the individuals perform similar
behaviors or resemble one another?
c. Proximity: How close together are the individuals
in the aggregation

Primary groups are primary in the sense that they give the
individual his earliest and completest experience of social unity,
and also in the sense that they do not change in the same degree as
more elaborate relations, but form a comparatively permanent source
out of which the latter are ever springing.

2. SOCIAL GROUPS
 in earlier eras, individuals belonged only to small, primary
groups (Cooley, 1909). They could live out their entire lives
without leaving their small, close-knit families, tribes, or
communities.
 As societies became more complex, so did their groups. These
groups drew people into the larger community, where they
joined with others in social groups.

A relatively small number of individuals who interact with one

another over an extended period of time, such as work groups,
clubs, and congregations.
3. COLLECTIVES
 A collective, if taken literally, would describe any aggregate of TUCKSMAN’S STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT
two or more individuals and, hence, would be synonymous
with the term group (Blumer, 1951). 1. Orientation: FORMING
 Collectives are larger groups whose members act in similar  Members become familiar with each other and the group;
and sometimes unusual ways. dependency and inclusion issues; acceptance of leader and
 A list of collectives would include a street crowd watching a group consensus.
building burn, an audience at a movie, a line (queue) of people  Communication tentative and polite.
waiting to purchase tickets, a mob of college students  Concern for ambiguity group goals.
protesting a government policy, and a pan icked group fleeing  Leader is active and members are compliant.
from danger.
 Last at brief period of time.

A relatively large aggregation or group of individuals who display 2. Conflict: STORMING

similarities in actions and outlook.  Disagreement over procedures: expression of dissatisfaction:
tension among member; antagonism toward leader.
 Criticism of idea
 Poor attendance and hostility
4. CATEGORIES  Polarization and coalition formation.
 A category is an aggregation of individuals who are similar to
one another in some way.

For example, people who live in New York City are New Yorkers, 3. Structure: NORMING
Americans whose ancestors were from Africa are African Americans,  Growth of cohesiveness and unity; establishment roles;
and those who routinely wager sums of money on games of chance standards; and relationships; increased trust, communication.
are gamblers.  Agreement on procedures;
 Reduction in role ambiguity
An aggregation of people or things that share some common  Increased “we” feeling.
attribute or are related in some way.

4. Work: PERFORMING
 Goal achievement; high task-orientation; emphasis on
performance and production.
 Decision making
 Problem solving
 Mutual cooperation.

5. Dissolution: AJOURNING
 Termination of roles; completion of tasks; reduction of
dependency.
 Disintegration and withdrawal
 Increase independence and emotionality
 Regret
OBSERVATION

 A measurement method that involves watching and recording

individual and group actions.

1. Overt Observation - Openly watching and recording group

behavior with no attempt to conceal one’s research purposes

2. Covert Observation - Watching and recording group behavior

without the participants’ knowledge.

3. Participant Observation - Watching and recording group

behavior while taking part in the social process.

HAWTHORN EFFECT

 A change in behavior that occurs when individuals know they

are being studied by researchers. RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF OBSERVATIONS

 Structured observation systems, because they can be used to

record the number of times a particular type of behavior has
INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD (IRB)
occurred, make possible com parison across categories, group
 A group, usually located at a university or other research members, and even different groups.
institution, that is responsible for reviewing research  if observers are carefully trained, structured coding system such
procedures to make certain that they are consistent with as IPA and SYMLOG will yield data that are both reliable and
ethical guidelines for protecting human participants. valid.

RELIABILITY
STRUCTURING OBSERVATIONS
 The degree to which a measurement technique consistently
1. Qualitative Study - A research procedure used to collect and yields the same conclusion at different times. For
analyze nonnumeric, unquantified types of data, such as text, measurement techniques with two or more components,
images, or objects. reliability is also the degree to which these various components
all yield similar conclusions.
2. Structured Observational Method - A research procedure that
classifies (codes) group members’ actions into defined VALIDITY
categories.
 The degree to which a measurement method assesses what it
was designed to measure.
3. Quantitative Study - A research procedure used to collect and
analyze data in a numeric form, such as frequencies,
proportions, or amounts.

4. Interaction Process Analysis (IPA) - A structured coding SELF-REPORT MEASURES

system developed by ROBERT BALES used to classify group
behavior into task-oriented and relationship-oriented  An assessment method, such as a questionnaire, test, or
categories. interview, that ask respondents to describe their feelings,
attitudes, or beliefs.
 Despite their variations, are all based on a simple premise: if you
5. Systematic Multiple Level Observation of Groups want to know what a group member is thinking, feeling, or
(SYMLOG) - A theoretical and structured coding system planning, then just ask him or her to report that information to
developed by ROBERT BALES which assumes that group you directly.
activities can be classified along three dimensions: dominance  In interviews the researcher records the respondent’s answer to
versus submissiveness, friendliness versus unfriendliness, various questions, but questionnaires ask respondents to record
and acceptance of versus opposition to authority. their answers themselves.
 Some variables, such as members’ beliefs about their group’s
cohesiveness or their perceptions of the group’s leader, may be
 so complex that researchers need to ask a series of interrelated
questions.

SOCIOMETRY

 JACOB MORENO (1934), a pioneer in the field of group

dynamics, used self-report methods to study the social
organization of groups of young women living in adjacent
cottages at an institution.
 A graphically and mathematically summarizes patterns of
intermember relations.

SOCIOGRAM

 A graphic representation of the patterns of intermember

relations created through sociometry. In most cases each
member of the group is depicted by a symbol, such as a lettered
circle or square, and the types of relations among members (e.g.,
communication links, friendship pairings) are depicted with
capped lines
 A sociogram yields information about individual members,
relationships between pairs of members, and the group’s RESEARCH METHODS IN GROUP DYNAMICS
overall structure.
 Depending on their place in the group’s sociogram, and the 1. CASE STUDIES
number of times they are chosen by others, members can be
compared and contrasted:  One of the best ways to understand groups in general is to
1. Populars, or stars, are well-liked, very popular group understand one group in particular.
members with a high choice status: they are picked by  Case study is an in-depth examination of one or more groups
many other group members  A research technique that involves examining, in as much detail
2. Unpopulars, or rejected members, are identified as as possible, the dynamics of a single group or individual.
disliked by many members and so their choice status is
low
3. Isolates, or loners, are infrequently chosen by any group GROUPTHINK
members
4. Positives, or sociables, select many others as their friends - A strong concurrence-seeking tendency that interferes with
5. Negatives select few others as their friends effective group decision making, identified by IRVING JANIS.
6. Pairs are two people who choose each other, and so have
Advantages
reciprocal bonds
7. Clusters are individuals within the group who make up a  By focusing on a limited number of cases, researchers often
subgroup, or clique.’ provide richly detailed qualitative descriptions of naturally
occurring groups.
 If the groups have disbanded and researchers are relying on
archival data, they need not be concerned that their research will
substantially disrupt or alter naturally occurring group processes
 Case studies also tend to focus on bona fide groups that are
found in everyday, natural contexts

Disadvantages

 Researchers who use the case study method must bear in mind
that the group studied may be unique, and so its dynamics say
little about other groups’ dynamics.
 Researchers rarely use quantitative measures of group
processes when conducting case studies, so their
interpretations can be influenced by their own assumptions
and biases.
 The essential records and artifacts may be inaccurate or
unavailable to the researcher.
 Case studies only imply but rarely establish causal REFERENCE GROUP
relationships among important variables in the group under
study.  A group or collective that individuals use as a standard or
frame of reference when selecting and appraising their
BONA FIDE GROUP abilities, attitudes, or beliefs; includes groups that individuals
identify with and admire and categories of noninteracting
 A naturally occurring group (particularly when compared to individuals
an ad hoc group created by a researcher in a laboratory study),
such as an audience, board of directors, club, or team. CORRELATIONAL STUDY

 A research design in which the investigator measures (but does

not manipulate) at least two variables and then uses statistical
2. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES procedures to examine the strength and direction of the
relationship between these variables.
SCAPEGOAT
CORRELATION COEFFICIENT
 An individual or group who is unfairly held responsible for a
negative event and outcome; the innocent target of  A statistic that measures the strength and direction of a
interpersonal hostility. relationship between two variables. Often symbolized by r,
correlations can range from −1 to +1.
EXPERIMENT

 A research design in which the investigator manipulates at

least one variable by randomly assigning participants to two
or more different conditions and measuring at least one other
variable.

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES IN GROUP DYNAMICS
 Those aspects of the situation manipulated by the researcher
in an experimental study; the causal variable in a cause–effect MOTIVATIONAL AND EMOTIONAL PERSPECTIVES
relationship.
MOTIVATIONS are psychological mechanisms that give purpose
DEPENDENT VARIABLE and direction to behavior. motivation Wants, needs, and other
psychological processes that energize behavior and thereby
 The responses of the participant measured by the researcher; determine its form, intensity, and duration
the effect variable in a cause–effect relationship.
EMOTIONS often accompany these needs and desires; feelings of
happiness, sadness, satisfaction, and sorrow are just a few of the
emotions that can influence how people act in group situations.

The words motivation and emotion both come from the Latin word
movere, meaning “to move.”

JENNIFER GEORGE’S (1995) theory of group affective tone

takes a more emotion-focused approach to explaining group behavior.

Emotion

 A subjective state of positive or negative affect often

accompanied by a degree of arousal or activation.

Group affective tone

 The collective emotional mood of a group.

BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVES

3. CORRELATIONAL STUDIES 1. SKINNER’S BEHAVIORISM was based on two key

 Researchers use correlational designs whenever they wish to assumptions.
know more about the relationship between variables.
First, Skinner believed that psychological processes, such as
MOTIVES AND DRIVES, may shape people’s reactions in
groups, but he also believed that such psychological processes are COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVES
too difficult to index accurately. He therefore recommended
 A group’s dynamics, in many cases, become understandable
measuring and analyzing how people actually behave in a specific
only by studying the cognitive processes that allow members
context rather than speculating about the psychological or
to gather information, make sense of it, and then act on the
interpersonal processes that may have instigated their actions.
results of their mental appraisals.

JOHN TURNER’S (1991, 1999) self-categorization theory, or

Second, Skinner believed that most behavior was consistent with the SCT, offers a cognitive explanation for a range for group processes,
law of effect—that is, behaviors that are followed by positive including intergroup perception and stereotyping.
consequences, such as rewards, will occur more frequently,
whereas behaviors that are followed by negative consequences will
become rarer. COGNITIVE PROCESS
BEHAVIORISM  Mental processes that acquire, organize, and integrate
information. Cognitive processes include memory systems
A theoretical explanation of the way organisms acquires new
that store data and the psychological mechanisms that process
responses to environmental stimuli through such conditioning
this information.
processes as stimulus–response associations and reinforcement.
SELF-CATEGORIZATION THEORY

 explains a range of group behavior, including the

development of social identity and intergroup relations, in
terms of the social cognitive categorization processes.

2. JOHN THIBAUT AND HAROLD KELLEY’S (1959) social

exchange theory extended Skinner’s behaviorism to groups.

SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY

 An economic model of interpersonal relationships which argues

that individuals seek out relationships that offer them many
rewards while exacting few costs.

SYSTEMS THEORY PERSPECTIVES

 A systems theory approach assumes groups are complex,

adaptive, dynamic systems of interacting individuals.
 The members are the units of the system, who are coupled one BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
to another by relationships.
 Just as systems can be deliberately designed to function in a  One biological perspective—evolutionary psychology—argues
particular way, groups are sometimes created for a purpose, that these processes may be genetically determined, part of the
with procedures and standards that are designed with the overall species’ biological programming that has evolved through
goal of the system in mind. natural selection.
 This perspective argues that in the last 15 million years, the
human species has evolved socially as well as physically.
 Evolutionary psychology offers insight into a range of group
SYSTEMS THEORY processes, including affiliation, intergroup conflict, and
 A general theoretical approach which assumes that groups are aggression
systems—collections of individual units that combine to form
an integrated, complex whole.
EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY

 A biological approach to understanding behavior which assumes

INPUT–PROCESS–OUTPUT (I–P–O) MODEL that recurring patterns of behavior in animals ultimately stem
 Any one of a number of general conceptual analyses of from evolutionary pressures that increase the likelihood of
groups that assumes group processes mediate the relationship adaptive social actions and extinguish nonadaptive practices.
between individual, group, and situational input variables and
resulting group outcomes.
 over the age of 45 reported spending more time alone than with
others.
 Americans are above average in their involvement in voluntary
associations, but some countries’ citizens—the Dutch,
Canadians, Scandinavians—are “groupier” still (Curtis, Baer, &
Grabb, 2001).
 People also satisfy their need to belong, at least temporarily, by
joining in larger collectives and categories

THE PAIN OF EXCLUSION

 The strength of the need to belong is seen even more clearly

when this need is thwarted. (ruined).
 Most people, both young and old, find protracted periods of
social isolation disturbing (Zubek,1973).
 The diaries of individuals who have been isolated from others
for long periods of time (stranded explorers, scientists working
in seclusion, and prisoners in solitary confinement) often stress
the psychological costs of their ordeal rather than physical
deprivations.
 As their isolation wears on, they report fear, insomnia, memory
lapses, depression, fatigue, and general confusion.
 Prolonged periods of isolation are also marked by
hallucinations and delusions, as when one solo sailor at sea
was startled when he thought he saw a pirate steering his life raft
INCLUSION AND IDENTITY (Burney,1961).

SOCIAL CAPITAL
FROM ISOLATION TO INCLUSION  The degree of functional interconnectedness of a group of
 Most theorists, when identifying the fundamental people thought to promote coordinated action for mutual benefit;
psychological processes that drive humans’ actions across a analogous to other forms of capital, such as human or economic
range of situations and settings, include a need to belong on capital.
their list (Maslow, 1970; Pittman & Zeigler, 2007)
 All human beings, write Roy Baumeister and Mark Leary (1995,
p. 497), “have a pervasive drive to form and maintain at least a
minimum quantity of lasting, positive, and impactful
interpersonal relationships”.

THE NEED TO BELONG

 ARISTOTLE famously suggested that “Man is by nature a

social animal; and an unsocial person who is unsocial
naturally and not accidentally is either unsatisfactory or
superhuman.” OSTRACISM

 People’s need to belong is slaked (satisfy) when a group

accepts them, but they are most satisfied when a group
actively seeks them out.
 Excluding a person or group of people from a group, usually by
ignoring, shunning, or explicitly banishing them.

 Spending time alone, away from others, can be a rejuvenating, FIGHT-OR-FLIGHT RESPONSE
pleasurable experience
 People, when surveyed about their reactions to isolation, report  A physiological response to stressful events characterized by
enjoying the self-discovery, contemplation, and increased the activation of the sympathetic nervous system (increased
spirituality that occurs when one is physically isolated from heart rate, pupil dilation) that readies the individual to counter
interactions with and observations by others (Long et al., 2003). the threat (fight) or to escape the threat (flight)
 But even though people express a desire for privacy, most
people spend the majority of their waking hours in the
company of other people— only unmarried or widowed adults
TEND-AND-BEFRIEND RESPONSE
 An interpersonal response to stressful events characterized by  A tradition, ideology, or personal orientation that emphasizes the
increased nurturing, protective, and supportive behaviors primacy of the group or community rather than each
(tending) and by seeking out connections to other people individual person
(befriending).  Recognizes that human groups are not mere aggregations of
independent individuals, but complex sets of
INTERDEPENDENT ACTORS who must constantly adjust to
the actions and reactions of others around them.
CYBEROSTRACISM (Williams, 1997)
 Each person, if even recognized as an independent entity, is
 Groups no longer meet only in face-to-face situations but also inseparably connected to the group or community.
in multi-user forums, email discussions, and game sites on the  SOCIAL EXISTENCE is centered on group relations, for it
Internet. is the group that creates social obligations based on respect,
 The exclusion of one or more individuals from a trust, and a sense of community.
technologically mediated group interaction, such as a  People are group members first, individuals second (Lukes,
computer-based discussion group. 1973)

SOCIOMETER THEORY

 One of the surest ways to lower individuals’ self-esteem is to

REJECT them.
 A conceptual analysis of self-esteem proposed by MARK
LEARY that argues self-esteem is not an index of perceived
self-worth, but instead is a psychological monitor of one’s
degree of inclusion and exclusion in social groups

EVOLUTION AND INCLUSION IN GROUPS SOCIAL RELATIONS

THE HERD INSTINCT  Both individualism and collectivism recognize the human need
for belonging and connection, but a collectivistic orientation
 The idea that humans are instinctively drawn to gather with puts more value on these relationships.
other humans is not a new one.
 Over a century ago, WILLIAM MCDOUGALL (1908) argued COLLECTIVISTS feel close affinity with one another and, so, are
that humans are inexorably drawn to “the vast human herd,” more likely to adopt a communal orientation to their groups
which “exerts a baneful attraction on those outside it” (Moemeka, 1998).
 Humans’ capacity to INTROSPECT, to read the emotion in
others’ faces, to understand the meaning of others’ vocal  compared to individualists, have a more favorable attitude
utterances, and even the ability to consider what future event toward group-level rewards for collective work (Haines &
may become more likely if a specific action is undertaken now Taggar, 2006), and they are more likely to be corporate citizens
may all reflect adaptations that were shaped by natural selection. who help coworkers rather than compete with them (Leung,
2008).

INDIVIDUALISTS stress their superiority over others on

FROM INDIVIDUALISM TO COLLECTIVISM attributes that pertain to autonomy and independence, but
collectivists think of themselves as more relational and self-
PALMER and GORMAN personify the differences between sacrificing than others (Sedikides, Gaertner, & Toguchi, 2003).
individualism and collectivism.

EXCHANGE AND COMMUNAL RELATIONS

INDIVIDUALISM
 Individualists and collectivists tend to differ in their overall
 A tradition, ideology, or personal outlook that emphasizes conceptualization of relationships themselves, with
the primacy of the individual and his or her rights, individualism associated with the exchange of resources and
independence, and relationships with other individuals. collectivism focusing on sharing communal resources
 Is based on the INDEPENDENCE of each individual.  Individuals in exchange relationships monitor their inputs into
 This perspective assumes that people are AUTONOMOUS and the group, strive to maximize the rewards they personally
must be free to act and think in ways that they prefer, rather receive through membership, and will become dissatisfied if
than submit to the demands of the group their group becomes too costly for them
 Each person is also unique—a true individual—and all people
are encouraged to strive to achieve outcomes and goals that will
personally benefit them.
Exchange Relationship

COLLECTIVISM
 An interpersonal association between individuals based on each
person’s desire to increase the rewards they receive from
others in the relationship.

Communal Relationship

 An interpersonal association between individuals who are more

concerned with what others get rather than what they
themselves receive.

NORM OF RECIPROCITY

 A social standard that enjoins individuals to pay back in kind

PERSONAL IDENTITY
what they receive from others.
 The “me” component of the self-concept that derives from
EQUITY NORM
individualistic qualities such as traits, beliefs, and skills.
 A social standard that encourages distributing rewards and
resources to members in proportion to their inputs.
SOCIAL IDENTITY (OR COLLECTIVE SELF)
EQUALITY NORM
 The “we” component of the self-concept that includes all those
 A social standard that encourages distributing rewards and
qualities attendant to relationships with other people, groups,
resources equally among all members.
and society.

SOCIAL OBLIGATIONS

 JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU, an agreement, often only

implicitly recognized, that obligates the individual to support
the “general will” of society as an “indivisible part of the
whole.”

INDEPENDENT (IDIOCENTRIC)
SELF-SERVING
 An individual who is dis positionally predisposed to put his or
 Emphasizing one’s own needs, perspective, and importance, her own personal interests and motivations above the group’s
particularly in contrast to those of other individuals or the group interests and goals.
(egocentric).

GROUP-SERVING
INTERDEPENDENT (ALLOCENTRIC)
 Emphasizing the group’s needs, perspectives, and importance,
particularly in contrast to those of individual members or oneself  An individual who is dis positionally predisposed to put the
(sociocentric). group’s goals and needs above his or her own.

ULTIMATUM GAME

 An experimental bargaining situation in which one individual, OPTIMAL DISTINCTIVENESS THEORY

the allocator, must propose a division of a shared resource to
other members; if they reject the allocator’s proposal, no one A conceptual analysis proposed by MARILYN BREWER that
receives any of the resource. assumes individuals strive to maintain a balance between three
basic needs:

a) the need to be assimilated by the group

b) the need to be connected to friends and loved ones
c) and the need for autonomy and differentiation.
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES PROTOTYPES (OR STEREOTYPES)

People from individualistic and collectivistic cultures even insult one  A socially shared set of cognitive generalizations (e.g., beliefs,
another differently. expectations) about the qualities and characteristics of the
typical member of a particular group or social category.
Personal insults, such as “You are stupid,” characterize conflicts in
individualistic cultures, whereas remarks about one’s family and
group typify disputes between two collectivists (Semin & Rubini,
1990). The very idea of self may differ across cultures. In Japan, a SELF-STEREOTYPING (OR AUTOSTEREOTYPING)
relatively collectivistic culture, the word for self, jibun, means “one’s
 Accepting socially shared generalizations about the
portion of the shared space” (Hamaguchi, 1985). To the pendent
prototypical characteristics attributed to members of one’s group
from the environment is very foreign,” as people are not perceived
as accurate descriptions of oneself.
apart from the existing social context (Azuma, 1984, p. 973).

SOCIAL IDENTIFICATION

 Accepting the group as an extension of the self, and therefore

basing one’s self-definition on the group’s qualities and
characteristics.

MOTIVATION AND SOCIAL IDENTITY

EVALUATING THE SELF

MICHAEL HOGG (2005) suggests that at least two basic motives

influence the way social categorization and identification processes
combine to shape one’s sense of self:

Individuals are motivated to think well of themselves, and since their

groups comprise a significant portion of their selves, they maintain
their self-worth by thinking well of their groups

Hogg suggests that self-understanding is a core motive for most

people, and that groups offer people a means of understanding
themselves.

FROM PERSONAL IDENTITY TO SOCIAL IDENTITY

COLLECTIVE SELF-ESTEEM
SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY
 A person’s overall assessment of that portion of their self-
 A theoretical analysis of group processes and intergroup concept that is based on their relationships with others and
relations that assumes groups influence their members’ self- membership in social groups.
concepts and self-esteem, particularly when individuals
categorize themselves as group members and identify with the
group. BASKING IN REFLECTED GLORY (BIRGing)

 Seeking direct or indirect association with prestigious or

successful groups or individuals.
MINIMAL INTERGROUP SITUATION
CUTTING OFF REFLECTED FAILURE (CORFing)
 A research procedure developed by HENRI TAJFEL AND
JOHN TURNER in their studies of intergroup conflict that  Distancing oneself from a group that performs poorly
involved creating temporary groups of anonymous, unrelated
people.

SOCIAL CATEGORIZATION INGROUP–OUTGROUP BIAS

 The perceptual classification of people, including the self, into  The tendency to view the in group, its members, and its
categories. products more positively than other groups, their members, and
their products. Ingroup favoritism is more common than
outgroup rejection.
SOCIAL CREATIVITY

 Restricting comparisons between the ingroup and other groups

to tasks and outcomes where the ingroup is more successful than
other groups and avoiding areas in which other groups surpass
the ingroup