World Watch Geography TG 1 22 Dec

UNIT
CHRISTINE MOORCROFT
WORLD WATCH SECOND EDITION
GEOGRAPHY
A Geography Course for Grade 6
TEACHING GUIDE
1 I
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Published in Pakistan by
Oxford University Press
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PO Box 8214, Karachi-74900, Pakistan
© Oxford University Press 2024
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
First Edition published in 2018
Second Edition published in 2024
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and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
ISBN 9789697342341
Introduction
An outline of the course
World Watch Geography (Second Edition) is a geography course for the 21st century. It is
designed for secondary grades that want to stimulate curiosity, thinking skills, and a love
of learning. The course comprises four components: Student’s Textbooks, Skills Books, My
E-Mate companion website, and Teaching Guides.
Core features
• It draws its content and skills from the National Curriculum for Pakistan (2022) and
international secondary school syllabuses with special focus on Pakistan.
• At all levels, learning is built on students’ knowledge; the teacher eliciting what they
already know and building on this, not simply loading them with facts.
• The language, content, and tasks are progressively graded according to class levels.
• Each level is split into separate units, each focusing on a different topic.
• High priority is given to independent and critical thinking skills and building
geospatial skills.
• Ideas for discussion are provided to help students to express their own ideas in open-
ended tasks.
• Mapping skills are taught in a progressive way that builds on the students’ previous
learning.
• Diagrams and charts/tables are used to vary the presentation of content.
• Students are encouraged to make connections between the geographical environment
and the way people live.
Student’s Books
• The Student’s Books form the core of the course. The illustrations, photographs, and
maps bring alive the familiar environment and distant places, and both natural and
man-made geographical features.
• The ‘Contents’ page details the learning outcomes for each unit.
• Each unit of the Student’s Book consists mainly of reading texts and making
observations, followed by assessment questions.
• The ‘Overview’ at the end of each unit virtually represents the various topics in the unit
and how they are interlinked to each other.
• Fact boxes contain interesting information about the relevant topics.
• The ‘Building Skill’ feature box serves as a valuable tool for students to develop
geospatial skills and actively engage with the subject matter. These suggested activities
iii
U N I T Int r o d u c t i o n
provide practical exercises, real-world scenarios, and opportunities for critical thinking,
allowing the students to apply their learning in a meaningful and relevant way.
Skills Books
• At each level, there is an accompanying Skills Book.
• The tasks are varied and enjoyable, and include maps, diagrams, charts or tables,
crosswords, fill-in-the-blanks, and situational questions.
• Skills Book pages should be introduced in class and can be completed either in class or
for homework.
• Students are usually expected to write in the Skills Book.
• There is a brief learning outcome at the top of every page.
Teaching Guides
Teaching Guides are an invaluable resource for the teacher. It provides a framework for
formative assessment of students during each lesson. It has the following features:
• background knowledge
• before we proceed
• expected learning outcomes
• step-by-step lesson plans
• ideas for further activities and student research
• answer keys for Assessments and Skills Book activities
• scheme of work
• geography skills checklist
Components of the Lesson Plan

• Topics and Page Numbers: Knowing the topics and page numbers helps the teacher
quickly locate and reference the textbook’s content.
• Introduction: A well-crafted introduction sets the stage for the lesson to help the
teacher grab students’ attention and provide context. It helps in making the lesson
more engaging and relevant to the students.
• Steps Using Student Books: These steps guide the teacher in effectively presenting
the textbook’s content. The logical sequence of actions for content delivery includes
strategies, explanations, and activities that promote learning and understanding.
• Homework: Assignments and assessments allow students to practice what they have
learned during the lesson. Teachers can assign exercises or tasks from the textbook to
reinforce the concepts.
• Discussion and Review: A summarised review of the lesson allows for active learning
by students, encouraging metacognition and critical thinking. Discussions provide
students with the opportunity to ask questions and clarify doubts.
iv
Content
No. Unit Features Page

Background knowledge for the unit 1
Before we proceed 2
Structure of the
Expected Learning Outcomes 3
1 Earth and types of
rocks Lesson Plan # 1 4
Answers for Assessments and Skills Book 16
Background and Lesson Plans 21

Before we proceed 21
Mountains, Plateaus, Expected Learning Outcomes 22
2
and Valleys Lesson Plan # 1 23

Climatic Regions of Expected Learning Outcomes 41
3
the World Lesson Plan # 1 42

4 Forests of the World
Lesson Plan # 1 63

5 Natural Disasters
Lesson Plan # 1 82
v
U N I T Int r o d u c t i o n

Changing the
6 Earth and Human
Activities Lesson Plan # 1 102
Scheme of Work of Chapters 117
Geography Skills Checklist 128
vi
1
Structure of the Earth
UNIT
and Types of Rocks

Background knowledge for the unit
Geography studies the Earth’s physical features, climate, population, and how humans
interact with the environment. It helps us understand the world, including the landscapes,
cultures, and ecosystems that make each place unique. In today’s modern world,
geography is aided by advanced tools and technologies that enhance our understanding
and analysis of the Earth’s features. You will briefly explore some of these modern tools
and their significance in geography.
Modern tools and technologies have revolutionised the field of geography, enabling us to
explore, understand, and analyse the Earth’s features in ways previously unimaginable.
From GIS and remote sensing to GPS and digital mapping, these tools enhance our ability
to study landscapes, monitor environmental changes, and make informed policy decisions.
Embracing these modern tools is crucial for students and professionals alike, as they open
exciting possibilities for exploration and research in the dynamic field of geography.
Moving further, students will also study about the internal structure of the Earth and
different types of rocks. Rock is a natural material made up of solid crystals of different
minerals that have fused together. Rocks can be grouped into three basic types: igneous,
sedimentary, and metamorphic. Igneous rocks are volcanic formed from molten material.
Extrusive rocks (e.g., pumice, basalt, obsidian, tephrite, etc.) are formed from lava that
has solidified on the surface of the Earth. Intrusive rocks (e.g., granite, gabbro, quartz) are
formed by magma that has solidified underground. When igneous rocks cool quickly, they
have small crystals; when they cool slowly, they have large crystals. The most common
igneous rock is granite, which makes up large parts of every continent.
Under the sea, the main rock is basalt, the most common volcanic rock. Basalt can
sometimes be intrusive (formed underground). The oldest rocks on Earth are types of
granite: geologists think that some granite in Australia is more than four billion years
old. Sedimentary rocks are formed when other rocks are eroded. They are made up of
fragments of other rocks, and many (mainly limestone) contain the remains of plants or
animals, and fossils. Other sedimentary rocks include chalk, flint, sandstone, mudstone,
shale, dolomite, and tufa.
A fossil is the preserved remains of a plant or animal that lived at least 10,000 years ago,
or it is the trace of these remains. Some of the oldest fossils are the remains of algae that
lived in oceans more than 3 billion years ago. Preserved remains include bones, shells, and
teeth. Trace fossils are not fossilized remains, but the fossilized traces of organisms, such
as the imprint of a leaf, skeleton, or footprint. When animal or plant material is fossilized,
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U N I T 1 S t r u c tu r e o f t h e E a r t h a n d T y p e s o f R o c k s
it has been covered with sediment (such as sand), or lava, soon after it died, so that it did
not decompose. Minerals from the sediment seep into the plant or animal remains. Amber
is a type of fossil formed from the sticky resin of trees.
Metamorphic rocks are formed when sedimentary or igneous rocks are changed by
pressure, heat, or both. Examples are quartzite (made from sandstone), marble (from
limestone), gneiss (from granite), and slate (from shale). Soil is formed from eroded
material, but there are several factors that affect soil:
• Composition: Rock is made of different minerals.
• Time: 1 cm depth of soil takes about 1000 years to form.
• The shape of the land: The soil that forms is affected by the slope of the land and its
aspect (whether it faces north, south, east, or west) because different aspects have
different temperatures, wind, and rainfall.
• Drainage: Soil is changed by how well water carrying dissolved materials passes
through it.
• Climate: Rainfall and temperature affect the plants and other living things in the soil,
and how well water evaporates depends on the surface of the soil.
• Vegetation affects the amount of humus (organic material) in the soil.
• Human activity, such as construction, can change the angle of a slope or the vegetation
on the ground. It can alter drainage patterns.
Before we proceed
For this unit it will be useful to have some knowledge about geography and what maps
are, how did they look initially with plenty of examples of different types of maps, so that
the students can use them to learn how to use them, to identify the purposes of different
kinds of maps, and to look for (and use) the key elements: title, north sign, symbols and
key, scale, and grid lines. The collection of maps should include a globe, physical and
political maps of the world and of Pakistan, maps of some students’ hometowns, tourist
maps, street maps, and plans of places such as shopping malls, tourist centres such as
wildlife parks, housing schemes, etc.
To prepare for this unit, study GIS, GPS, and remote sensing with a simplified approach
that introduces the basic concepts and practical applications of these technologies. Start
by familiarising yourself with basic geographical concepts such as maps, coordinates, and
the Earth’s features. Learn about latitude and longitude, continents, countries, and major
landmarks. Use these to explain how we know about the internal structure of the Earth.
Also, collect as many samples of identified rocks as possible, also samples of soil of
different types: clay, silt, sand, chalk, loam, and peat. This is easier if you, or anyone you
know, are visiting different places. If you do not know what the samples are, you and the
students can use information from this unit to try to identify them. If possible, also have
some identified, labelled, samples, which can be bought from school suppliers. Failing
this, close-up photos can be used, but the real thing is much better.
2
If it is not possible to take the students to look at rock in their surroundings, ask them to
notice anything in or around their homes that is made from rock; let them look around
the school for examples of uses of different types of rock, and have plenty of photos of
different rock used in buildings, pavements, ornamental features such as statues, floors,
kitchen worktops, and so on; also those in everyday use (the abrasive material used in
‘glasspaper’ or ‘sandpaper’ is made from sand; other useful abrasives are corundum, flint,
and pumice). This will help them determine the economic uses of rocks and identify how
many different types of rock are in everyday use.
Expected learning outcomes of the Unit

Students should be able to:
• define Geography and describe its importance from the uses of its modern tools
• describe the internal structure of the Earth
• differentiate between three layers of the Earth
• explore the theory of tectonic plates
• describe the characteristics of different types of rock (igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic)
• explain how rocks and soil are formed
• identify different types of rock and soil from samples and pictures
• ask questions and draw conclusions about their observations of the types of rock and
soil they see around them
• explain how different soils vary in colour, permeability, and nutrient content ’
• identify the most found rocks in Pakistan
• describe the importance of rocks in the economy of the region.
• recognise the modern techniques in geography (GIS, GPS, google maps, Google Earth,
etc.)
• use maps, google maps, GIS, etc. to understand the structure of the earth and rock
formation.
• analyse the importance and uses of rocks.
• gather, organise, and interpret data to conclude the types of rocks found in Pakistan.
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Lesson Plan # 1
Reference pages 1-3
Topics Resources
• Geography globe
•
• Tools of Geography • map of your city
• atlas
• How are maps read
• paper or printouts of a
• More tools of geography
basic map of the school
grounds
• colored pencils or
markers
• rulers or measuring
tapes
• computers/mobile
devices/ GPS units
(optional)
• Skills Book activity
‘What is Earth made up
of’
Prior knowledge / Introduction Duration: 5-10 min
• emote sensing involves collecting data about the Earth’s
R Teacher’s Notes
surface from a distance, typically using satellites or aerial
platforms. It provides valuable information about land
use, vegetation patterns, weather patterns, and changes
over time. Remote sensing data helps map, monitor
environmental changes, and study natural disasters like
hurricanes or forest fires.
• he Global Positioning System, or GPS, on the other hand
T
is a satellite-based navigation system that allows precise
location determination on the Earth’s surface. GPS devices
and applications are widely used in geography for mapping,
navigation, and tracking purposes. They help us determine
coordinates, plan routes, and collect field data with high
accuracy.
• ith the advent of the internet, online mapping and
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visualization tools have become increasingly popular.
Platforms like Google Maps and interactive web-based
applications provide access to maps, satellite imagery,
street views, and 3D models. These tools allow users to
explore locations, plan routes, and visualize geographical
information from anywhere in the world.
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Steps using the Student’s Book Duration: 35-40 min

1. M
ind map with students what do they think of geography Teacher’s Notes
as a study. (It is a fascinating subject that can help us to
understand the world around us. It can help us to learn
about different cultures, climates, and ecosystems. It can
also help us to understand the impact of human activities on
the environment.)
2. I ntroduce geographic tools by showing Google maps and
urban settlement or road plans to discuss its importance and
the role of modern technology in making it.
3. I ntroduce and discuss how Geographic Information
Systems, or GIS, are powerful tools used in geography
to capture, store, analyse, and present spatial data. (GIS
enables us to visualise and interpret information about
landforms, vegetation, population distribution, and other
geographical phenomena. It helps us make informed
urban planning, environmental management, and disaster
response decisions.)
4. A
fter introducing and discussing basic concepts of GIS, GPS,
and remote sensing, show examples of maps and satellite
images to give students a visual understanding of the
information that can be collected and analysed.
5. D
istribute the maps of the school grounds to each student or
group.
6. I nstruct the students to explore the school environment,
both indoors and outdoors, and identify various features
such as classrooms, playgrounds, entrances, trees, or other
landmarks under supervision of adults.
7. U
sing coloured pencils or markers, ask students to annotate
the map by adding symbols or labels to represent the
identified features.
8. E
ncourage students to measure distances between different
points on the map using rulers or measuring tapes. For more
advanced students, if available, have them use GPS units
or mobile devices with GPS capabilities to mark specific
locations on the map
9. D
iscuss their findings when back in the classroom. Ask
questions such as:
• What did you observe during the mapping activity?
• How did you mark the different features on the map?
5
• D
id you encounter any challenges while measuring
distances or using GPS?
7. I ntroduce the concept of remote sensing and explain how
satellite images can provide additional information about
the school environment that may not be visible during the
mapping activity.
8. S
how satellite or aerial photographs of the school grounds,
comparing them to the students’ annotated maps.
Discuss the differences and similarities between the two
representations.
9. R
ecap the key concepts learned during the activity,
including GIS, GPS, and remote sensing. Discuss potential
GIS, GPS, and remote sensing applications in real-world
scenarios, such as urban planning, disaster response, or
environmental monitoring.
Homework
Encourage students to explore further and think about how these technologies can be used to
solve problems or enhance their understanding of the world around them.
• For an extended project, students can collaborate to create a more detailed and
comprehensive map of the school grounds using digital mapping software or online tools.
This can involve incorporating additional layers of information, such as land use, vegetation,
or accessibility features.
• Ensure students have permission and supervision to explore the school environment and use
any electronic devices required for the activity.
Discussion and Review
Ask the students what they have learnt in this lesson. They could make a note of this,
summarizing the lesson, for example:
 I learned that geography is
 I learned that people began to draw maps in ancient times.
 I learned that there are different types of maps for different purposes.
 I learned that the first maps were drawn by navigators and explorers, and by scholars who
learned from them.
 I learned that digital mapping involves creating, manipulating, and displaying maps using
computer-based tools.
 I have learned the difference between GIS, GPS, and remote sensing.
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Lesson #2
Reference pages 3-6
Topics Resources
• Internal Structure of the Earth • Multimedia or a
• Tectonic Plates poster for the internal
structure of the Earth
• What is rock?
• Image of a seismograph
• What are rocks made of?
• samples (or photos) of
different types of rock
• magnifying glass
‘Tectonic plate
boundaries’
Introduction Duration: 5-10 min
Ask the students what they know about the materials the Earth is Teacher’s Notes
made of and what we would find if we could dig or excavate down
to the centre of the Earth.
Ask the students about any types of rock they have noticed in
use in and around their homes and school. Ask what the rocks
are used for and whether they know what type of rock is used for
each purpose: for example, hard rock is good for floors, outdoor
paving, and kitchen worktops; softer rocks are easier to carve for
ornamental purposes; if chalk is used at school, ask what makes it
good to use for writing. (It is soft and wears away easily.)
Using the Student’s book Duration: 35-40 min
ternal structure of the Erath: Teacher’s Notes
1. Ask the students to read page 3-5 of the Student’s Book and help
them to read the labels on the diagram of the Earth’s internal
structure. They should compare this with their own diagrams so
that they can see what they have learnt. They should then read
the table on page 4 that describes the materials that make up
each layer of the Earth.
Explain that the depths for each layer given in the table are
the greatest depths of each layer, from the surface—not the
thickness of each layer. (Apart from the crust whose thickness is
the same as its depth from the surface, as it is the top layer.)
2. Explain that the parts of the Earth’s crust that are under the
oceans are called the oceanic crust and those where there is
land are the continental crust. Explain that the oceanic crust is
between 5–10 km thick, whereas the continental crust is about
25–35 km thick. They could work out the thickness of each layer
of the Earth using the information in the table. This could be
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recorded in their notebooks on a copy of the table, with an extra

column added, headed ‘Thickness’. Ask them to list the layers of
the Earth in order from thinnest to thickest. Remind the students
to read ‘It’s a fact’.
Tectonic plates:
1. Explain that the continents are part of large masses of rock that
move around on top of the softer material of the upper part of
the Earth’s mantle, and that when they pull apart, push against
one another, or grind past one another, they change the shape of
the land. Look at the map on page 5 (find one to show enlarged
on multimedia If possible) with them and point out the places
where the tectonic plates meet (boundaries) and ask the students
to look at the arrows to find out in which direction each plate is
moving.
2. Explain that the directions of the movements where the tectonic
plates meet give rise to different types of boundaries between
the plates:
• Where
the plates slide past one another, the boundary is
called a conservative boundary.
• Where they are pulling apart, it is a divergent boundary.
• here they are pushing against one another, it is a
W
convergent boundary.
3. Ask if they remember what they learned about the formation of
mountains, valleys, plateaus, and plains and how the movement
of tectonic plates created these. The students can now read more
about the tectonic plates on pages 5-6, including the information
on the photos, maps, and diagrams. Invite them to tell the story
of the Indian subcontinent.
Suggested Activity
Ask the students to draw diagrams to show what we might find if
we could bore a hole down to the centre of the Earth.
They should keep their diagrams, so that they can compare them
with what geologists have discovered using scientific equipment.
What are rocks:

The Earth’s interior is constantly moving and changing. The mantle
is convecting, which means that hot material rises and cold material
sinks. This convection is what drives the Earth’s plate tectonics,
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which is the movement of the Earth’s tectonic plates. The Earth’s

core is also generating the Earth’s magnetic field.
The Earth’s internal structure is a complex and fascinating topic.
Geologists are constantly learning more about the Earth’s interior
and how it works. This knowledge helps us to understand
the Earth’s natural hazards, such as earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions. It also helps us to understand the Earth’s resources, such
as oil and gas.
Ask the students to read pages 6 of the Student’s Book ‘What is
rock?’ and ‘What are rocks made of?’, to learn about the definition
of rock, its structure, and how it is formed.They will also find
out about the properties of some rocks that make them useful for
certain purposes. Ask them to compare the magnified photos of
porous and non-porous rock to explain what these terms mean
and introduce other words that are also used for this property of
rocks (permeable and impermeable) and to say how their structures
differ.
Homework
Students can do question B and C. They can also attempt Skill Book activity ‘Tectonic Plate
boundaries’ independently.
Discussion and review
 I learned that the Earth is made up of layers of different types of material.
 I learned that the continents are part of the Earth’s crust and that this is the thin outer layer of
the Earth.
 I learned that the Earth’s crust and the top part of the mantle is split into huge plates of rocky
material called tectonic plates.
 I learned that the Indian subcontinent was part of a supercontinent called Gondwana.
 I learned that tectonic plates have moved around and are still moving.
 I learned that the forces of the moving tectonic plates create landforms such as mountains,
valleys, plateaus, and plains.
 I learned that rocks are made up of organic and inorganic material.
 I learned that rocks can be permeable and impermeable.
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Lesson #3
Reference Pages 7-10
Topics Resources
• Different types of rocks • samples (or photos) of
• Igneous different types of rock
• Sedimentary • magnifying glass
• metamorphic • 4 Skills book topics
(Rock Types, stalagmite
and stalactites, Rock
quiz, Guess what rock
it is)
• Skills book activity
‘Rock Types’
‘Stalagmite and
stalactites’
‘Rock quiz’
‘Guess what rock it is
The students can then read page 3 ‘Different types of rock’ and Teacher’s Notes
‘Igneous rocks’, and ‘It’s a fact’ and look at the photos and read
the captions. They should then be able to name some examples of
igneous rocks. Ask what makes granite good for kitchen worktops.
(It is hard, has attractive patterns and can be polished.) Also ask
them to look at the photograph of Zuma Rock, Nigeria. It is an
example of a natural feature made of gabbro. Ask them to look at
the photograph of the world’s tallest cliffs, which are formed from
granite (the Trango Towers in the Karakoram Mountains).
They could compare the photos of the Trango Towers and the cliffs
at Beachy Head, England, and comment on why the Beachy Head
cliffs have worn away and collapsed, whereas the Trango Towers
have stayed tall. (Beachy Head cliffs have the force of the sea,
carrying sediment and pebbles, eroding them and they are made
of chalk—a soft rock; Trango Towers are not attacked by the sea
and are made of granite, a hard rock that is not easily weathered or
eroded.) Ask what they can tell from the photo and caption about
what was happening on the coast of Antrim in Northern Ireland
when the rocks there were formed. The students could write these
questions and their answers in their notebooks.
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Ask the students to name some sedimentary rocks they

have read about (sandstone, limestone, and chalk). They
can then read page 8 ‘Sedimentary rocks’ and study the
diagram showing how these rocks are formed. Ask about the
differences between sedimentary and igneous rocks. They
should be able to use the terms permeable/non-permeable,
and soluble/insoluble correctly.
They can then read about an example of a sedimentary
rock (limestone), and some of its features. Ask what makes
caverns so common in limestone areas, and how stalactites
and stalagmites are formed. Ask the students to read page 10
‘Metamorphic rocks’, and to look at the photo and read the
caption. They can then answer Questions D and E.
Homework
They can then answer Questions D and E. They can also answer Skills Books activities ‘Rock
types, Stalagmite and stalactite, Rock quiz, Guess which rock it is’ independently or as a group
activity.
 I learned that there are three main types of rock: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.
 I learned about the characteristics of igneous rocks and how they are formed.
 I learned what makes rocks suitable for different purposes.
 I learned how sedimentary rocks are formed.
 I learned about some examples of sedimentary rocks.
 I learned about some of the features of limestone.
 I learned that metamorphic rocks are formed when other rocks are changed by heat and
 pressure.
 I learned that although coal and diamonds are made from carbon from organic remains, they
are formed by pressure, in a similar way to metamorphic rocks.
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Lesson #4
Reference Pages 10-13
Topics Resources
• Rock cycle • a box of classroom
• Economic benefits of rocks chalk
• What is soil? • the same quantity of
soil
• Types of soil
• a grater, such as a
nutmeg or cheese
grater or something to
crush the chalk with a
jar of water
• a small, shallow tray,
about 15–20 cm long
and 10–15 cm wide
‘Decoding the rock
cycle’
‘Uses of rocks’
• Skills Book activity ‘A
soil profile’
‘Clay, sand, silt, or
loam’
Explain that, just as the Earth’s tectonic plates continue to move, Teacher’s Notes
and to change the landscape, the formation of rocks is a continuous
process, with rock being formed, weathered, eroded, and
transformed into soil and new rocks. So, just as we have the water
cycle, in which water is changed from one form to another and
moves from place to place, this process is called the ‘rock cycle’.
Suggested activity
Demonstrate how the rock cycle works by grating or crushing at
least ten sticks of chalk and collecting the powdered chalk in the
small tray. Mix it with water in a jar to make a thin, runny paste.
Mix this with about the same amount of soil, then spread it in the
tray and leave it in a sunny place to dry. Show the students how to
record this as a cycle:
Rock (chalk) was worn away (weathered). → This was washed
away in water as sediment. → It flowed to another place. → The
water evaporated. → A new form of rock was deposited.
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Ask the students to read page 10 of the Student’s Book ‘The Teacher’s Notes
rock cycle’ and explain that there are many different processes
that change rock and form new rocks. Some of these are like the
demonstration; others use heat and pressure. Ask what else is
formed when rocks are weathered (soil). Read the importance
of rocks. Introduce the idea of economy and how our daily life
revolves around economic decisions.
Ask students to read pages 12-13 ‘What is soil?’ and its types. Check
that students study the diagram that shows how soil profiles can be
seen where deep holes are dug in the ground, for example, for road
works or construction. They can also be seen where riverbanks have
been eroded by floods. Ask them to look at the soil profile diagram
and explain that a soil profile shows the different layers of soil that
have formed over many thousands of years. Read out the letter that
labels each layer and ask the students what that layer consists of.
They should also read ‘It’s a fact’. Now students can then complete
Question F and G.
Homework
Students can answer question F. The Skills Book activities ‘Decoding the rock cycle’, ‘Uses of
rocks’, ‘A soil profile’, ‘Clay, sand, silt, or loam’ could be completed for homework, with the
student’s using information from their practical activities using rocks, and on information from
this unit.
 I learned that rocks change their form over millions of years under various weather
conditions like rain, wind, ice, temperature, and pressure. This process is called the rock
cycle.
 I learned rocks have significant economic importance as they serve as primary sources of
valuable minerals used in various industries, such as construction, manufacturing, and
energy production.
 I learned that soil begins as particles of weathered and eroded rock.
 I learned about the factors that affect soil formation.
 I learned how a soil profile shows the layers of soil that have formed over the years.
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Lesson #5
Reference Page 14
Topics Resources
• What is a mineral? • Samples of different
minerals
Impact of mining
Minerals are the building blocks of our planet. They are naturally Teacher’s Notes
occurring substances that form the Earth’s crust and have distinct
chemical compositions and crystal structures. Minerals come in a
dazzling array of colors, shapes, and sizes, and they contribute to
the stunning variety of rocks and landscapes we see around us.
Minerals are more than just geological curiosities – they are integral
to our lives in countless ways. From the sparkle in gemstones
to the strength in construction materials, minerals are essential
components of everything from technology to art. Whether you’re
admiring the glint of a diamond or holding a smartphone in your
hand, you’re interacting with the incredible world of minerals.
Ask students to read page 14. Explain that soil contains minerals Teacher’s Notes
from the rock it was formed from, as well as others that have been
deposited in sediment. The students can then read about minerals
on pages 14–15 and notice the different shapes of the crystals that
make up minerals, and the different arrangements of crystals:
shapes that interlock in blocks or sheets. Tell them that there is a
scale for measuring the hardness of minerals, which they can read
about in ‘It’s a fact’ on page 11. Students can now do Question A.
Homework
Students can now do Question A and G. The Skills Book activity ‘Impact of mining’ could be
completed for homework, with the student’s using information from their practical activities
using rocks, and on information from this unit.
 I learned that minerals are made of inorganic materials.
 I learned that minerals contain crystals which can be of different shapes
 I learned that each mineral has a chemical formula.
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Answers to assessments
A) Choose the correct answer:
i. 1%
ii. divergent
iii. northwards
iv. sedimentary
v. igneous
vi. metamorphic
vii. diamond
viii. porous
B 1 a) Continental drift theory: Alfred Wegener, a geophysicist and meteorologist,
proposed the Continental Drift Theory in 1912. According to this theory, the
Earth was once a single super continent, called Pangea, before breaking up into
several smaller continents.
Theory of Plate Tectonics: The lithosphere is separated into plates that move
over the asthenosphere. The tectonic plates are not still; they move slowly across
the planet. This movement is called continental drift. They can move because
the lithosphere sits on top of a layer of less rigid material the asthenosphere.
Tectonic plates move between 0–100 mm across the Earth each year.
b) crust, lithosphere, asthenosphere, lower mantle, outer core, inner core
c) the crust
d) The thinnest parts are under the oceans.
C 1. A divergent boundary is one between tectonic plates where they are pulling apart.
As the tectonic plates pull apart, magma flows into the gap and forms a ridge.
2 a) up to 10 centimetres, but usually just 1 or 2 cm
b) It turned around.
c) The Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate are pushing against one another and
pushing up the land where they meet. The Himalayas are on this land. As the two
plates continue to push against one another, the mountains continue to rise slowly.
D 1. The rock cycle is a continuous process in which rocks undergo transformation over
time. It involves the creation, erosion, transportation, deposition, and reformation of
rocks. Igneous rocks can be weathered and eroded, eventually forming sedimentary
rocks. Sedimentary rocks can be buried, compacted, and lithified, resulting in
the formation of sedimentary rocks. Both igneous and sedimentary rocks can
be exposed to high heat and pressure, leading to the formation of metamorphic
rocks. Metamorphic rocks can then undergo melting and remelting, giving rise to
magma and restarting the cycle. The rock cycle is influenced by various geological
processes, such as tectonic activity, weathering, and erosion.
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2. They are formed when rainwater or ground water seeps through the soil and
reaches the rocks below. It runs into small spaces in the limestone and erodes holes
and cracks, called swallow holes or sinkholes. Some of these holes grow large
enough to become caverns.
3. Water drains through the ground into sinkholes.
4. Limestone has versatile applications across various industrial sectors. It is
extensively used as a building material in infrastructure projects, including
buildings, bridges, and roads. Pakistan’s cement industry heavily relies on
limestone as a primary raw material. It also generates foreign revenue through
exports. It plays a vital role in producing iron and steel and is also utilised
in agriculture to make fertilisers. Limestone provides essential nutrients like
calcium and magnesium to the soil, promoting healthy plant growth. It is used in
producing various chemicals, such as calcium chloride, calcium carbonate, and
calcium hydroxide, with applications in pharmaceuticals, food processing, paper
manufacturing, and water treatment.
E 1 a) and b) Answer can vary.
c) Marble can have a wide range of colours, but three common colours of marble
are white, grey, beige, black, green, multicoloured.
d) Allow the use of the Internet or other sources. Most common place for marble
quarrying in Pakistan are
F 1 a–b) the students’ own responses. Examples are given here:
Rock Something made from it Why the rock is good for this use
Limestone cement It is easily crushed.
Sandstone building It is quite soft and easy to cut into blocks
for building.
Chalk sticks used for writing It wears away easily and leaves marks
on a dark, matt surface.
Granite kitchen worktops It is hard and can be polished.
Obsidian sharp knives It is very hard and, when cut and
shaped, it has smooth surfaces.
Pumice as an abrasive for removing hard It is abrasive and quite rough, but light
skin and soft— easy to cut and shape.
Marble for building It has very attractive patterns and its
light colour (often white) gleams in the
sunshine.
Slate roof tiles It is impermeable and easy to cut into
thin sheets.
2 a) igneous rock
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b) quartz, feldspar, and mica.

c) It can be found in many parts of Pakistan, for example: in the Karakoram and
Himalaya mountains in the north; the Chaghai Hills in Balochistan; and the
Karoonjhar Mountains of Sindh. There are more than 3,000 shades of granite. Gilgit-
Baltistan has white granite. The minerals give granite its colour: for example, the
Karoonjhar Mountains in Sindh have mainly pink granite, but there is blue granite
in some parts of the Himalayas and black granite in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.
d) Rocks hold significant economic importance, particularly due to their mineral
composition. Various minerals found in rocks have valuable applications. For
instance, magnetite plays a crucial role in the production of steel, which is used
extensively in the manufacturing of items like nails, kitchen appliances, furniture,
tools, bridges, buildings, automobiles, construction equipment, machinery,
highways, ships, trains, and railroads. Minerals like iron oxides, talc, zinc oxide,
and titanium dioxide are finely ground and processed to create cosmetic products.
Additionally, phosphate rock, another mineral derived from rocks, is utilised in the
production of fertilizers, contributing to agricultural practices.
G 1 a) A
soil horizon is the different layers of soil that have formed over thousands or
millions of years.
b)
O organic material (material from plants and animals)
A minerals that dissolve in water that seeps through the soil
B deposited minerals
C weathered rock
R solid rock that has not been weathered
Answers for Skills Book activities

Skills Book activity ‘What is the Earth made of?’
A-C. The diagram should be labelled to match the one on page 3 of the Student’s Book and
the labelling boxes should include as much of the following information as possible.
Skills Book activity ‘Tectonic plate boundaries’
A 1–2. Ask them to look at each diagram and compare it with the diagrams on page 4
and 5 of the Student’s Book to find out what kind of boundary it is and how it can
change the shape of the land. They can then write a heading for each diagram and
an explanation of what is happening.
Skills Book activity ‘Rock types’
A. (top-left caption) Rocks formed when magma moves up to the surface of the
Earth and cools just below it (top-right caption) Rocks formed deep inside the
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Earth under immense pressure and heat (bottom caption) Rocks formed when
layers of eroded sediment are pressed under lakes, seas, rivers, and oceans
B. (top-right heading) igneous rocks
(top-left heading) metamorphic rocks
(bottom heading) sedimentary rocks
Skills Book activity ‘Stalagmite and stalactites’
Refer to diagram in Students Textbook page 9.
Skills Book activity ‘Rock Quiz’
A 1. sedimentary 6. calcite 11. pumice

2. porous 7. igneous 12. extrusive
3. impermeable 8. granite 13. slate
4. stalactite 9. gabbro 14. marble
5. stalagmite 10. obsidian
Skills Book activity ‘Guess which rock it is’
A 1–2. Rocks formed deep inside the Earth under immense pressure and heat. The
students should play the game as instructed, using the information about rocks in
this unit to answer their partner’s questions with correct answers (yes or no), until
their partner has deduced which rock was chosen.
Skills Book activity ‘Decoding the rock cycle’
A. top to bottom: melting; weathering, erosion, and deposition; compaction and

cementation.
Corner: melting
B. Drawings may vary.
Skills Book activity ‘Uses of rocks’
A. 1. Granite 2. Limestone 3. Sandstone

B. Some answers may vary for the sample the student uses:
Chalk:
• Colour: White or pale gray, because of calcium carbonate content.
• Size: Answers may vary.
• Arrangement and Shape of Crystals or Grains: Chalk is composed of
microscopically small and irregularly shaped calcium carbonate particles, rather
than distinct crystals.
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• Cracks or Breaks in the Rock: Chalk can be relatively soft and prone to fracturing,
leading to the development of cracks and breaks.
• Layering: Chalk can exhibit layers or bedding, often indicating the accumulation of
sediment over time.
• Relative Hardness: Chalk is relatively soft and has a low hardness compared to
many other rocks. It can be easily scratched with a fingernail.
• Chemical Reactivity: Chalk reacts with certain chemicals, especially acids, due to
its calcium carbonate composition. It effervesces when in contact with acids like
hydrochloric acid.
• Presence of Fossils: Chalk is known for containing abundant microscopic fossils
of coccolithophores, which are ancient marine plankton. These fossils are crucial
indicators of the rock’s origin and the ancient environment in which it formed.
Pumice:
• Colour: Pumice can vary in color from white to gray, depending on mineral content
and impurities.
• Arrangement and Shape of Crystals or Grains: Pumice typically has a frothy
appearance due to the presence of gas bubbles during its formation. Its crystals and
grains are often irregularly shaped.
• Cracks or Breaks in the Rock: Pumice is fragile and can easily break into irregular
pieces. It often has a porous texture with interconnected voids.
• Layering: Pumice may not exhibit distinct layering, as it is primarily formed
through volcanic eruptions and subsequent cooling.
• Relative Hardness: Pumice is relatively soft and has a low density due to its high
porosity, making it feel lightweight.
• Chemical Reactivity: Pumice can react with certain chemicals, especially acids, due
to its mineral composition. It can effervesce when exposed to acids.
• Presence of Fossils: Pumice does not typically contain fossils, as it forms from
volcanic processes that do not involve the accumulation of organic material.
Marble:
• Colour: Marble comes in a wide range of colors, including white, gray, pink, green,
and various shades in between. The coloration depends on the mineral impurities
present.
• Arrangement and Shape of Crystals or Grains: Marble’s crystals are usually
interlocking and can vary in shape. The texture can be granular or foliated (with
visible layers of mineral grains).
• Cracks or Breaks in the Rock: Marble is relatively hard and durable, but it can still
break along lines of weakness due to tectonic forces or pressure.
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• Layering: Marble can exhibit layering if it has undergone regional metamorphism.

In such cases, foliated textures may be present.
• Relative Hardness: Marble is relatively hard and can be polished to achieve a
smooth, glossy surface. It’s used in sculptures and architecture due to its hardness.
• Chemical Reactivity: Marble reacts with certain acids, such as those found in
vinegar or lemon juice, leading to effervescence due to its calcium carbonate
composition.
• Presence of Fossils: Marble may contain fossils if the original limestone from which
it formed contained organic material. These fossils can often become distorted or
altered during metamorphism.
Skills Book activity ‘A soil profile’
A 1–2. Students should complete this activity from information given in the Student’s
Book.
B 1–3. Students’ own answers
Skills Book activity ‘Clay, sand, silt, or loam’
A 1. sand 3. silt
2. clay 4. peat
B 1–2. Students’ own answers
Skills Book activity ‘Impact of mining’
State which statement does the student agree with and then analyse possibilities and
limitations:
Possibilities: Mining can boost the economy, create jobs, and stimulate infrastructure
growth. Minerals can be exported to generate foreign exchange revenue and attract
investment for economic development and technology transfer.
Limitations: Mining can harm habitats, air and water, and soil. Proper regulations,
safeguards, and safety are complex but necessary. Infrastructure needs investments,
which could be lacking. Local communities can be displaced, and unsustainable practices
can deplete resources. Prices can be volatile, and geopolitical factors can affect access to
markets. Outdated technology and limited research can hinder responsible extraction.
Mining can conflict with other land uses and safety is crucial for workers.
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2
Mountains, Plateaus,
UNIT
and Valleys
Mountains
There is no exact definition of a mountain, nor any precise distinction between a hill and a
mountain, although mountains usually have steeper sides than hills and are usually higher
than 300 metres. There are three main types of mountains: volcanic, fold, and fault block,
all formed by plate tectonics: when parts of the Earth’s lithosphere (the crust and upper
part of the mantle) move upwards, downwards, or sideways on top of the asthenosphere
(the part of the mantle that is immediately below the lithosphere which has a viscous
consistency). The main mountain ranges are found along tectonic plate boundaries.
The movement of magma (molten rock) can form volcanic mountains. Magma collects
in magma chambers (pools beneath the surface of the Earth), where it stays until it either
cools to form igneous rock, moves into another magma chamber, or erupts as a volcano.
Magma rises through cracks in the crust because it is less dense than the surrounding rock.
It can form a dome mountain where it pushes a large area of rock upwards.
Plateaus
A plateau is an area of high ground (a high plain), with a flat surface and usually with
one or more steeply sloping sides, or even cliffs. Plateaus can be formed in different ways.
Magma rises from the mantle, pushing large, flat areas of rock upwards, in a similar way
to dome mountains, but wider and flatter. Where lava spreads outwards from cracks and
weak areas in the crust, this can form a plateau. Plateaus can be formed where glaciers
erode mountain ranges, leaving high areas between the main mountain ranges. A plateau
can also be formed where water erodes the softer rock of mountains or other landforms,
leaving a high, flat area of harder rock.
Valleys
A valley is an area of lowland between mountains. It is usually longer than it is wide.
Most valleys are V-shaped or U-shaped, depending on how they were formed. V-shaped
valleys are usually formed by fast-flowing water in streams or rivers. U-shaped valleys are
usually formed by glaciers. Rift valleys are formed by the movement of tectonic plates.
Before we proceed
A useful way to introduce the topic of mountains and of helping the students to notice
the significant similarities and differences between mountains is to provide as many
photos of different mountains as possible and ask the students to work in groups to sort
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U N I T 2 M o unt a i ns , P l a t e a us , a n d V a l l e y s
them into sets, according to similarities they notice. They can then give each set a name
or description that distinguishes it from the other sets before learning how each type is
formed into its distinctive shape.
While focusing on the varied landscapes of Pakistan, this unit also provides an
opportunity to consolidate the students’ learning about the natural physical features
themselves (mountains, plateaus, and valleys). There are also opportunities to develop
students’ understanding of how the landscapes affect the lives of people who inhabit them
and how these physical features have influenced the development of settlements.
In a similar way, a selection of photos of plateaus can be used to help the students to
come up with a definition of a plateau. Photos of different types of valleys can be sorted
in a similar way to the photos of mountains, to encourage the students to notice their
distinctive features before learning how each type is formed.
Expected learning outcomes

• explain that tectonic plates are parts of the Earth’s crust and the top layer of the mantle
that have been split up into massive pieces.
• explain how the movement of tectonic plates has formed the landscape.
• identify different types of mountains.
• explain the formation of different types of mountains.
• discover the major types of mountains in Pakistan.
• describe the importance of the Himalayas, Karakorum, and Hindu Kush mountains.
• explain the reasons for frequent earthquakes in Pakistan.
• differentiate between a plateau and a mountain.
• differentiate between V-shaped valleys and U-shaped valleys and their formation.
• describe rift valley and explore where it is located.
• identify some major valleys in Pakistan.
• compare the lifestyles of people living in mountains, plateaus, and valleys.
• describe the importance of the Himalayas in the geography of Pakistan.
• use contours to find out about the elevation and shape of a landscape.
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Lesson Plan 1
Reference Page 17-19
Topics Resources
• How are mountains different from other landscapes? • globe
• Types of mountains (fold and fault block mountains) • Oxford School Atlas
for Pakistan
• 5 towels (about the
same size) in different
colours
• 2 boxes of books, or
other heavy items
‘Tectonic plate and
mountains’
Do the suggested activity mentioned in Background Knowledge Teacher’s Notes
above first and then help students link the descriptions they gave to
each set, according to the appearance of the mountains. Explain that
the shape of mountains depends on how they were formed, and that
they are going to learn about the main ways in which mountains are
formed.
Ask them to look at a physical map of the world to find and name
the main mountain ranges on each continent. Tell the students
that they are now going to find out about two other ways in which
mountains are formed. Explain that tectonic plates can pull apart
with immense force that sometimes makes them break along weak
points or cracks.
Using the Student’s Book Duration: 35-40 min
Ask the students to read the sections on page 17. Tell them that they Teacher’s Notes
are going to carry out an investigation to show how the force of
tectonic plates pushing against one another forms mountains.
Ask the students to read ‘Fault block mountains’ to find out what
happens. Ask them to compare the photos of the fault block
mountains with the photos of fold mountains on page 17-18 and to
describe the differences they can see. If they find this difficult, draw
their attention to the folded ripples shown in the layers of rock in
fold mountains and the straighter layers with sharp breaks in fault
block mountains. They should also use Oxford School Atlas for
Pakistan to find the locations of the mountains in the photos
Activity
Set up the investigation to find out how fold mountains were
formed (page 18). The students should follow the instructions on
23
page 18 and then complete the exercise. Tell them that the boxes
of books or other heavy items represent tectonic plates moving
towards one another and pushing against one another. The towels
represent the edges of the tectonic plates. Ask the students to use
what they observe to help them to explain how tectonic plates form
mountains when they push against one another. (The forces push
the edges of the tectonic plates upwards so that layers of rock fold
into ripples.)
Homework
Ask the students to answer question B and do Skills Book activity ‘Tectonic plates and
mountains’ using a physical map of the world to help them to locate and name the mountain
ranges listed. They should mark the volcanoes as accurately as they can, but the map might
help them only to place these in the correct countries. Ask wha t they notice about the locations
of the main mountain ranges of the world and many of the volcanoes. (They are all close to the
boundaries of tectonic plates.)
 I learned the locations of the world’s main mountain ranges.
 I learned that mountains are formed by forces caused by movements within the Earth.
 I learned that fold mountains are formed where two tectonic plates push against one another.
 I learned how fault block mountains are formed.
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Lesson Plan 2
Topics Resources
• Oxford School Atlas for
Pakistan
• a beaker
• enough clay to make
two layers of clay that
will just fit into the
beaker, as shown in the
diagram below (image
on WWG TG 1 page 49
old SB)
• water mixed with
flour to thicken it (the
paste should be a thick
liquid)
• Skills Book (Formation
of mountains and Grid
references)
Tell the students that they are going to find out how some volcanic Teacher’s Notes
mountains form. Explain that volcanoes can be:
• Active (erupting or likely to erupt): Most scientists consider a
volcano as active, if it has erupted in the last 10,000 years; has
exhibited unusual seismic activity; or produced significant new
gas emissions.
• Extinct (no written records of its activity): It is unlikely to erupt
again because there is no longer a supply of magma.
• Dormant (not known to be active): It has shown no sign of
volcanic activity but there is still a supply of magma.
Volcanic, dome, and residual mountains Teacher’s Notes
Tell the students that they are going to find out how some volcanic
mountains form. Explain that volcanoes can be:
• Active (erupting or likely to erupt): Most scientists consider a
volcano as active, if it has erupted in the last 10,000 years; has
exhibited unusual seismic activity; or produced significant new
gas emissions.
• Extinct (no written records of its activity): It is unlikely to erupt
again because there is no longer a supply of magma.
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• Dormant (not known to be active): It has shown no sign of

volcanic activity but there is still a supply of magma.
Ask the students to look at the photo of Castle Dome Peak in
Arizona and to describe its appearance. Ask what is unusual about
it. They should notice the flat-topped mass of rock. Ask how it
could have formed. Explain that these mountains were formed by
volcanic activity that was different from the formation of a cone
volcano. They might be able to locate these volcanoes on maps and
note their position in relation to tectonic plate boundaries.
Ask the students to read ‘Volcanic mountains’ on page 19, including
‘It’s a fact.’ Ask the students to read the information about dome
mountains and study the diagram on page 20. Ask them to explain
how a dome mountain is formed (if possible, without looking at
the Student’s Book). Ask them to point out the similarities and
differences between the two types of mountains.
Discuss with students the text for residual mountains on page 20
which are the remains of previously existing mountains that have
been subjected to weathering and erosion for a long period. The
erosion process is not even since a softer rock erodes faster than the
harder rock. This leaves the harder rocks behind, forming residual
mountains. Residual mountains typically exist as standalone peaks,
with a lower elevation compared to more recently formed mountain
ranges. The most famous ones are the Shivalik Hills of India and the
Sierra Nevada of Spain.
Grid references:
Remind the students of what they learned previously about grid
lines, where they used the numbers that run from west to east (left
to right) along the bottom of the map and up the side of the map
(from south to north) to identify a square on the map. To help them
to remember that we give the number along the bottom of the map
first, point out the mnemonic ‘First go along the corridor, then go
up the stairs.’ Introduce the geographical terms for these numbers:
‘eastings’ because the numbers along to bottom are numbered
towards the east, and ‘northings’ because the numbers up the side
are numbered towards the north. Ask the students to read the
information about grid lines and to give the easting for the orange
square (76), then the northing for the orange square (25), and
finally, the complete grid reference for the orange square (7625).
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Answers for the grid reference activity:

A 1 a) 7433 b) 7027
c) 7033 d) 7633
2 a) green b) orange
c) blue d) purple
Suggested activity for volcanic mountains

Put a layer of clay in the base of the beaker. Explain that this
represents rock below the Earth’s crust. Pour some thickened water
onto the clay (about 1–2 cm deep). Explain that this represents a
magma chamber (a pool of magma that has collected under the
Earth’s crust). Make a hole about 5 mm diameter in the other layer
of clay and push this onto the water, explaining that this represents
rock in the Earth’s crust. The water should come upwards through
the hole (a little might escape at the sides of the layer of clay.)
Explain that this is what happens because of the downward
pressure of the rock: magma escapes upwards with great force
through cracks and holes in the rock.
Homework
Ask the students to re-read the pages of this unit and then to complete Skills Book activity
‘Formation of mountains’ and to write the correct headings for and label the diagrams. Different
students could also use the diagrams to explain to the rest of the class how each type of
mountains is formed. They can also answer question C and Skills Book activity ‘Grid references’
Discussion and review (reflection)
 I learned how cone volcanic mountains are formed when magma under the Earth’s crust is
forced upwards and escapes onto the Earth’s surface.
 I learned that the numbers across the bottom of the map are called eastings because they are
numbered towards the east.
 I learned about the differences between cone and dome mountains.
 I learned how dome mountains are formed when magma pushes a block of rock upwards.
 I learned that the numbers up the side of the map are called northings because they are
numbered towards the north.
 I learned that a grid reference gives the easting first and then the northing.
27
Lesson #3
Topics Resources
• Effects of highland topography on human activities • Oxford School Atlas for
Pakistan
Pakistan has many different types of landscapes: coast, plateau, Teacher’s Notes
plain, hill, mountain, river, valley, desert, and forest. The northern,
north-eastern, and western parts are mountainous, with the
Indus Plain to the east and south-east, and the coastal plain to
the south. Some of the world’s highest mountains are in northern
Pakistan, including Nanga Parbat, Gasherbrum I, Broad Peak, and
Gasherbrum II, all of which are more than 8000 metres high.
Mountain passes
A mountain pass is a gap of lower land through a mountain
range or over a ridge. This gap is often the low point in a ridge. A
common site for a mountain pass is just above the source of a river;
so, the pass is close to a watershed (highland that separates water
flowing in different directions downhill). Some passes are very
short, with steep slopes to the top of the pass; others are valleys,
several kilometres long. The tops of many passes are the only flat
land in an area.
In the mountainous areas of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Gilgit-
Baltistan in the north, and FATA and Balochistan in the west and
south-west, mountain passes provide very important gaps in the
highland for roads. These roads have developed from ancient trade
routes: for example, the Karakoram Highway, on the ancient Silk
Route. The Karakoram Highway is known as the Asian Highway
or, in China, as the Friendship Highway; it was built through
cooperation between the governments of Pakistan and China.
Construction of the 1300 kilometres-long road began in 1959 and it
was opened in 1979. It runs from Kashgar, in the Xinjiang region of
China, to Abbottabad, in Pakistan.
The N-35 highway extends the Karakoram Highway south-west
from Abbottabad to join the Grand Trunk Road (N-5) at Hasan
Abdal. This links Islamabad nd Rawalpindi to the end of the
Karakoram Highway.
Many roads also follow valleys, for example, Peshawar, Bannu,
and Kohat valleys in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa; Neelum, Hunza, Swat,
Naran, and Chitral valleys in the north, and Quetta and Ziarat
valleys in Balochistan. The largest plateaus are the Balochistan
Plateau and the Potohar
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Plateau (mainly in Punjab); the largest plain is the Indus Plain in

the east and south-east; the main river system is the Indus and its
tributaries.
Ask the students to read pages 22-25 and name as many physical Teacher’s Notes
geographic features as they can. List these on the board. They
should include mountain, coast, valley, plateau, plain, desert, river,
and forest. If they do not mention mountain passes, ask what they
know about these. They will probably have heard of the Khyber
Pass and Khunjerab Pass, and possibly others in Pakistan. Ask them
to discuss mountain passes in small groups for a few minutes and
to come up with a definition of a mountain pass. Invite each group
to give their definition, which should indicate that a mountain pass
is a gap of lower land through a mountain range or over a ridge.
Ask students to identify the locations of the most mountainous
parts of Pakistan. They can check their answers by looking at a
physical map of Pakistan. Encourage them to describe the locations
of the mountains by referring to the provinces where they are
located and using compass directions. This is an opportunity to do
some revision of compass points and on using the key to a physical
map, where different shades of colour are used to show land
elevation. Remind them of the meaning of elevation (height above
or below sea level).
Ask the students to read the sections of page 78 ‘What is the land
like in Pakistan?’ and ‘Mountain landscapes’ and to look at the
map and photos and read the captions. They should also read the
two ‘It’s a fact’ panels on pages 79–80. Ask what they notice about
the elevation of mountain passes. Ask how mountain passes have
influenced transport routes. Also discuss how the landscapes of
mountains, valleys, rivers, and passes have influenced trade routes
and the development of settlements. By referring to physical and
political maps of Pakistan, they should observe that the routes
of roads and railways are planned around valleys and mountain
passes. Also elicit that most settlements have developed along
valleys and passes, especially where two valleys meet, or a pass
meets a valley.
Tell the students that they are going to find out about a town
situated in a mountainous region of Pakistan: Skardu, the capital
of Gilgit-Baltistan. Ask them to find Skardu on the map on page
78. This is an opportunity to focus on the effect of landforms on the
development of settlements. Ask the students to discuss, in groups,
why Skardu developed in this location. Invite feedback.
29
Tell them that Skardu is in a valley and discuss what makes a

valley a suitable place for a settlement. They should also notice the
location of Skardu in relation to communication links: mountain
passes and valleys, where roads can be built. Ask the students to
read about Skardu and to consider what it might be like to live
there.
Homeowor
Students can answer question D.
 I learned the names and locations of the main mountain ranges of Pakistan.
 I learned the names and locations of the main mountain passes that link parts of Pakistan and
link Pakistan with neighbouring countries.
 I learned how landforms have influenced the development of roads, railways, and
settlements in mountainous areas of Pakistan.
 I learned how the city of Skardu developed in the Karakoram Mountains.
 I learned about life in Skardu.
 I learned about the physical features of the two largest plateaus in Pakistan.
 I learned how river basins are formed by rainwater running down mountains.
 I learned about the main rivers and valleys of Pakistan.
30
Lesson #4
Topics Resources
• Plateaus • Multimedia or images
• Valleys • Oxford School Atlas for
Pakistan

Explain that this section begins with plateaus. Some students might Teacher’s Notes
know what a plateau is (a large area of flat or gently sloping land at
a high elevation; a high plain). Ask them what they know about the
location of the two plateaus of Pakistan (the Potwar Plateau and the
Balochistan Plateau) and ask what they know about these plateaus
(province, main towns or cities, and other features such as rivers,
canals, roads, and railways).
Ask the students to read page 25-26 about the Potwar Plateau Teacher’s Notes
and the Balochistan Plateau, and then ask them to identify the
similarities and differences between the two plateaus: elevation,
what the land is like, cities or towns, and any other features they
notice. They should look at the photos of plateaus on these pages
and notice how these are different from plains on lowland. Then
they should use Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan to find the
location of each of the plateaus mentioned. Invite the students to
explain the different ways in which plateaus can be formed.
Ask the students to define a valley (an area of lowland between
mountains). A valley is usually longer than it is wide. Ask if they
can give examples of any valleys they know. Tell the students that
valleys are formed in different ways and ask them if they have
any idea about how a valley is formed. They could make a note of
their ideas before reading pages 26-28 including ‘Rift valleys’ and
looking at the photos of the different types of valleys.
Ask them to look at maps in Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan to
find the locations of these valleys. Ask the students to name the
three main types of valleys they have read about. Write the names
of these valleys on the board: V-shaped, U-shaped, and rift valleys.
Then invite volunteers to describe how each type of valley is
formed. They could write notes about each type of valley and then,
in their notebooks, write explanations of how they formed, using
diagrams to help.
31
Homework
Students can answer questions E, F, and G. They can also answer Skill Book activity ‘Mapping
landscapes of Pakistan.’
 I learned the meaning of plateau and how a plateau is different from a plain or a mountain.
 I learned to recognize the main types of valleys.
 I learned how these different valleys are formed.
32
Lesson #5
Reference Page 30
Topics Resources
• Landforms on maps • modelling clay, a very
large stone, or small
piece of rock (about the
size of a closed fist)
• an indelible felt-tipped
marker pen (fine) in a
dark colour (black is
best)
• a ruler
• a map that has contour
lines
• Skills Book activity ‘A
contour model’
Ask the students if they have seen contour lines on a map and, if so, Teacher’s Notes
whether they know what they are for. Tell them that they are going
to learn how to interpret contour lines, which show not only the
elevation of the land, but also its shape.
Activity
If you have enough clay or stones and indelible marker pens the
students could carry this out in groups; if not, it could be presented
as a demonstration. Make a hill-like shape from the clay (or use a
large stone); it should have a gentle slope and a steep slope.
At several point around the base of this hill, measure points that
are 1 cm above the base of the hill. Measure vertically, not along
the side of the hill. The base represents sea level. Mark each point
with the marker pen, then join up all the dots, keeping the line 1 cm
higher than the base, as shown in the diagram.
Repeat this for a line that is 2 cm higher than the base; then a line
3 cm higher than the base, and so on, until you reach the highest
point that you can mark. Point out that each line joins places of the
same height above the base and ask the students to look at the hill
from each side and then from above.
Ask what they notice about the lines on the steep side of the hill.
(They are close together when viewed from above.) Ask what they
notice about the lines on a gently sloping side. (They are much
farther apart.) The students should then draw pictures of the ‘hill’
viewed from different sides, marking the contour lines. They should
33
then draw a view from above, with the height marked on each
contour.
Show the students a map that has contour lines and point out
different sections of the map (using grid references if these are
included on the map). Ask them to describe the land in each section
you choose. These should include a gentle slope, a steep slope, and
a cliff, as well as places where there are hills of different heights
side by side, or mountains with more than one peak.
Ask the students to read page 30 Landforms on maps. In their Teacher’s Notes
notebooks, they can also draw some hills viewed from above, with
contour lines, for a partner to draw these hills as they would be
seen from the side.
Suggested activitys
To make a contour map of your city describing different levels of
height, you can follow these brief instructions:
• Collect elevation data for different locations in your city. You
can use topographic maps, satellite imagery, or digital elevation
models (DEMs) to obtain elevation values.
• Determine the appropriate scale for your contour map. Decide
how much elevation difference each contour line will represent.
For example, you may choose intervals of 10 meters or 50 feet
between contour lines.
• Decide on the contour line intervals based on the scale you have
chosen. Determine the range of elevations in your city and set
intervals accordingly. For example, if the lowest elevation in
your city is 50 meters and the highest is 250 meters, you may
choose to have contour lines every 20 meters.
• On a blank sheet of paper or using a digital mapping software,
start drawing the contour lines. Begin with the lowest contour
line, representing the lowest elevation in your city. Use the
chosen contour line interval to draw subsequent contour lines,
marking the points of equal elevation.
• Label each contour line with the corresponding elevation. You
can use numbers or colors to indicate the height represented by
each line.
• Include key features in your map, such as rivers, lakes, roads,
and landmarks. This will provide additional context and
reference points for the contour lines.
• Create a legend that explains the meaning of the contour lines
and symbols used in your map. Also, give your map a title that
describes its purpose or the specific area it represents.
34
• Review your contour map for accuracy and clarity. Make any
necessary adjustments or refinements to ensure it accurately
represents the different levels of height in your city.
Homework
Students can answer question A, H, and I. They can also attempt Skills Book activity ‘A contour
model’ for homework.
 I learned what contour lines look like on a map.
 I learned how to use contour lines to find out the elevation and shape of the land on a map.
35
A. Choose the correct answer:
i. Fault
ii. 300
iii. Tectonic plates
iv. U-shaped
v. V-shaped
vi. Rift valley
vii. Plateaus
viii. Fault-block
B 1. a) M
ountains are a barrier to travel, as roads and railways have to find a way either
around them or through a tunnel.
b) The mountains form a barrier between Pakistan and China and between Pakistan
and Afghanistan, so that there are few roads between the countries; these roads
follow mountain passes. The high mountains cause difficulties for building
railways.
c) The students’ own responses should focus on the opening up of routes between
the two countries, and cooperation between Pakistan and China on road links for
trade as far south as Gwadar in Balochistan (China-Pakistan Economic Corridor).
They should also refer to the ‘adventure tourism’ industry, which at present
attracts mainly Pakistanis and overseas citizens of Pakistan, and mountaineers
and cyclists who visit the area.
2. Khyber Pass
C 1 and 2) Fault block mountains have straight, steep sides and cliffs through faulting
driven by tectonic forces. One block is uplifted when the Earth’s crust
fractures along fault lines while the other subsides. The uplifted block rises
vertically, creating steep sides called fault scarps. These fault scarps often
form cliffs due to the significant displacement during faulting. Over time,
erosion further shapes these mountains, but their initial steepness and
straightness are primarily a result of the faulting process.
D 1. a) normal
b) an active cone volcano
c) Both are formed by magma pushing up from under the Earth’s crust.
d) A volcano erupts but a dome mountain does not: instead, the magma forces a
huge section of rock upwards.
The source of the Indus River is in Tibet, and it flows in a winding path towards
E 1. a)
the south, traversing through the Himalaya Mountains. A large amount of the
Indus’s water is provided by melting snows and glaciers of the Karakoram,
36
Hindu Kush, and Himalayan ranges.

b) Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, and Beas join the River Indus in Panjnad (Punjab).
c) The answers will vary.
d) a plain on high ground.
e) l ava flows (e.g. the Columbia Plateau) and the movement of tectonic plates (e.g.
the Tibetan Plateau)
F 1. A valley is an area of lowland between mountains. It is usually longer than it is
wide.
2. a) Tectonic plates pull apart so that a huge block of bedrock drops to a lower level
between the two plates, or tectonic plates grind past one another.
b) List some ways in which valleys in Pakistan are important for agriculture. Water
is abundant in rivers, streams, or groundwater in valleys, used for irrigation. It
has fertile soil composed of alluvial sediments rich in nutrients. It can protect
from elements like wind, rain, and snow that helps reduce crop damage and
improve crop yields. Valleys can store water during periods of high rainfall,
which can help reduce flooding and droughts. It controls erosion by slowing
down the flow of water and sediment and providing habitat for various wildlife,
including fish, birds, and mammals.
G 1. a) According to some sources, Balochistan plateau is higher than Potwar plateau.
However, the highest elevation of Potwar, Murree Hills, which has an elevation
of 3,429 meters (11,278 feet) whereas the highest point on the Balochistan plateau
is the Makran Coastal Range, which has an elevation of 2,842 meters (9,329 feet).
The sources will vary.
b) The Balochistan plateau has basins, which are low areas that collect water when
it rains. The water cannot flow out of the basins because they are lower than the
land around them. After the rain stops, the lakes dry up and leave behind salty
minerals that were in the water, called the salt lakes.
H 1. True or False
a) False. The highest land in Pakistan is located in the north, specifically in the Karakoram
Range of the Himalayas.
b) True
c) True
d) False. It links Jalalabad in Afghanistan and Peshawar in Pakistan.
2. Answers will vary.
I 1 and 2) Answers will vary.
Answers for Skills Book Activities

Skills Book activity ‘Tectonic plates and mountains’
37
A 1–2. Check that the students mark in the correct places.

3. students’ own observations
Skills Book activity ‘Formation of mountains’
A 1–2. Check that students have written the correct headings and labels.
Skills Book activity ‘A contour model’
A 1. Students should look at the picture and draw the contour lines of the island.
2. Students should draw a contour map of the land.
B 1. Students should draw a contour map of the land.
Skills Book activity ‘Grid references’
A 1 a) i) 2461 ii) 2360 iii) 2559

b) i) railway station ii) library iii) shopping mall iv) bank v) park vi) swimming
pool
Skills Book activity ‘Mapping landscapes of Pakistan’
A and B. Use the Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan

C. Answers will vary as per research and discussion. Landscape features such
as coastlines, rivers, mountains, and arable land have influenced settlement
patterns, economic activities, and population density. The availability of
resources, trade opportunities, and geographical characteristics have all played a
role in shaping the demographic distribution of these cities.
Karachi Hyderabad Peshawar
Tando Lahore
Allahyar
The availability Hyderabad Peshawar Tando Allahyar Lahore is in the
of a natural is situated is in the is situated northern part
harbour has on the bank northwestern in the Sindh of Pakistan and
historically of the Indus part of province and is is situated on
made it a hub River and has Pakistan, known for its relatively flat
for trade and fertile land surrounded predominantly terrain along
commerce. The suitable for by mountains flat and fertile the Ravi River.
presence of the agriculture. The and hills. The landscape. The presence
sea, coupled availability of city's proximity The city of a river and
with urban water resources to the Khyber benefits from fertile land has
infrastructure from the river Pass, a its proximity historically
and economic has supported historically to the Indus supported
opportunities, agricultural significant River and the agriculture and
has attracted activities, trade route, availability settlement.
38
a dense which in turn has contributed of irrigation Lahore's

population to have influenced to its water, making significance
the city. The settlement importance as it suitable for as a cultural,
coastal location patterns. The a regional trade agriculture. educational,
has facilitated combination center. The The presence and economic
maritime trade, of water mountainous of fertile land center has
making Karachi availability terrain, has attracted attracted
the most and arable however, limits a population people from
populous city land has led the available engaged various regions,
in Pakistan. to a moderate flat land for in farming contributing
population settlement and activities, to a higher
density in agriculture. resulting in population
Hyderabad. As a result, a moderate density.
the population population
density of density.
Peshawar is
influenced by
the challenges
posed by
the rugged
landscape.
39
Climatic Regions of the
3
UNIT
World
Climate is determined from average weather conditions over a long period—usually
30 years. From recorded weather statistics, meteorologists can determine the patterns
of weather conditions such as temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, and
precipitation, as well as average conditions. Climate includes the amounts by which
weather conditions vary, for example: differences in temperature, rainfall, wind speed,
direction, and so on.
Weather describes the short-term conditions in a place. There are different systems for
describing climate. Most climatologists use the Köppen classification system, which
uses letters to define the characteristics of a climate. This is rather complicated, but the
descriptions used in this unit are based on it and described by name for simplicity.
Climate affects a region’s agriculture, buildings, infrastructure, clothing, and many
aspects of everyday life. These differences are more noticeable when extreme climates are
compared for example, in extremely cold regions, such as parts of Russia, the permafrost
makes the digging of foundations for buildings very difficult. As a result, most buildings
are placed on pillars, which requires a smaller volume of land to be dug out, and pipelines
for sewage and water, and cables for electricity and communication are kept above the
ground, rather than laid underground.
Although the world can be split into climatic zones by latitude, with the colder places
nearer the Poles and the hotter places nearer the Equator, there are factors other than
proximity to the Poles or to the Equator that influence climate. Within these zones, places
at the same latitude can have very different climates, depending on land elevation (height
above or below sea level); position in relation to plains or mountains; the size of the land
mass; distance from the sea, and wind patterns.
Although Pakistan is within the Earth’s temperate climate zone, its climate is mainly
continental, as it is situated on a large land mass between latitudes 24º and 37ºN, and
much of it is semi-arid. The south is nearer the Equator than the north and is therefore
warmer. Altitude plays a part, too, with the mountainous areas of FATA, Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa, and western Balochistan having colder climates. Distance from the sea,
wind patterns, and ocean currents also affect the climate, creating warm humid summers
and the mild, dry winters near the coast of Sindh and Balochistan.
40
U N I T 3 C l i m a t i c R e g i o ns o f t h e W o r l d
Before we proceed
It is useful to begin with the students’ own experiences of different climates. They could
be asked to prepare a presentation on a place that has a different climate from that of their
hometown, focusing on a description of the climate and anything they noticed about how
it affects everyday life, buildings, cities, agriculture, etc.
Questions such as ‘How are the homes different from ours?’ and ‘Why do you think the
homes were built like that?’ are useful for focusing on the effects of climate. If possible,
the students could also exchange information with their friends or family who live in a
different climatic zone. This unit provides information, illustrations, photographs, and
diagrams that help students to understand the influences on climate, and why places at
the same latitudes can have very different climates. They can compare photographs and
climate statistics of different places.

• Distinguish between weather and climate.
• Identify the factors that affect the climate of a place: latitude, elevation, landforms, land
mass size, distance from the sea, and ocean currents.
• Identify the main climatic zones of the world.
• Describe how people adapt their lives and buildings to suit the climate.
• Identify and describe the main climatic regions of the Earth.
• Identify the different climatic regions of Pakistan, and some of the causes of the
differences.
41
Lesson #1
Topics Resources
• Weather and climate • a globe
• Factors affecting climate • Oxford School Atlas for
• The air around us Pakistan
• Skills Book (Weather
or climate; Factors
affecting climate;
Living in places with
very cold and very hot
climates)
Ask what climate means. Ask ‘Is climate the same as weather?’ Teacher’s Notes
They could record what they know about climate in a chart. Here is
an example:
What I know Questions Answers
about climate
1. Places near the 1. Why can deserts, with * They should
Equator are hotter hot climates, have very write the answers
than places near cold temperatures at after completing
the Poles. night? the unit. This
2. Mountainous 2. Why do some places helps them to
places have have wetter climates assess what they
cooler climates than others? have learnt.
than places on 3. What causes monsoon
lowland. climates?
3. Some places
have rainy seasons
or monsoons.
Explain the main factors that affect climate.
1. Latitude / distance from the Equator

The Earth’s curvature means that the farther an area is from the
Equator, the lower the air temperature. Near the Poles, sunlight
must pass through a larger area of atmosphere and the Sun is at a
lower angle in the sky. Also, white, and lighter colours reflect more
light than darker colours, so the ice and snow near the Poles reflect
more sunlight than most land surfaces.
42
2. Land elevation / altitude

Locations at a higher altitude have colder temperatures.
Temperature usually decreases by 1°C for every 100 metres in
altitude because air pressure is lower at higher altitudes. As air
rises, air pressure decreases. You can demonstrate this using a
bicycle pump. As you depress the pump this puts pressure on the
air that is to be forced into the tyre. This increase in temperature is
enough to be felt (safely) by hand. If you release air from a tyre, the
air is under less pressure as it escapes, so the air expands and cools;
so, air escaping from a tyre feels cool.
3. Size of the land mass / distance from the sea

Water heats up and cools down much more slowly than land. So,
places near the sea are usually cooler in the summer and warmer in
the winter than inland places at the same latitude and elevation.
4. Warm or cold sea currents

Many places near the sea have a maritime climate. As well as the
difference made by being near the sea, warm ocean currents also
give them a warmer and wetter climate than places at the same
latitude and elevation that are not affected by ocean currents. Cold
ocean currents have the opposite effect.
5. Wind
The prevailing wind is the main wind direction in a place. If the
prevailing wind crosses an ocean or sea, it can increase the rainfall.
When prevailing winds blow over land areas, they can help to
create a desert climate. An example of this is Kuwait.
Ask the students to read page 33, and the conversation box to Teacher’s Notes
discuss what factors, other than latitude, affect climate. These are:
• land elevation—the height of the land
• the size of the land mass—larger land masses tend to have
greater differences between summer and winter than smaller
ones
• distance from the sea—because the sea warms up and cools
down more slowly than land does, places near the sea tend to
have milder climates than inland places
• warm or cold sea currents—the seas flow in directions
influenced by the Earth’s rotation and other factors.
Ask students to read page 35 and discuss how the air quality affect
weather and climate of an area. Greenhouse gases, such as carbon
dioxide and methane, trap heat in the atmosphere, leading to higher
43
temperatures. It can also increase the amount of greenhouse gases

in the atmosphere, contributing to and accelerating climate change.
Air pollution can increase the number of aerosols in the
atmosphere, affecting the Earth’s climate. While some aerosols,
such as sulfates, reflect sunlight into space, which can help to cool
the environment, other aerosols, such as black carbon, can absorb
sunlight and heat the atmosphere, contributing to warming. Clouds
are made up of water droplets and ice crystals. Air pollution can
affect clouds’ formation and properties, affecting rainfall patterns.
For example, air pollution can make clouds more reflective, leading
to less rainfall. Discuss what can be done to improve air quality and
mitigate the effects of climate change:
• Greenhouse gases are the primary driver of climate change, so
reducing emissions is essential to mitigating its effects. This can
be done by switching to renewable energy sources, improving
energy efficiency, and reducing deforestation.
• Other pollutants, such as particulate matter and ozone, can also
harm human health and the environment. These pollutants can
be reduced by reducing emissions from cars, trucks, factories,
and power plants.
• Trees help to clean the air by absorbing carbon dioxide and
other pollutants. They also help to cool the air and provide
shade, which can help to reduce the effects of heat waves.
• Several policies can be used to promote clean air, such as
emissions standards, fuel economy standards, and renewable
energy incentives. By supporting these policies, we can help to
improve air quality and mitigate the effects of climate change.
Homework
Students can do questions B, C, and F. The students can also answer Skills Book activity
‘Weather and climate.’
 I learned the difference between weather and climate.
 I learned about the factors that affect the climate of a place.
 I have learned about the impact of air pollution on weather and climate
 I have learned what measures can be taken to improve the AQI around me.
44
Lesson #2
Topics Resources
• Climatic zones of the world • a globe
• Tropical climate • Oxford School Atlas for
• Continental climate Pakistan
• Temperate climate • Skills Book (Locating
places in different
climatic zones;
Comparison of
different climatic
regions of the world)
Explain that this type of climate is generally found in parts of Teacher’s Notes
the world just outside the Tropics and on large land masses.
Explain that this type of climate is more common in the northern
hemisphere than in the southern hemisphere, because large land
masses are found in the northern hemisphere.
Explain that this lesson will focus on temperate climates, which
are usually found in regions between the Tropics and the Antarctic
or the Arctic Circle and are neither very hot nor very cold. Ask
them to look at a map of the world and try to identify places that
might have a temperate climate. Remind them that places on
large land masses (particularly near east coasts), especially in the
northern hemisphere, are more likely to have a continental than a
temperate climate, even though they are around the same latitudes.
The students should make a note of their ideas about places with
temperate climates.
Ask the students to look at the map of the world’s climatic zones Teacher’s Notes
and to name places that have:
• a polar climate
• a temperate climate
• an arid climate
• a tropical climate
• a Mediterranean climate (note that this type of climate is not
restricted to areas around the Mediterranean Sea—other places
can have a similar climate)
• a mountain climate
45
Ask the students to name the main climatic regions of the Earth.
They should make a note of their answers. Ask why some places
have warmer climates than others. (Places near the Equator like
Kuwait generally have warmer climates than those nearer to the
Poles like Greenland.) Explain that the Earth’s main climatic zones
are marked by latitude and ask what else that might affect the
climate of a place.
Tropical climate
The students should be able to locate the Tropics on a map of the
world. Ask them to name some countries in these regions. They can
then read pages 36-37 and look at the map on page 35 to find out
about the climatic regions of the world. Ask if they need to change
their answers about the names of the Earth’s main climatic regions.
Then ask them between which latitudes tropical climates are
found. (Between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, i.e., between
latitudes 23.5°N and 23.5°S)
Explain that there are different types of tropical climate, which
they are going to read about. They should read the sections headed
‘Tropical climate’, ‘Tropical rainforest climate’, and ‘Tropical
monsoon climate’ on pages 36-37. Ask why the monsoon climate
regions of Pakistan are not tropical monsoon climates. (Tropical
climates are hotter, having mean temperatures of at least 18ºC.) Ask
them to describe what they see in the photo of a tropical rainforest
climate in Sumatra. They should also locate Sumatra in Indonesia,
and Chittagong in Bangladesh on a world map on page 35. They
could then write notes about the different tropical climates in their
notebooks. For homework, they could find out more and add this
information to their notes.
Ask students what savannah means. (Grassland plains—mainly
found in Africa, Asia, and northern parts of South America) They
should locate Nigeria on a map of the world in their Oxford School
Atlas for Pakistan. Ask them to describe its location. They should
notice its latitude within the Tropics, the size of the land mass it is
on, distance from the sea, the land elevations of different parts of
the country, and the wind patterns. (See the map on page 42.)
Ask about the factors that might affect Nigeria’s climatic zones.
They should notice that the south has a coast on the South Atlantic
Ocean, where the climate is tropical monsoon, influenced by
monsoon winds that affect West African regions between latitudes
9° and 20°N, blowing south-westerly during warmer months and
46
north-easterly during the cooler months. Central Nigeria and

most of Western Nigeria have a tropical savannah climate, with
a rainy season and a dry season. As in other tropical countries,
altitude affects some parts within the main climate areas of Nigeria,
with high mountains having an alpine climate. Ask which other
continents have regions with savannah climates. They could locate
these on maps of the world and on more detailed maps of the
continents.
Continental climate
Ask the students to read page 37-38 ‘Continental climate’, ‘Hot
summer continental climate’, and ‘Warm summer continental
climate’. Ask them to look at a map of the world and to use the
descriptions of the locations of regions with continental climates on
this page to help them to find places that could have a continental
climate. (These are likely to be in the northern hemisphere, on
the east coasts, and in the interiors of large land masses, around
latitude 40ºN, or farther north.) They should be able to give an
example (South Korea), based on what they have read.
Ask what kind of weather makes a continental climate different
from a tropical climate. (Mean monthly temperatures are lower than
18ºC and sometimes it snows in winter) The students should be
able to describe the main characteristics of each type of continental
climate and say what causes these differences. Ask them to discuss
with a partner, and compare the climates of Warsaw, Poland, and
Seoul, South Korea, and to explain the differences to one another.
Temperate climate
Ask the students to read page 38-39 ‘Temperate climate’, ‘Warm
temperate climates’, and ‘Maritime temperate climates’, and
consider this information when checking their answers from the
Introduction. Explain that ‘maritime’ means near the sea. Ask them
to distinguish between the two types of temperate climate (warm
and maritime). Ask why regions between latitudes 26º and 45º
tend to have warm temperate climates, and what gives maritime
temperate climates warmer winters and cooler summers than many
other places at the same latitudes. (Ocean currents because the sea/
ocean takes much longer to warm up or cool down than does the
land.)
47
Using the Skills Book Duration: 35-40 min

The students should continue the exercise of the Skills Book, Teacher’s Notes
‘Comparison of different climatic regions of the world’ but should
complete only the section on the climate they have learnt about
during this lesson. The others should be completed after the
appropriate lessons. Ask them to read the descriptions of climates
and to find the one that describes the tropical, continental, and
temperate climate, and to complete it with examples.
 I learned about the main climatic regions of the world.
 I learned about the different factors that affect climate.
 I learned about the differences between tropical monsoon and tropical rainforest climates.
 I learned about the conditions of tropical savannah climates.
 I learned why Nigeria has different climatic zones.
 I learned how winds affect the climates of different parts of Nigeria.
 I learned about the conditions of continental climates with warm or hot summers.
 I learned why continental climates have different rainfall patterns and different summer
temperatures.
 I learned how the size of the land mass and the distance from the sea affect the climate of a
region.
 I learned about the different types of temperate climate.
 I learned how ocean currents and winds affect climates.
48
Lesson #3
Reference pages 39-44
Topics Resources
• Arid climate • a globe
• Polar climate • Oxford School Atlas for
• Rainfall in Pakistan Pakistan
• Skills Book
(Comparison of
different climatic
regions of the world)
Explain that in this lesson they are going to learn about arid and Teacher’s Notes
cold climates. Ask/elicit what arid means (dry) and invite them
to name some regions with arid climates, and to locate them on a
map of the world. They should be able to locate deserts in Pakistan
and other countries, such as Egypt and Kuwait, which they learned
about in Grade 6. Ask about the latitudes of the world’s deserts
(around 30º North or South). Ask what they know about the
temperatures of these regions, and what makes them so hot. (They
are near the Equator, so are always closer to the Sun than other
regions of the Earth.)
Explain that in this lesson they are going to learn about regions that
have different types of polar (cold) climate. Ask if they know the
meanings of the following words: tundra (regions that have low
and slow-growing vegetation, mainly small shrubs, sedges and
grasses, mosses, and lichens, with perhaps a few scattered trees),
ice cap (places that are permanently covered with ice), and alpine
(mountain).
Ask the students to read pages 39-40. Explain that there can be hot Teacher’s Notes
and cold arid regions. Ask what they have learnt about temperature
changes in arid regions. (There are large differences between
day and night temperatures.) Also ask how Makkah, which is in
a region with an arid climate, can have flash floods. Although
Makkah has a very low rainfall, most of this fall at around the same
time. Makkah is at a low elevation, and rain that falls on the nearby
mountains rushes downhill on to the lowland.)
Next, ask how cold arid these places, which are in temperate
climatic zones of the Earth, can have this type of climate. (They
tend to be at high elevations or next to high mountains.) Invite the
students to explain the factors that can cause this type of climate at
high elevations close to high mountains, and to give examples.
49
Explain that polar climates are the coldest of all, but that there are
different types of polar climate, which they will find out more about
in this unit. Ask them about the very cold places of Alaska, USA,
and Yakutsk, Russia. What kind of weather do these places have?
(Cold, icy, sometimes foggy but with hardly any precipitation—
even snow)
They can then read about ‘Tundra climate’ and ‘Ice cap climate’ on
page 41. Ask them what they have learnt about temperatures in
these regions. (In tundra regions, average winter temperatures are
around −28ºC—with temperatures sometimes as low as −50ºC, and
the warmest summer months can have average temperatures as
low as 10ºC, sometimes dropping to below zero at night, and hardly
ever above 12ºC during the day. In ice cap regions, the temperature
hardly ever rises above 0ºC. Also ask how these climates affect the
vegetation of these regions. (It grows slowly; there are very few
trees; bushes are small; the main vegetation is algae, mosses, and
lichens, with some grasses.)
Ask what they have learnt about climate and altitude. (The higher
a region, the lower its average temperatures, with air temperatures
falling by about 6.4ºC for every thousand metres of altitude.)
They should next read about ‘Alpine climate’ on page 42. Ask
what types of places can have alpine climate. (This climate occurs
on mountains, above the treeline—the height at which trees will
grow.) Ask about the altitude of the treeline. (It varies, according to
latitude: near the Tropics the treeline is higher than in places farther
from the Equator.)
Invite volunteers to explain why the air temperature is lower on
high than low ground. There are several reasons: (i) The Earth’s
surface stays warm for a longer time than the air; the Earth’s surface
warms the air, so air that is farther away (higher up) is warmed less,
especially if it is dry. (ii) At higher elevations the air is less dense;
this means that the particles of gases in the air are spread out, so
there is less air to hold the warmth. (iii) At higher elevations there is
less air pressing down, the lower the air pressure, the lower the air
temperature. The students can now complete Question G.
Rainfall in Pakistan
Despite receiving 5 types of rainfall, Pakistan gets varied and
unreliable rainfall. Most of precipitation comes during the summer
monsoon rainfall in Sindh and Punjab, while the western
50
and northern parts are inundated during the winters as well. Use
the Oxford School Atlas and the given diagrams to help students
understand the directions of winds, convectional, and relief rainfall.
The students could copy the rain shadow explanation and diagram
and use this to help them to write an explanation of how the rain
shadow affects climate.
Using the Skills Book Duration: 35-40 min
The students should complete topic Skills Book ‘Comparison Teacher’s Notes
of different climatic regions of the world’ but should complete
only the section on the climates they have learnt about during
this lesson. This will complete the page. Ask them to read the
descriptions of climates and to find those that describe the polar
climates (tundra, alpine, and ice cap), and to complete them with
examples. These should be the only remaining climates in the chart
to be completed.
 I learned about the conditions of hot and cold arid climates.
 I learned how the rain shadow affects climate.
 I learned about the conditions of the different polar climates.
 I learned how latitude, altitude, wind patterns, distance from the sea, the size of the land
mass, and ocean currents affect climate.
51
Lesson #4
Reference page 44-48
Topics Resources
Climatic zones of Pakistan
• • Oxford School Atlas for
Pakistan
• Images/multimedia for
different climatic zones
in Pakistan
• Skills Book
Ask students to read the pages 44-48 and work in groups to make Teacher’s Notes
a report on the average temperatures, rainfall, type of crops, and
the lifestyle of people from different climatic zones in Pakistan
(suggested on page page 47)
Climatic Average Types of

Rainfall Lifestyle of people
zones temperature crops
Northern The Northern This zone wheat, People in this zone have
Mountainous Mountainous receives barley, a close association with
Zone Zone exhibits a moderate maize, mountains and are often
wide temperature rainfall, apples, engaged in agriculture,
range, with cooler ranging from apricots, and horticulture, and animal
temperatures 400 to 800 cherries husbandry. They have a
prevailing in higher millimeters distinct cultural heritage
altitudes. Average (16 to 32 and practice traditional
temperatures range inches) mountain lifestyles.
from 0°C to -15°C annually.
(32°F to 5°F).
Western The Western The region wheat, maize, People in the Western
Mountainous Mountainous Zone receives barley, and Mountainous Zone have
Zone experiences extremelimited fruits like a rural lifestyle, mainly
temperatures, rainfall, apples, relying on agriculture
ranging from very generally grapes, and and animal husbandry
hot summers to less than 300 pears for their livelihood. The
extremely cold millimeters region is also known
winters. Average (12 inches) for its unique cultural
temperatures range annually. heritage and traditional
from 20°C to -10°C practices.
(68°F to 14°F).
52
Lowland The lowland The lowland Major crops grown People mostly
zone climatic zone climatic zone in this region engage in crop
experiences high generally receives include rice, cotton, and livestock
temperatures low to moderate sugarcane, maize, farming, industrial
throughout the rainfall, ranging wheat, vegetables, work, handicrafts,
year, with average from 100 to 400 and fruits such as including textile
temperatures millimeters (4 citrus, mangoes, weaving and
ranging from 25°C to 16 inches) and bananas. pottery.
to 45°C (77°F to annually during Rice cultivation
113°F) during July-Sept. is particularly
summer. Winters significant, as the
are relatively region’s fertile
mild, with average alluvial plains and
temperatures favorable climate
ranging from 10°C provide optimal
to 20°C (50°F to conditions for its
68°F). growth.
Arid The Arid Zone This zone receives wheat, barley, People in the
Zone experiences very limited millet, dates, and Arid Zone have
extremely hot rainfall, typically various fruits a semi-nomadic
temperatures in less than 200 adapted to arid lifestyle, practicing
summers and millimeters (8 conditions, such subsistence
relatively mild inches) annually. as citrus and agriculture, livestock
winters. Average pomegranate rearing, and
temperatures range engaging in trade.
from 30°C to 5°C Water conservation
(86°F to 41°F). and efficient
irrigation techniques
are crucial for
agriculture in this
region.
53
Coastal The Coastal This zone rice, sugarcane, Fishing is a primary livelihood
Zone Zone experiences receives cotton, for many communities residing
a warm to moderate to vegetables, along the coast. This zone also
hot climate heavy rainfall, and fruits like plays a significant role as a
throughout the ranging from mangoes center for maritime trade and
year, with average 200 to 800 transport. Ports and harbors,
temperatures millimeters (8 such as Karachi Port and
ranging from 25°C to 32 inches) Port Qasim, act as important
to 35°C (77°F to annually. facilitators of international
95°F). trade, contributing to the
region’s economic growth.
Discuss with students that Pakistan is a diverse country, characterised by a wide range of
climatic zones that significantly influence the lifestyles, agriculture, and overall socio-economic
aspects of its regions. After discussion, encourage students to use the Internet, Atlases, and books
from the school library. Students can do questions D and F.
A. Choose the correct answer
i. Weather
ii. Climate
iii. Tropical
iv. Ice cap
v. Continental
vi. Arid
vii. Desert
viii. tropical
weather describes the current atmospheric conditions in the short term, while
B. 1. a)
climate refers to the long-term average of these conditions over an extended
period in a particular region.
b) latitude, altitude, wind patterns, distance from the sea, the size of the land mass,
ocean currents
c) any two from: being at a higher altitude, affected by cold winds, being on a large
land mass or far from the sea, or affected by cold ocean currents
C 1 a) 23.5°N and 23.5°S
b) It has a mean monthly temperature of at least 18ºC.
2 a) tropical monsoon
b) tropical rainforest
54
c) tropical savannah
D 1 a) Skardu, Gilgit, Hunza, Chitral, Murree
b) Answers will vary but should be based on information in this unit.
E 1 a) mangroves, salt marshes, cliffs, beaches, mud volcanoes, bays, and mudflats.
c) Answers will vary but should be based on information in this unit. You can
discuss that Gwadar Port is strategically vital for China, offering access to the
Arabian Sea, enhancing trade routes, and boosting energy security. For Pakistan,
it presents opportunities for economic growth, regional connectivity, and
diversification of energy and trade, leading to job creation and socioeconomic
development.
d) Answers will vary but should be based on information in this unit. You can
discuss that it provides importance transportation link for CPEC and Makran
Coastal Highway and that it plays a vital role in promoting connectivity, trade,
tourism, security, and socioeconomic development in Balochistan. It facilitates
the movement of people and goods, supports the development of Gwadar Port,
and enhances the overall economic growth of the region.
e) Mangroves, delta, etc. Answers will vary but should be based on information in
this unit
F 1 and 2. Answers will very but should be based on information in this unit.
3 a) Discussion and research: Air quality affects people in a number of ways, both
short-term and long-term. Air pollution can irritate the lungs and make it
difficult to breathe. This can lead to coughing, wheezing, and shortness of
breath. It can increase the risk of heart attacks and strokes, can irritate the eyes
and cause conjunctivitis (pink eye), and pollution can reduce visibility, making it
difficult to see. This can be a problem for drivers, pilots, and others who need to
see clearly.
b) make informed decisions about whether to stay indoors, exercise outdoors, or
take other steps to reduce their exposure to air pollution
4. a) India, China, Bangladesh, Pakistan, etc.
b) Answers will vary but should be based on information in this unit. (Iceland,
Finland, Norway, Switzerland, Sweden, Canada, etc.)
G 1. a) Sialkot is in north-east Punjab
2. impact of flood and low rainfall on farming, fishing, livestock, daily wage labourers,
etc.
3. Answers will vary but should be based on information in this unit.
55
Answer for Skills Book activities

Skills Book activity ‘Weather or climate’
A 1 a) weather c) climate e) weather

b) climate d) climate f) climate
Skills Book activity ‘Comparison of different climatic regions of the world’
A 1 a–b) The students should have completed only the sections of the chart that describe
tropical rainforest and tropical monsoon climates.
Description Climate type Example
The monthly mean temperature is at least Tropical Sumatra,
18°C; there is no summer or winter; it rainforest Indonesia
remains hot all year round and there is at
least 60 mm of rain each month.
The monthly mean temperature is at least Tropical Chitagong,
18°C; seasons change with shifting wind monsoon Bangladesh
patterns; dry and very wet seasons.
The students should have completed the section of the chart that describes the
tropical savannah climate.
The monthly mean temperature of this Tropical North and
climatic region is at least 18°C; seasons savannah Central
change with shifting wind patterns; summers Nigeria
are dry or slightly wet.
The students should have completed only the section of the chart that describes
the continental climate.
This climate occurs mainly on east coasts and continental Seoul, South
interiors of large land masses around latitude Korea;
40°N; average temperature in summer is Warsaw.
higher than 10°C and lower than −0°C in the Poland
coldest month.
The students should have completed only the sections of the chart that describe
the warm and maritime temperate climates:
This climate is neither very hot nor very cold Warm Hong Kong
and occurs mainly between latitudes 26° temperate
and 45°N or S; winds mainly blow from the
Tropics; summer is the wettest season.
56
This climate is neither very hot nor very cold; Maritime London, UK
it occurs mainly between latitudes 26° and temperate
45°N or S; the ocean currents keep its climate
warmer than other climates at the same
latitudes.
The students should have completed only the sections of the chart that describe
the hot and cold arid climates.
This climate occurs mainly around latitudes Hot arid Saudi Arabia,
30°N or S; it is the hottest, sunniest, and Kuwait
driest climate of all; less than 250 mm of rain
per year; nights can be cold but hardly ever
below 0°C.
This climate occurs in the rain shadow of Cold arid Gobi Desert,
mountains; it is very dry and there is never China and
more than 250 mm of rain per year; summers Mongolia
are hot and dry but winters can be very
cold—as low as −40°C; it sometimes snows in
winter.
The students should now have completed the chart by identifying the three main
Polar climates and completing the examples.
The average monthly temperature is lower tundra Yakutsk,
than 10°C and average annual temperature Russia and
is between 0 and 10°C; there is permafrost; Alaska, USA
the temperature in winter can drop as low as
−50°C; there is very little precipitation.
Regions above the treeline have this kind of alpine Ben Lawers,
climate; the average monthly temperatures Scotland, UK,
are no higher than 10°C; there is very little and Mount
precipitation (around 230–300 mm per year). Yushan,
Taiwan
It is the coldest of all climatic regions of the ice cap Parts of
world; it is hardly ever warmer than 0°C; Greenland,
there is permanent ice. Antarctica
Skills Book activity ‘Factors affecting climate’
A 1 a–c) The globe should be shaded and labelled to match the key and should show
the three main climate zones: tropical, between the Tropics of Cancer and
57
Capricorn, temperate (between the Tropics and each Pole), and polar within the
Arctic and the Antarctic circles.
B 1 a) polar (more accurately maritime polar)
b) polar tundra
c) Ocean currents bring rain to Reykjavik, but stop the winters being as cold as
those of Fairbanks, which has a polar tundra climate. Fairbanks is on a larger
land mass, so it has colder winters and warmer summers than Reykjavik.
Fairbanks has a slightly higher elevation, which keeps it slightly colder at night
in the summer, but with slightly higher daytime temperatures.
d) tropical savannah
e) hot summer continental
f) It is at a high altitude.
g) warm summer continental
h) It is on a smaller land mass and near the sea, where ocean currents bring rain but
keep it warmer than places far from the sea.
Skills Book activity ‘Locating places in different climatic zones’
A 1–2. Check that the students mark the map in the correct places.
Skills Book activity ‘Living in places with very cold and very hot climates’
A 1. Check that the students write the relevant statements in the correct parts of the
Venn diagram.
Skills Book activity ‘Comparing seasonal temperature and rainfall’
A Conversion of data from Fahrenheit to Celsius:

High Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Isl 16.6 18.8 23.8 29.4 35 37.2 35 33.3 32.7 29.4 23.8 18.8
Khi 25.5 27.7 31.1 33.8 34.4 34.4 32.2 31.1 32.2 33.8 31.1 27.2
Quetta 10.5 12.7 18.3 25 30.5 33.8 34.4 33.8 30 24.4 18.3 12.7
Lahore 18.8 21.6 27.2 33.8 38.3 38.8 35.5 34.4 33.8 31.1 26.1 20.5
Low Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Isl 3.8 6.6 11.1 16.1 21.1 23.8 25 23.8 21.1 15 8.8 4.4
Khi 13.3 15.5 20 24.4 27.2 28.8 28.3 27.2 26.1 23.3 18.3 13.8
Quetta -1.6 0.5 5 10 15 18.8 21.6 19.4 13.8 7.2 2.2 -1.1
Lahore 8.3 11.1 16.1 21.6 26.1 28.3 27.7 27.2 25.5 20 13.8 9.4
58
B-D will be plotted on the graph as per data. Ask students to just plot one city’s high
and low temperatures on the graph and use colours for high (red) and low (blue)
variation.
E. Islamabad: Hottest Month: June; Coldest Month: January
Karachi: Hottest Month: June; Coldest Month: January
Quetta: Hottest Month: June; Coldest Month: January
Lahore: Hottest Month: June; Coldest Month: January
F. Islamabad’s proximity to mountains, its altitude, and its exposure to moist monsoonal
winds create favorable conditions for higher rainfall compared to Karachi and
Quetta, which are influenced by geographical features that result in drier atmospheric
conditions.
Skills Book activity ‘Distribution of rainfall in Pakistan’
A. Temperature and rainfall

B. Monsoons are seasonal; Winter winds are called north-east monsoon; Monsoon winds
are seasonally reversed and driven by temperature differences between land and sea
C. Answers may vary. Positive: replenishes rivers, streams, and reservoirs; supports and
boosts agricultural and industrial activities in a country.
Negative: floods, rapid surface runoff, landslides; damage to crops, property;
government support needed for rehabilitation of land; debt
D. Answers may vary. Damage to buildings, roads, bridges, and other infrastructure,
leading to substantial repair and reconstruction costs; disrupts trade activities; loss of
income for daily wagers; affects agricultural production and livelihoods, etc.
E. Answers may vary. Positive: Late rainfall can extend the growing season, allowing for
additional cultivation or a second planting of certain crops.
Negative: waterlogging and salinity; can promote the growth of weeds, droughts, etc.
59
4
Forests of the World
UNIT

There are many definitions of forest. ‘Forest’ usually means a collection of trees, but there
is no agreed minimum size or precise distinction between a forest and a wood, although
woods are generally agreed to be smaller than forests. A forest is not just a group of
trees, but includes the soil that supports the trees, and the water and air around them.
This makes up a complex ecosystem that supports many living things, including shrubs,
vines, grasses, and other herbaceous (non-woody) plants, mosses, algae, fungi, insects,
mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and microorganisms.
Forest habitat
A forest is usually a habitat for numerous animal species, depending on its location and
climate, for example:
Asia
• Eastern Himalayas: Asian elephant, snow leopard, panda, tiger, one-horned rhino
Mekong River Forest: tiger, rhino
• Borneo and Sumatra: orangutan, rhino, pygmy elephant, tiger, elephant
• Yangtze River Forest: giant panda, snow leopard Amur-Heilong Forest (north-eastern
China and eastern Russia): tiger, leopard
Africa
• Namibia: elephant, black rhino, white rhino
• Madagascar: lemur, tortoise, gecko, chameleon
• Congo Basin: mountain gorilla, chimpanzee, elephant
South America
Amazon Forest: jaguar, macaw, black spider monkey, poison dart frog
Temperate deciduous forests

(Eastern USA and Canada, most of the Europe, and parts of China and Japan) An
enormous variety of animal life, such as insects, spiders, slugs, frogs, turtles, and
salamander; various birds, e.g. hawks, cardinals, snowy owls, and woodpeckers; and
mammals, including deer, raccoon, opossums, porcupines, and foxes. Animals of the
temperate deciduous forest have to adapt to the changing seasons, migrate, or hibernate in
the winter.
60
U N I T 4 F o r e sts o f t h e W o r l d
Types of forests
Latitudes between 10°N and 10°S of the Equator are mainly covered with tropical
rainforests. Tropical rainforests receive rainfall in all months of the year and have a hot,
humid climate, with average monthly temperatures between 18°C and 35°C. There are
also tropical dry forests in some regions whose climates are warm all year. They do not
necessarily have a low annual rainfall; in fact, many tropical dry forests have several
hundred centimetres of rain per year, but they have long dry seasons lasting several
months. These droughts affect all the living things in the forests. Examples of tropical dry
forests are Doi Inthanon National Park, in the north of Thailand, and Chacachare, in the
Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. Other examples are in Sri Lanka and Guatemala.
Deciduous forests lie between 45°N and 45°S in the temperate climatic zone. Coniferous
forests are found at very high altitudes with very cold climates, mainly in the northern
hemisphere.
Most forests that are made up mainly of broad leaf trees have many more species of living
things than those made up mainly of conifers. Some forests, such as tropical rainforests
and temperate deciduous forests, have numerous tree species in a small area; coniferous
forests have a few species over a large area.
Around 66% of the world’s forests are in just ten countries. About 80% of the Earth’s plant
biomass is contained in forests, mainly under the ground in roots and in rotting plant
material. Primary forests are natural forests, although most have had new trees planted.
Planted forests are planted for a purpose. Most forests are a mixture of primary and
planted.
The benefits of forests

A report by the FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) in 2016
concluded that, although agriculture is the main cause of deforestation, forests and trees
support sustainable agriculture. They do this by stabilizing the climate and soil. They also
provide protection from water erosion and flooding and provide shade from sunlight, and
shelter from wind and storms. In addition, they provide a habitat for insects and other
species that pollinate plants, as well as animals that feed on insects and other species that
destroy crops.
The FAO report describes projects in Costa Rica, Chile, the Gambia, Georgia, Ghana,
Tunisia, and Vietnam that have shown that agricultural productivity can be increased
without deforestation, and even while reversing deforestation. Forests provide food,
energy, and income for hundreds of millions of people around the world.
Non-food products include timber, paper, charcoal, and other wood products, both for
construction and energy; cork, tar, turpentine (used for thinning paints and furniture
polish) rubber, and creosote (used for protecting timber and in the chemical industry).
Numerous chemical products are by-products of wood.
Food products from forests include those from trees growing naturally, such as Brazil
61
nuts, other nuts, fruits, berries, and seeds; also, edible fungi grow among the trees. Food
also comes from the animals of the forest habitat, such as fish, shrimps, oysters, crabs, and
cockles from mangrove estuaries, and honey from bees in numerous forests.
Rubber-tapping
A rubber tree takes about six years to grow enough for its sap (latex) to be harvested. The
tapper makes a thin, diagonal cut to remove a thin slice of bark and fixes a small bucket
below this to collect the latex. Latex runs out for about six hours and then stops. Usually
about 2.5 litres of latex can be collected each day from a single tree. The next day the tree
can be tapped again, but most rubber tappers tap different trees the next day. A dilute acid
is added to the latex, which is left to thicken in shallow metal pans. This forms a soft block
of thickened latex.
The block of thickened latex is then passed through rollers to squeeze out the water. Then
it is washed to remove the acid, and rolled again, to squeeze out the water. After rolling,
the sheet of raw rubber is hung to dry on a rack over a wood fire. The smoke from the fire
stabilizes the rubber. This rubber is then sold to manufacturers.
Before we proceed
It is useful to show students the maps of world ecosystems from Oxford School Atlas for
Pakistan, to help them identify the countries where different types of forests are located.
Also help them identify the climatic zones of the countries where these forests are found.
Reference books about forests and trees will be useful in finding examples of coniferous
and deciduous trees. The students could also find information on websites such as www.
pakistangeographic.com/forests.html and Forest, Wildlife, and Fisheries Department
of Pakistan http://fwf.punjab.gov.pk and the Food and Agriculture Organization FAO
www.fao.org

• differentiate between natural vegetation and agriculture
• describe the climates of different types of forests
• compare primary and planted forests
• explain how forests and woodland improve the environment
• identify the characteristics of the main layers of a tropical rainforest
• explain some of the ways in which people make a living in forests
• describe the importance of the Amazon rainforest.
• evaluate the economic role played by forests in the region.
• identify the four major types of forests in Pakistan.
• discuss the extent to which planted forests are sustainable in the long run
62
Lesson #1
Topics Resources
• What is a forest? • Oxford School Atlas for
• Difference between natural and planted forests Pakistan
• Types of forests: coniferous and deciduous forests • Skills Book activity
‘Planted forests’
• access to the Internet, if
possible
Ask what is meant by a forest. Point out that there is no real Teacher’s Notes
distinction between a wood and a forest, although most people
agree that a forest is bigger than some wood. If they have visited a
forest, students could describe how a forest is different from other
landscapes; the difference made by the trees to the weather, local
climate, other plants, and wildlife.
Show them the map of the world’s main forests and explain the
difference between primary forest and planted or semi-planted
forest.
Suggested Activity
Ask the students to use the Internet or reference books to find out
about the different types of forests found in different climatic zones.
They could mark a world map to show the locations of the world’s
coniferous and deciduous forests.
Ask the students to read the following sections of pages 51-53. Teacher’s Notes
Then ask them to describe coniferous and deciduous forests, giving
examples of some of the trees and to say what kind of climate is
suitable for each type of forest and why. Ask why some parts of
Pakistan are suitable for coniferous trees, although Pakistan is not
in a cold climatic zone. (Because the coniferous forests grow at
high altitudes, where temperatures are much colder than in the
lowlands, e.g. Juniper forest in Ziarat, Murree, and northern areas
of Pakistan.) Using tools such as sample leaves and images for
reference, explain:
Coniferous forests are characterized by trees that have
•
needle-like leaves. These leaves are typically green all year
round, although they may turn a different colour in the
fall. Coniferous trees also produce cones, which contain the
seeds of the tree. Coniferous forests are found in a variety
of climates, but they are most common in cold, northern
regions.
63
Deciduous forests are characterized by trees that have

•
broad, flat leaves. These leaves change colour in the fall
and fall off the tree in the winter. Deciduous trees produce
flowers, which are pollinated by insects or wind. Deciduous
forests are found in a variety of climates, but they are most
common in temperate regions.
Building Skills
Students can collect data on the different types of trees in the forest
they visit. They can record the height, diameter, and species of each
tree. They can also collect data on the condition of the trees, such
as whether they are healthy or diseased. They can also collect data
on the soil composition in a forest. They can record the soil type,
pH level, and moisture content. They can also collect data on any
pollutants in the soil. Students can create a map of the vegetation in
a forest. They can record the type of vegetation, the foliage’s height,
and the vegetation’s density.
Homework
Ask the students to do ‘Planted forests’ from Skills Book and ask what a planted forest is and
how it differs from a primary forest. Using Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan, help them locate
the countries listed on the page and mark them on the blank political map of the world.
• I learned about the factors that affect the type of forest that grows in a place.
• I learned about the difference between deciduous and coniferous forests.
64
Lesson #2
Topics Resources
• Types of forests: tropical rainforest • Oxford School Atlas for
• Layers of tropical rainforest Pakistan
‘Layers of a tropical
rainforest’
‘The climate of a
tropical rainforest’
Tell the students that they are now going to find out more about Teacher’s Notes
tropical rainforests and ask them to look at the map on page 50
that shows the tropical rainforests of the world. Ask them which
latitudes most tropical rainforests lie between. Also ask them to
name any countries at the same latitudes as these forests that do not
have tropical rainforests. Ask them to explain why some tropical
regions have rainforests while others do not. Point out that some
tropical regions have arid climates— deserts, which do not support
trees; others have tropical dry forests (see Before we proceed).
Explain that forests, particularly rainforests, can be split into
horizontal layers. Each layer has a different collection of plants and
animals depending upon the amount of sunlight, water, and food
available. From the ground upwards, these layers are:
• forest floor—rotting leaves, animal dropping, and dead trees,
which form new soil and provide nutrients for the plants, living
plants, including ferns, grasses, fungi, and tree seedlings
• under canopy—bushes, shrubs, and young trees that can
survive in the shade under the canopy
• canopy—branches, twigs, and leaves of mature trees, where the
tops of the tallest trees get most of the sunlight
• emergent layer—in tropical rainforests, where a few scattered
trees rise above the canopy
If possible, show the students an example near the school of any Teacher’s Notes
area of vegetation and ask what they notice about the heights of
the plants. (They are usually different heights, with some needing
more sunlight than others which survive in the shade.) Explain that
forests are like this: some trees grow taller than others and there are
many plants that grow well in shady places, while some reach the
sunlight by climbing up others.
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Ask the students to read ‘Layers of the rainforest’ and to look at

the diagram of a rainforest. Ask them to describe the layers of a
rainforest without referring to the Student’s Book. Then ask them to
give an example of a tropical rainforest tree, saying which layer of
the rainforest it belongs to, and why this layer suits it. They should
be able to name the kapok tree and to say why it is suited to the
emergent layer.
Homework
After reading this section, the students should complete Questions A1–2. Ask the students to
do the Skills Book ‘Layers of a tropical rainforest’. They should try to complete this without
referring to the Student’s Book. They can proceed also do ‘The climate of a tropical rainforest’ or
complete this for homework.
• I learned about the climate of a tropical Rainforest.
• I learned how different trees and other plants survive together in a tropical rainforest.
• I learned that a tropical rainforest can be split into layers, with the tallest trees growing to the
top layer—the emergent layer.
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Lesson #3
Reference (pages 55-56)
Topics Resources
• Make a living in the rainforest of Brazil • Oxford School Atlas for
• Forests of Pakistan Pakistan
• pictures of products of
the Amazon rainforest
Ask the students to locate Brazil on a map of the world. Ask them Teacher’s Notes
to describe its location (continent, neighbouring countries, seas/
oceans, and latitude). Ask them to find the main river in Brazil,
and to name it. They should be able to describe the climatic zone
of the area around this river (the Amazon). Using a physical map
of Brazil/South America, they should be able to describe the land
there (whether it is mountainous, a valley, a plain, or a plateau).
Show the students some pictures of the products of the Amazon Teacher’s Notes
rainforest: rubber and Brazil nuts (if possible, show the nuts in their
shells—perhaps use nutcrackers to open them for the students to
eat.) Explain that the nuts grow in pods—around 10–21 nuts in each
pod.
If you are unable to find Brazil nuts, show them pictures of Brazil
nuts and tell them that a pod is approximately the size of a baseball.
Its outer shell is very hard. It falls from the trees when it ripens.
Ask the students to read the sections about rubber-tapping and
Brazil nut harvesting. After they have read these, ask if they think
the workers face any dangers. (Many workers are injured, or even
killed by Brazil nut pods falling from trees as these are hard and
quite heavy. They also face possible danger from some of the
animals of the rainforest.)
Ask if rubber-tapping and Brazil nut harvesting harm the rainforest,
and why not. Inform them that rubber trees have a wax-like liquid
called latex in their bark which is tapped by rubber-tappers. Ask
them to name some of the products made from rubber. Give them
examples like rubber shoe soles, balloons, tires, pencil erasers, etc.
Ask students to refer to the Oxford School Atlas and read page 56.
Ask them similarities and differences between different forests in
Pakistan and identify the locations for each on the map in the Skills
Book.
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Homework
Ask them to complete Questions B1–3 and Skills Book activity ‘Mapping forests of Pakistan’ if
not done in class.
• I learned that the rainforests contain trees that are very useful to people: for example, the
rubber tree and the Brazil nut tree.
• I learned how Brazil nuts are harvested and sold without harming the trees and rubber-
tappers collect latex without harming the trees and sell it to rubber manufacturers.
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Lesson #4
Topics Resources
• Uses of forests • Skills Book activity
• Role of forests in the global economy ‘Advantages of planted
forests’
• Urban planted forests
Ask students to read pages 56-58. Discuss that forests are essential Teacher’s Notes
for life on Earth. They provide oxygen, water, habitat for plants and
animals, prevent soil erosion, and have economic benefits. They
also help mitigate climate change by absorbing carbon dioxide.
Forests provide wood for furniture, paper, and fuel. They also have
fruits, nuts, and medicinal plants that people can use for food and
medicine.
Forests are popular for ecotourism, which creates jobs and income
for local communities. They help regulate water and absorb carbon
dioxide from the air, which helps with climate change. Forests also
filter air and water, making them cleaner. They provide homes for
plants and animals and have cultural and spiritual value for many
people.
Remind the students about the term ‘primary forest’ and ask them
to explain it. Point out that there are very few forests that have
grown completely naturally, but most forests began as primary
forests, and new trees have been planted in and around them. Ask
if they have visited, or heard of a forest that was planted specially,
and if they know what the trees were planted for. Tell them that
they are going to learn some of the reasons why people plant forests
and about some examples.
Ask the students to read the sections of pages 58-59. Discuss the Teacher’s Notes
uses of forests and refer to the local data showing impact of forest
products on the economy. Discuss how forests make significant
contributions to the global economy in various ways. They are a
vital source of timber and wood products, supplying materials for
construction, furniture, paper, and other industries. It generates
substantial revenue and employment opportunities, particularly
in regions with extensive forest resources. Additionally, forests
support the livelihoods of millions worldwide, particularly those in
rural and indigenous communities who depend on forest resources
for sustenance and income generation. Furthermore, forests
contribute to tourism, attracting visitors with their natural beauty
and recreational opportunities.
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Forest-based ecotourism activities such as hiking, wildlife

observation, and nature-based experiences generate revenue and
employment in many countries.
Discuss the idea of sponge cities and the role of urban forests.
Explain that for centuries, dust storms from the Gobi Desert have
affected the major cities of China like Beijing and are a major
cause of desertification. Since 1978, the Chinese government has
started planting forests to address this issue and it has been quite
successful in this regard. The vegetation has increased, and the
intensity of the dust storms has decreased.
Explain that, as well as protecting the land from dust storms, a
planted forest could be useful in another important way and ask
what this might be. (A forest can protect the land from wind that
could cause soil erosion, where soil is blown away by the wind,
leaving the land much poorer for farming. It could also help to
prevent soil being washed away, as the tree roots hold the soil.)
Ask the students not to refer to the Student’s Book, and invite
volunteers to say what they have learnt, and to give examples of
primary and planted forests. Also ask why people plant forests,
apart from making the environment look pleasant. If they do not
mention it, remind them of the information in ‘It’s a fact.’ and
ask how forests can help to protect the environment. Explain that
carbon dioxide is a gas that is released into the air when animals
(including humans) breathe, and that many human activities, such
as industry and transport, release carbon dioxide into the air. Point
out that carbon dioxide replaces other useful gases in the air, such
as oxygen, which we and other animals need to stay alive.
Carbon dioxide is one of the gases that help to keep the Earth
warm, but too much carbon dioxide leads to global warming. Trees
and other plants take in carbon dioxide during the day, when they
use energy from sunlight to produce glucose from carbon dioxide
and water. They build new material from glucose. So large forests
are important for reducing the amount of carbon dioxide in the
air. The tropical rainforest of Brazil makes a huge difference to the
entire world therefore many countries are helping Brazil to protect
its forest.
Homework
Ask the students to complete Questions C1–3. You can also ask students to refer to Skills Book
activity and read the series of quotations from different people about a new forest that is being
planned for land in a rural area that is being used for farming.
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They could read the quotations in groups and discuss the effects of the planned forest and then
write what they think each group of people would want the planners to do. Visit each group
and ask them to explain their answers. Each group could also plan a presentation for the rest of
the class, or they could arrange a mock ‘consultation meeting’ with different students taking the
roles of the people described on the pages. Encourage them to represent their characters’ views
in a persuasive but polite way.
 I learned about the differences between primary and planted forests and can describe some
examples of each type of forests.
 I learned some of the purposes for which forests are planted, including to help reduce climate
change.
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Lesson #5
Topics Resources
• How do forests help a city • Oxford School Atlas for
• Deforestation Pakistan
• Sustainable forestry • Skills Book activity
‘How forests cool a
city’
Tell the students that forests are an important part of our Teacher’s Notes
environment. They affect the atmosphere of the neighbouring
towns and cities. Ask if any of them have visited Changa Manga
Forest near Lahore, in Punjab. They could tell the others about
their visit. If not, tell them that Changa Manga is one of the oldest
planted forests in the world and was once the largest, but it is now
much smaller than it used to be, because of clearing forests.
Changa Manga is on a plain in a region with a hot, dry climate, and
before the forest was planted, scrubland was cleared of bushes and
irrigation canals were dug. The first trees to be planted were chosen
because they could adapt to this type of climate: sheesham and
kikar (coniferous trees, whose wood is useful for many purposes,
and parts of the trees have medicinal uses); also, white mulberry (a
broad-leafed tree that has many medicinal uses as well as being a
grown for feeding silkworms). Eucalyptus trees were planted later.
Ask if any student knows the purpose of Changa Manga forest,
where planting began in 1866. They might remember from their
history lessons that this was during the time of British rule, and that
the British were keen to build railways for transporting military
personnel and goods as well as crops such as tea. The forest
provided wood for railway construction and for fuel for steam
trains. Tell the students that they are going to find out about the
new purposes for Changa Manga and another forest in England
that was planted with different coniferous trees for a different
purpose, but now has a very similar purpose to Changa Manga.
Ask students to read pages 58-60. Invite the students to explain Teacher’s Notes
what makes the air in cities warmer than the air in the surrounding
countryside, and how a forest can help to cool the air in a city. Ask
the students to read the sections of pages 54–55 ‘A planted forest in
Pakistan: Changa Manga’ and ‘A planted forest in the UK: Kielder
Forest’ and to look at the photos of the forests.
Then they should use Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan to find the
locations of the Kielder and Changa Manga forests.
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Ask the students what Kielder forest was planted for (timber). It is
still one of the UK’s main sources of timber for various industries.
Ask them to compare these two planted forests. They should
comment on the types of trees, the wildlife, and the new purpose
for each forest. Ask them if using wood as a material or fuel is
harmful to the environment or whether it could be helpful. Explain
to them that a forest where new trees are planted to replace the
ones that have been cut down can be in better condition than a
forest left to nature. It can also provide a sanctuary for wildlife. The
students could find out more from http://fwf.punjab.gov.pk.
Ask students to define deforestation. Explain that deforestation
means the removal of trees. This is sometimes done to clear land
for farming, roads, or settlements. It is a big problem globally. Give
examples of global problems from deforestation, such as in the
Amazon Rainforest in South America around 13,235 km² of trees
were cut down in 2021. Trees are removed to make space for things
like farmland to raise cattle for the meat industry. That’s the same
as around 2 million football pitches worth of trees being cut down
in a year. It is not sustainable.
In Scotland lots of our forests are now more sustainable. That
means that when we cut down trees, we plant new ones to replace
them, so our forests stay alive, and we protect our wildlife and
environment. This is especially true of hardwood trees (like oak
and ash) which can take up to hundreds of years to grow back. By
comparison, softwood trees (like pine) grow back quite quickly
so are a more sustainable option. As wood is a natural material, it
can sustain other types of life when it biodegrades naturally. This
means it breaks down as part of nature and becomes part of the
nutrient cycle by supporting wildlife and other living things.
We should leave most trees in the ground. This will help:
• protect us from climate change
• keep our air quality good
• provide a habitat for other plants and animals
• soak up water from the soil which helps prevent flooding
• give us beautiful landscapes to look at and enjoy
Ask students to explore possible pros and cons of forests and wood
(or other products) if they were managing a piece of land. Here is a
sample of advantages and disadvantages of wood:
Advantages
• It is a strong and flexible material to use in building.
• It has thousands of different uses and is often used in building,
to make furniture, toys and types of tools.
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• It is naturally replenishing and renewable as it grows naturally

in the ground. This means using it damages the environment
less than non-renewable energy sources and materials which
don’t grow back.
• It biodegrades and breaks down naturally so contributes to the
nutrient cycle to support other living things.
Disadvantages
• There are many disadvantages to using wood as a material
because when alive as trees, wood is very useful to us!
• Deforestation negatively affects natural ecosystems,
biodiversity, and the climate.
• By absorbing carbon dioxide, trees help to slow down climate
change. They also release oxygen and so are a natural part of
the ecosystem. Cutting trees down to use as material means we
don’t get this fantastic benefit.
• They are a beautiful part of nature when alive – it’s a real shame
to cut them down and lose stunning views, good air quality and
the support of other life such as insects, animals, and birds.
Ask students to discuss what new did they learn about sustainable
forestry. For example, discuss Corporate Social Responsibility
and to what extent can it be successfully adopted in developing
countries like Pakistan.
Suggested activity
Introduce the concept of ‘sponge cities’ which are urban areas with
abundant natural areas such as trees, lakes and parks, or other good
designs intended to absorb rain and prevent flooding. This nature-
based solution uses the landscape to retain water at its source, slow
down water flow and clean it throughout the process. The focus is
to retain rainwater in urban areas by waterproofing the paved floor
so that part of it evaporates and the rest is drained gradually. Ask
students to find out:
• Name the best sponge city in the world. (Auckland: it boasts
a high percentage of green and blue space, with roughly half
of its land covered by these elements, making it one of the
best “sponge cities” in the world of the eight profiled, with a
sponginess score of 35%.)
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• What material is used in sponge cities? (Sponge city uses

permeable asphalt concrete, permeable cement concrete,
permeable brick, and novel permeable materials. Pore
characteristics have a significant impact on mechanical and
hydrological properties of permeable pavements.)
• What are the techniques of sponge city? (Associated techniques
for sponge cities include permeable roads, rooftop gardens,
rainwater harvesting, rain gardens, green space and blue space
such as ponds and lakes. The idea of a sponge city is to make
cities more permeable so as to hold and use the water which
falls upon it.)
• What are the disadvantages of sponge city? (The more
impermeable the city is, the more water will be mixed with
wastewater and will not be able to be treated but discharged
directly into rivers. This increases the level of pollution of local
water bodies. Degradation of urban ecosystems and green areas
due to sprawling.)
Homework
Ask them to complete Question C2 a–e and C4. Show the students the diagram on page 59 and
ask them to discuss how a forest could help to improve the atmosphere and keep the air in a
neighbouring town/city cool, and where it could be planted. The students could also discuss
whether everyone in the city or town would be in favour of planting new forest and give reasons
to support their answers. This is an opportunity for a class debate, also using what has been
learned in previous lessons. The students could complete this exercise for homework.
• I learned how a forest can help to cool hot air in a city.
• I learned how trees can help to prevent air pollution in a city.
• I learned that forests that are planted for timber can become pleasant places for recreation
and for protecting wildlife.
• I learned about the similarities and differences between a planted forest in Pakistan and
another in the UK.
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Answers to Assessments
A Choose the correct answer:
i. Nine
ii. Deciduous
iii. Mangrove
iv. Coniferous
v. 4.8%
vi. 11
vii. Desertification
viii. Carbon
B. 1 a) Tropical rainforests are found between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn.
Their climate is hot and humid. They receive rain throughout the year and the
average temperatures each month are between 18°C and 35°C. The world’s
largest tropical rainforest is in Brazil.
b) a hot climate with no dry season, and rain during every month of the year
Emergent layer: the topmost layer, which receives the most sunlight. Leaves are
2 a)
big and leathery or hairy, with a pointed shape that lets water run off easily.
Canopy: the second layer, which has shorter trees that do not need much sunlight. The
leaves are so dense that they form a canopy and block out sunlight to the lower layers.
Most of the animal and plant life of the forest is found here.
Under canopy: the third layer, which has shorter trees than the canopy and need even less
sunlight, but need shelter from heavy rain. They get water that drips off the leaves of the
canopy trees.
Forest floor: the bottom layer, which is very cool and shaded, so very few plants grow
there, apart from those that do not need much sunlight, such as shrubs, mosses, ferns, and
bushes. Some small trees can grow up to 3.5 metres, while other forest floor plants grow
up till the trees to reach sunlight.
b) It is an emergent tree that grows very quickly to the top of the canopy, where
plenty of sunlight reaches it. It has a thick trunk and many roots that spread
out to support the tree in shallow soil. These large roots help the tree to take up
water. Its leaves turn to face the Sun and their fan shape helps the rain to run off
them.
c) Some plants do not need much sunlight; others can climb up the taller plants to
reach the sunlight.
C. 1 a) They make a small cut in the bark of the tree and fix a cup to collect the latex
that runs out. Later in the day, they go back to collect the cups of latex. The next
day, they tap different trees.
b) The rubber-tappers and Brazil nut harvesters look after the forest by making sure
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they do not damage the trees. They know they need the forest so that they can
make a living out of it. The rubber tappers tap different trees each day and hence
do not damage them. The Brazil nut harvesters collect Brazil nut pods that have
fallen and cut down other nuts carefully.
c) Bolivia, Brazil, and Peru
2. a) The government pays them to help them make a living from the trees in the
wild. Only wild trees are tapped, so no forest is cut down to plant rubber trees.
They tap different trees each day.
b) Each morning they go along forest trails to gather the pods of nuts that fall from
the trees. They open the pods using a machete and then take out the nuts. They
put the nuts in large bags and carry them to a nearby house or settlement near a
road or river. Then they hand over the nuts to the people who transport them by
road or river to processing plants in towns.
The students’ own responses should include the effects on farmers (who might
D 1.
lose some of their farmland); people in nearby villages, towns, or cities (who could
benefit from the reduction in pollution and flooding and fresher, cooler air, and
enjoy visiting a forest for recreation); local businesses (whose trade could benefit
from visitors).
2 a) g
yps vulture, blue bull, urial, spotted deer, peacock, partridge, various species of
monkey
b) They can go to the zoo, walk in the forest, ride on the train, visit the pagoda,
water turbine, or waterfall. They can also go to the children’s play area, on the
boating lake, and have a picnic.
c) students’ own responses
d) The forest could help to prevent flooding, because trees take up a lot of water
from the soil. It could provide shelter from wind and hot sunshine. It provides
a pleasant place for a day out. It brings tourists to the area; this could provide
income for local businesses. It could also make local roads and railways busier.
This might lead to improved roads for the area which could be useful for local
people and businesses.
e) the students’ own responses, using information from this unit and from leaflets
from Changa Manga, and the Internet.
E 1. The correct answer is ‘b’
F 1. Answers will vary.
2. Answers will vary. The argument should highlight the complex and different
perspectives surrounding the issue of cutting down trees in the rainforest. One
should emphasize the importance of preserving the rainforest for biodiversity
and climate regulation, while the other should acknowledge the economic
benefits and argues for responsible logging practices. Encourage students to
end on a positive note by helping person A and B find a common ground that
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prioritizes sustainability, conservation, and the well-being of both ecosystems and

communities is crucial to addressing the challenges faced in the rainforest.
G a) Encourage students to refer to authentic sources such as the following:
• https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.FRST.ZS
• https://www.fao.org/state-of-forests/2020/en/
• https://ourworldindata.org/
b) Answers will vary due to their individual research. Recommend referring to reliable
sources such as the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
(FAO), which regularly publishes comprehensive reports on global forest resources
and deforestation rates.
c) Answers will vary.
H 1 a) Refer to the Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan.
b) Northern areas in GB and KPK.
Deciduous - foothills of the Himalayas and the Karakoram Mountain ranges
2 a)
Coniferous - Swat, Shangla (KPK), Murree, Rawalpindi (Punjab), Quetta and
Qalat (Balochistan)
Tropical – none found in this region
Mangrove - Indus delta and Hub delta
b and c) Answers will vary.
Coniferous: Cold climates since it can withstand snow because of their strong, supple,
downward-sloping branches and their conical-shape which allows the snow to slide off.
Deciduous: These forests are found in areas that receive plenty of rainfall all year round.
These are found along the Equator belt between the tropic of Cancer and tropic of
Capricorn. The tropical deciduous forests are majorly found in Coastal regions
Tropical: These are found in the regions surrounding Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn.
The climate of a tropical rainforest is hot and humid, as it receives rain throughout the
year
Mangrove: Typically found in tropical and subtropical regions where temperatures are
warm year-round. They are uniquely adapted to live in brackish water, where freshwater
and saltwater mix. These often grow in sheltered areas such as estuaries, deltas, and
protected bays.
Planted forests can contribute to resource management and environmental
3.
conservation, their long-term sustainability depends on appropriate management
practices, biodiversity considerations, soil and water conservation efforts, climate
change mitigation strategies, and addressing social and economic aspects.
Answers to Skills Book

Skills Book activity ‘Layers of a tropical rainforest’
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A 1. emergent, canopy, under canopy, forest floor

2. Answers will vary. Plants might include: banana, coffee, Brazil nut, rubber, tea,
kapok.
Skills Book activity ‘The climate of a tropical rainforest’
A. hot; Tropics of Cancer; Capricorn; humid; rises; clouds; cool; condenses; rain; tree
canopy; under canopy; nutrients; dead plants and animals decompose quickly; shallow;
nutrients; water.
Skills Book activity ‘Planted forests’
A 1. Check that the students mark and label the planted forests in the correct places.
B. 1-2) students’ own responses
Skills Book activity ‘How forests cool a city’
A ‘Students’’ own answers

Skills Book activity ‘Advantages of planted forest’
A 1. Students should read the information.

2 and 3.‘Students’ own responses
Skills Book activity ‘Mapping forests in Pakistan’
Refer to the information on page 56 to colour the map.
Skills Book activity ‘Impact of deforestation’
A. Brainstorm and then elaborate on the possible steps and the limitation in implementing
identified steps. Sample:
Possibilities Limitations
Promoting sustainable forest management to Local communities often resist efforts
meet the needs of people and the environment. to protect forests because they rely on
This includes replanting trees after they are forests for their livelihoods.
harvested and reducing the fire risk.
Pakistan’s laws prohibit deforestation, but The government of Pakistan needs more
these laws often need to be executed. It is resources to enforce the laws against
important to implement these laws to prevent deforestation effectively or to promote
deforestation. sustainable forest management.
Raising awareness of the importance of forests There needs to be more political will to
and the threats they face can encourage people address the problem of deforestation in
to take action to protect them. Pakistan.
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5
Natural Disasters
UNIT

This unit focuses on natural disasters: how they occur, how human activity increases
their frequency and ferocity, and their impact on humans and the landscape. Special
consideration is given to an exploration of why developing nations suffer more from
natural disasters than developed nations, and how people can prepare for natural
disasters.
While natural disasters can occur anywhere, the Asia–Pacific region experiences among
the most frequent and most disastrous natural disasters. These include earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, cyclones, monsoons, floods, and fires. This region is also home to many
developing countries, which exasperates the problem because evidence shows that most
people killed or otherwise severely affected by natural disasters come from developing
countries.
The impact of natural disasters is not necessarily associated with the force and scale of the
event, but the vulnerabilities within the area it hits. For example, an earthquake that hits
a city in a developed nation that has strong, enforced building codes, will prove far less of
a disaster than an earthquake of the same magnitude hitting a city in a developing nation
where there are usually no strictly enforced regulations for buildings and infrastructure.
The capability of governments and emergency services to respond to disasters is also a
factor in the final assessment of the scale of a disaster. Governments and aid organizations
conduct risk assessments and make plans to deal with natural disasters. However,
allocating resources is not as simple as it seems. Governments and organisations have
limited resources.
It has been established that human-induced activity is changing the Earth’s climate. As a
result, evidence suggests that natural disasters have become more frequent and extreme
and will continue to do so. The ramifications are enormous. Increased temperatures and
heatwaves will lead to drought conditions in some parts of the world, while other areas
will suffer from more potent floods due to increased rainfall. Cyclones/hurricanes have
increased in intensity, and they also cause flooding.
Before we proceed
Before beginning this unit, you should acquaint students with some of the types of natural
disasters such as volcanoes, cyclones, earthquakes, forest fires, landslides, desertification,
and floods. Also reacquaint them with the notion of climate change, particularly the
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U N I T 5 N a tu r a l D i s a st e r s
production of greenhouse gases from the burning of fossil fuels. The difference between
renewable and non-renewable resources could be one focus of this discussion.
It would also help if students were aware of the differences between developed and
developing countries. Perhaps start the study of this unit by asking students if they are
aware of any natural disaster that has occurred recently. They might have learnt about it
from the news (TV, newspaper, Internet, etc.) This leads nicely into the area of the unit
dealing with natural disasters.

• explain the links between natural disasters, sustainable development, and climate
change
• identify ways in which natural disasters have impacted on human activity
• discuss why developing nations suffer more from natural disasters than developed
nations
• describe several ways in which humans contribute to natural disasters
• explain what actions can be taken to reduce the risk and impact of natural disasters
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Lesson #1
Topics Resources
• What is a natural disaster? • Oxford School Atlas for
• Types of natural disaster Pakistan
• Climate change and natural disaster • Skills Book activity
‘Comparing
magnitudes of
earthquakes’
One of the most well-known natural disasters in ancient times Teacher’s Notes
was the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD. This catastrophic
event caused the destruction of the Roman cities of Pompeii
and Herculaneum. Explain that on August 24, 79 AD, Mount
Vesuvius, a volcano near these cities, erupted with catastrophic
consequences. Explain the events leading up to the eruption of
Mount Vesuvius, including any precursors or warning signs. Show
artistic impressions of the event, if possible, on multimedia. Please
explain how the cities were buried under layers of ash and pumice,
preserving them for centuries and were rediscovered when the
cities were excavated in the 18th century. Describe the tragic human
toll of the eruption, including the loss of thousands of lives and
discuss the impact on neighbouring communities and the wider
region.
Suggested Activity
Assign students to research and present on other famous natural
disasters in ancient history, such as the Minoan eruption on the
island of Thera (Santorini) or the flood of the Yellow River in China.
Students should read pages 63-65. This section starts with an Teacher’s Notes
explanation of natural disaster and climate change and the
relationship between the two. In discussing greenhouse gases, it is
worth pointing out that the greenhouse effect can be both natural
and human induced. The following image helps to show this.
Students may be wondering what the connection is between climate
change/greenhouse gases and natural disasters. Read this with
the students. Now ask them to research and write a paragraph on
floods in Vietnam and/or tsunamis in Japan, focussing on how they
affect life, property, and the economy. This image from https://
www3.epa.gov/climatechange/kids/impacts/signs/oceans.
html shows how the oceans have warmed over the past 125 years.
Showing this to your students will help to illustrate how oceans
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have warmed. It is worth pointing out that the wide-scale emission

of human produced greenhouse gases started during the Industrial
Revolution, near where this graph starts.
It took about 30 years for the greenhouse effect to increase the
temperature of the oceans, but since then the trend has been a
steady rise. You can talk about Tuvalu, which is an island in the
Pacific Ocean. Rising water levels have made this island very
vulnerable.
1. Ask your students to find Tuvalu on a map.
2. Ask them to research climate change in Tuvalu and find out
how much the sea levels are rising around the island. (Answer:
about 5mm per year)
3. Ask the students to write down some of the ways the rising sea
levels are already harming Tuvalu. (Answer: contaminating
fresh ground water and therefore putting at risk the supply of
clean drinking water; destruction of important crops; changes
to ecosystem of the sea life around the island, threatening the
fishing industry)
Homework
Students should complete the Skills Book activity ‘Comparing magnitude of earthquakes’ for
homework.
 I learned how natural disasters are caused and how the damage they cause.
 I learned that there is a direct relationship between climate change and the occurrence of
natural disasters.
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Lesson #2
Topics Resources
• The impact of natural disasters • Oxford School Atlas for
Pakistan
‘Impact of natural
disasters’
On 26 December 2004, an earthquake in the Indian Ocean, near Teacher’s Notes
Indonesia, caused a tsunami that killed more than 200,000 people
throughout Asia and as far away as the coast of Africa. (Note for
teachers: This can be a whole class activity using one large map or
individual activity where each student is given his/her own copy of
a map.)
1. Use a map of the world, or one that at least covers Asia and the
East coast of Africa.
2. Start by asking the students to conduct research and find and
mark the epicenter of the Earthquake.
3. Ask the students to highlight the countries where casualties
occurred because of the tsunami. Their map should show the
following countries:
• Indonesia • India • Somalia
• Sri Lanka • Thailand • Myanmar
• Maldives • Malaysia • Tanzania
• Seychelles • Bangladesh • South Africa
• Yemen • Madagascar
Natural disasters can leave individuals, families, and communities Teacher’s Notes
devastated in many ways. Start by explaining that the effects of a
natural disaster can be divided into two categories: primary effects
and secondary effects.
Ask your students for examples of each and do Skills Book activity
‘Impact of natural disasters.’ Their responses should include
primary: human casualties, destroyed buildings, and collapsed
infrastructure; secondary: psychological damage, spread of disease,
and permanent loss of communities. Give the example of the floods
in Bangladesh in 2016 during the monsoon season. The water level
rose dangerously, affecting the lives of more than 3.7 million people
in one way or another. Ask what the primary and secondary effects
of these floods might have been on the affected people.
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Suggested Activity
Case study of a disaster This activity is a research project into the
effects of a natural disaster. Ask each student to do some research
into a particular natural disaster. They can all pick different ones or
the whole class can choose the same one. Ask them to respond to
the following questions, either on paper or in discussion:
• What sort of disaster was it?
• What happened during the disaster? (How did people respond?)
• How many people were affected?
• How was property affected?
• How was the environment affected?
• What was the government response?
• How did aid agencies respond?
Homework
The students should complete Questions/activities B from the Student’s Book as homework.
 I learned about the impact of natural disasters on the life and property of individuals.
 I learned about the economic and psychological impacts of natural disasters.
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Lesson #3
Topics Resources
• Climate change and sustainable development • Access to the Internet
• Natural disasters and the developing nations or library
Engage students in a discussion by asking them to identify any Teacher’s Notes
SDGs they are familiar with and explain what they understand
about them. Facilitate a class discussion to highlight the
interconnectedness of the SDGs and their role in addressing
global challenges, including natural disasters. Discuss the
relevance of specific SDGs, such as Goal 11 (Sustainable Cities
and Communities), Goal 13 (Climate Action), and Goal 15 (Life on
Land), to natural disaster management.
Divide students into small groups and assign each group a specific
SDG related to disaster risk reduction (e.g., SDG 1: No Poverty,
SDG 2: Zero Hunger, SDG 3: Good Health and Well-being). Instruct
each group to research and identify the connections between their
assigned SDG and disaster risk reduction. Have each group present
their findings, highlighting the ways in which achieving their
assigned SDG can contribute to building resilience and reducing
vulnerability to natural disasters.
All nations, but particularly developing nations, face a dilemma Teacher’s Notes
in pursuing development in a way that does not harm their
economies. However, pursuing development in the cheapest way
possible has ramifications for the environment, climate change,
and natural disasters. Give examples of burning coal to generate
electricity. Germany and other European countries have closed
their coal mines because of environmental hazards, while Pakistan
and other developing countries are still relying on coal to produce
energy.
Talk about alternative energy/renewable energy options, like solar,
tidal, and wind, being used in the world. Lead a discussion about
the pros and cons of pursuing development using cheap non-
renewable energy sources instead of renewable sources that may be
more expensive. Examples:
• non-renewable pros: cheap; infrastructure already exists; easily
transportable
• non-renewable cons: harm the environment; will leave future
generations without an energy source
• renewable pros: clean, so good for the environment; will never
run out; easily available (once infrastructure exists)
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• renewable cons: not reliable 24 hours a day; difficult or

impossible to transport
Engage the class in a group discussion about the challenges
faced by less economically developed countries (LEDC) in
coping with natural disasters and the potential responses.
Prompt students to consider questions like: What are the
immediate and long-term challenges faced by LEDCs after a
natural disaster? What measures can be taken to enhance their
disaster preparedness and response capabilities? Encourage
critical thinking and the exploration of various perspectives,
including the role of international aid, community resilience,
and sustainable development approaches.
Homework
Students should complete Questions C.
 I learned that climate change is triggered by social and economic developmental activities.
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Lesson #4
Topics Resources
• Impact of human activities on natural disasters • Skills Book ‘Natural
disasters in Pakistan’
Explain the concept of human activities and their potential influence Teacher’s Notes
on natural disasters. The Amazon rainforest, often referred to as the
“lungs of the Earth,” is a vital ecosystem that plays a significant role
in regulating global climate patterns and supporting biodiversity.
However, human activities, particularly deforestation, have had
a profound impact on this valuable natural resource and have
contributed to an increased risk of natural disasters, such as
landslides.
The Amazon rainforest covers approximately 5.5 million square
kilometers across several South American countries, including
Brazil, Peru, and Colombia. It is home to a rich variety of plant
and animal species, as well as indigenous communities. However,
human activities, primarily driven by agricultural expansion,
logging, and infrastructure development, have resulted in
widespread deforestation. Explain how deforestation occurs in the
Amazon rainforest due to logging, clearing land for agriculture
(primarily cattle ranching and crop cultivation), and infrastructure
development.
• Highlight the scale of deforestation, emphasizing the significant
loss of forest cover over the years.
• Discuss the relationship between deforestation and landslides,
focusing on the ecological consequences.
• Explain that deforestation disrupts the natural equilibrium
of the rainforest by removing the protective canopy and
weakening the soil structure.
• Clarify that the removal of trees reduces the ability of the soil
to absorb and retain water, leading to increased surface runoff
during heavy rainfall.
• Highlight how this runoff can trigger landslides, as the loose soil
becomes unstable and prone to erosion.
• Highlight the potential consequences of landslides, including
loss of lives, displacement of communities, and destruction
of infrastructure. Discuss the impact on local ecosystems and
biodiversity, as landslides can lead to the destruction of habitats
and the loss of species.
• Discuss strategies for mitigating the impact of deforestation and
reducing the risk of landslides.
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• Explore sustainable practices such as reforestation and

afforestation efforts to restore forest cover and strengthen soil
stability.
• Highlight the importance of land-use planning and regulations
to control deforestation and promote sustainable agricultural
practices.
• Discuss the role of international cooperation and awareness in
addressing deforestation and its impact on natural disasters.
Conclusion:
The case study of deforestation and landslides in the Amazon
rainforest illustrates the influence of human activities on natural
disasters. It demonstrates how deforestation disrupts the ecosystem,
leading to increased vulnerability to landslides. It emphasizes the
need for sustainable practices and responsible land management to
mitigate the risks associated with deforestation. By understanding
these interconnections, we can take proactive measures to protect
our environment and minimize the impact of human activities on
natural disasters.
Explain that developing nations suffer more from natural disasters Teacher’s Notes
because they do not have adequate resources to cope with them.
Read page 68-69 and explain that the governments of developed
countries have enough resources to evacuate and resettle the people
of disaster- stricken areas to safer places.
Explain that the term ‘natural disaster’ is not really an accurate
description. Human activity can contribute to natural disasters too.
Discuss the issue of deforestation in Pakistan. (Punjab is the region
with the worst deforestation, followed by Sindh, then Balochistan,
and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.)
Also discuss overgrazing, particularly in northern Pakistan. Ask
students to research where Pakistan’s ten largest dams are. (They
are Mangla Dam, Tarbela Dam, Hub Dam, Mirani Dam, Sabakzai
Dam, Gomal Zam Dam, Allai Khwar Dam, and Duber Khwar Dam.)
Explain that while dams are important to produce hydroelectricity,
they may threaten the surrounding areas with a natural disaster like
an earthquake. Ask students to research Pakistan’s mining activity
and discuss how it may induce a natural disaster.
Homework
Students should complete Questions D and E. Students should complete the activity ‘Natural
disasters in Pakistan’ for homework.
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 I learned that developing nations suffer the most from natural disasters because they do not
have adequate resources to cope with their aftermath.
 I learned that activities like deforestation, overgrazing, building dams, mining and drilling
can cause natural disasters.
Lesson #5
Topics Resources
• Dealing with natural disasters • Skills Book activity
‘Preparing for a natural
disaster’
‘Evacuation plan’=
Using multimedia tools, discuss successful and failed responses Teacher’s Notes
to natural disasters. This can be local and international. Here is a
sample:
Successful Response: Cyclone Phailin in India (2013)
In October 2013, Cyclone Phailin struck the eastern coast of India,
affecting several states, including Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.
Response: The Indian government, in collaboration with local
authorities, implemented one of the largest evacuation efforts in
the country’s history, successfully evacuating around one million
people from vulnerable coastal areas. Prioritized emergency
response plans were executed, including pre-positioning relief
supplies, setting up temporary shelters, and deploying rescue
and relief teams. Timely warnings, public awareness campaigns,
and coordination among various government agencies played a
significant role in the successful management of the disaster.
Outcome: Despite the cyclone’s intensity, the well-coordinated
response resulted in a low death toll compared to previous
cyclones in the region. The evacuation efforts and effective disaster
management measures were widely recognized as successful in
saving lives and minimizing the impact of the disaster.
Failed Response: Hurricane Katrina in the United States (2005)

Hurricane Katrina landed in August 2005, causing significant
devastation along the Gulf Coast of the United States, particularly
in New Orleans.
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Response: The response to Hurricane Katrina faced numerous

challenges and shortcomings. Delays in evacuation efforts,
inadequate emergency planning and coordination, overwhelmed
emergency response systems, and communication failures could
have helped the response. There needed to be more in providing
essential services, such as rescue operations, medical assistance,
and emergency supplies. The failure to adequately respond and
deliver timely assistance resulted in a significant loss of lives and
prolonged suffering for affected communities.
Outcome: The inadequate response to Hurricane Katrina exposed
significant gaps in local, state, and federal disaster preparedness
and response. It led to widespread criticism of the government’s
handling of the disaster and sparked significant reforms and policy
changes in disaster management in the United States.
Case studies should highlight the importance of effective disaster
management, including timely warnings, proactive evacuation
plans, coordination among various stakeholders, and well-
resourced response systems. Successful responses are characterized
by proactive measures, efficient coordination, community
engagement, and effective communication. In contrast, failed
responses often stem from inadequate planning, insufficient
resources, coordination failures, and delayed or ineffective actions.
Read page 70-72 and explain that being prepared for a natural Teacher’s Notes
disaster is the best way to minimize casualties and damage. Engage
your students in a discussion on how communities can prepare for
natural disasters. Topic points should include:
• being aware of escape routes
• having survival kits packed and easily accessible (They should
contain food, water, and first aid materials.)
• having sandbags nearby (in case of floods)
• conducting controlled burnings (in places where forest fires
occur)
• ensuring communication channels are known and working (to
alert all members of the community)
• recognizing warning signs
Elicit responses about the importance of school evacuation/fire
drill. The objective is to train people how to take safety precautions
in case of fire, earthquake, etc. Give example of Japan, where
regular earthquake drills take place. Also mention that earthquake-
proof buildings are constructed in Japan, as the region is prone to
earthquakes.
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Ask your students to do some research into natural disasters in

their local area so they can determine which natural disaster is
most likely to occur close to their homes. For example, if they live
near the coast, they should be aware of the possibility of storms,
cyclones, typhoons, tsunamis, etc. They should look at local
newspapers from the past, and other local historical records, as well
as ask older members of the community.
2. Ask them to make a list of things they can do to prepare for such
a disaster. (The responses will differ depending on the type of
disaster they have identified.)
Encourage students to find out how Australians monitor and
respond to tsunami warnings. (http://www.bom.gov.au/tsunami/
about/tsunami_warnings.shtml )
Homework
The students should complete Questions A, F, and G. Students should also complete the activity
‘Preparing for a natural disaster’ and ‘Evacuation plan’ for homework if not done in the class.
 I learned that risk management and mitigation are the effective ways to deal with natural
disasters.
 I learned that preparing for a possible natural disaster makes it lot easier to cope with a
natural disaster.
 I learned about few a successful and failed response to natural disasters.
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Answer from Assessments

i. Greenhouse
ii. Oceans
iii. Clean drinking water
iv. Australia
v. Droughts
vi. 36.4%
vii. drilling
viii. dam
Students’ answers should include the following: loss of jobs and income;
B. 1. 1.
destruction of infrastructure that needs rebuilding; disruption to trade and
commerce.
2. Their answers should include the following:
• Buildings are not strong enough to withstand natural disasters.
• Cities are overcrowded.
• Health services are not adequate to cope.
• The supply of water, electricity, food, and medicines is unreliable.
Governments do not have adequate funds for rebuilding or providing
•
financial support to those affected.
It increases the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere. As water vapour
3.
condenses and forms clouds, it releases an enormous amount of latent heat. This
warms the surrounding air, which also begins to rise and thus creates instability
in the atmosphere. As the surrounding warm air rises and its water vapour
condenses, the cloud continues to grow, and eventually produces a storm. When
a higher amount of latent energy is released from the condensation of water
vapour, the intensity of the storm increases.
C. 1. Deforestation can lead to droughts through the removal of moisture from the forest.
Forests naturally store moisture that evaporates and forms clouds. These clouds
then provide rainfall. Without the trees there is no moisture. The trees also provide
shade, which allows moisture to remain longer in the atmosphere, so by removing
trees, moisture is also removed from the atmosphere, which leads to drier weather
conditions. As a result, droughts occur and it is harder to grow crops.
2. Fracking is a form of mining that is linked to earthquake activity. Fracking involves
drilling into the earth and directing a high-pressure water mixture against the
rocks to release the gas inside. Drilling into the earth can make already unstable
underground rock structures even more unstable. The injecting of wastewater into
underground wells, which often occurs in mining operations, has the same effect as
water leaking from dams.
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Controlled burning involves setting fire to grass and other dry materials, under
3.
strict supervision, in the weeks and months ahead of the fire season. This land is
then no longer a threat during the fire season.
Answers will vary. Promote sustainable land management practices such as
4.
conservation agriculture, agroforestry, terracing, and contour farming. Protect
and restore ecosystems, including forests, wetlands, and grasslands. Transition
to renewable energy and encourage the use of energy-efficient technologies.
Implement water conservation measures to reduce water consumption and optimize
water use efficiency. Encourage the use of public transportation, carpooling, cycling,
and walking as alternatives to private vehicles. Raise awareness and educate the
public about the importance of environmental conservation, pollution prevention,
and sustainable land use practices. Enforce stricter environmental regulations and
policies to address pollution and unsustainable land use practices.
D. 1 a) natural disaster: a devastating event caused by a natural phenomenon; it results
in extensive damage to property, and many deaths and serious injuries.
b) sustainable development: developing a country in a way that preserves the
resources of the Earth for future generations
c) deforestation: the destruction of forests through the cutting down of trees to
make the land available for other uses, such as agriculture or human habitation
d) overgrazing: when animals eat all the grass and other pasture plants over a long
period of time
2. Earthquakes and floods; earthquakes occur because the boundary between the
Eurasian and Indian Plates runs along the region where Pakistan is located; floods
occur because of the monsoon rains that are a feature of the region.
3. Advantages are that water can be stored for use when rainfall is low; and water
can be released according to when it is required by farmers and communities.
Disadvantages are that rivers are not able to cope with larger than-normal flows of
water; and water that leaks from dams can damage the earth beneath the surface
and cause earthquakes.
4 a) Primary effects are those that are noticeable immediately, such as human
casualties, destroyed buildings, and collapsed infrastructure. Secondary effects
are those that become apparent later, such as psychological damage, the spread
of disease, and permanent loss of communities.
b) (i) health Responses should include extreme high and low temperatures can
result in deaths of vulnerable members of a community, e.g., the elderly;
excessive rainfall and unnatural average temperatures can increase the spread
of diseases such as malaria.
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(ii) food security Responses should include extreme temperatures can result in
crop and livestock loss; rising food prices means poorer communities lose
access to affordable nutritious food.
(iii) energy security Responses should include the closure of non-renewable

energy facilities (e.g., coal mines) decreases options for cheap energy sources
which particularly affects developing nations; developing nations have less
capacity to invest in infrastructure for renewable energy sources and are
therefore, at the mercy of other countries for their energy.
E 1. Responses will differ depending on the location of the student and the types of
human activity taking place.
2. Responses will differ depending on the research undertaken.
4. Responses should include the following:
first part of report focusing on cause, which was earthquake off the coast of
•
Indonesia, near Aceh
second part of report focusing on spread of the tsunami throughout Asian
•
coastal areas as far as the east coast of Africa, with overall casualties of more
than 200,000
third part of report focusing on precautions such as the establishment of
•
tsunami early warning systems to alert people across Asia/Pacific
E 1. Responses should include:
• knowing where escape routes are, and practicing the routes
• knowing where the nearest medical assistance and facilities are
having links with other governments and international agencies that can provide
•
urgent assistance
• evacuating people as soon as a natural disaster is known about
• having warning systems such as those for tsunamis
taking precautionary measures such as controlled burning in areas prone to
•
forest fires.
3. Responses should include tips such as: know escape routes; have survival packs
ready; know communication channels; know where medical assistance is.
Answers will vary. The SDGs aim to eradicate poverty, promote inclusive and
G 1.
sustainable economic growth, protect the planet, and ensure peace and prosperity
for all. These goals encompass many interconnected issues, including poverty
alleviation, education, gender equality, clean energy, sustainable cities, responsible
consumption and production, climate action, biodiversity conservation, and more.
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The SDGs provide a roadmap for countries, organisations, and individuals to work
together and take collective action towards building a more sustainable, equitable,
and resilient world by 2030.
2. A
nswers will vary. Developing countries like Pakistan face difficulties in providing
sustainable development to their citizens due to poverty, lack of resources, political
instability, and lack of awareness.
3. Answers will vary for students will reinforce their knowledge from other chapters
as well. By cutting down on our resource consumption, we can decrease the amount
of waste produced, which can help prevent pollution and environmental damage.
Additionally, reusing and recycling materials can further reduce the amount of
waste produced while also conserving resources. Technology can help develop
early warning systems and improve collaboration for disaster preparedness and
response.
Answers to the Skills Book

Skills Book activity ‘Comparing magnitudes of earthquakes’
A 1. The students’ graphs should look like this:
a)
• Island of Honshu: 7.9
• Nanshan City, China: 7.6
• Turkmenistan: 7.6
• Assam, Tibet: 8.6
• Tangshan, China: 8.2
• Indonesia: 9.1
• Muzaffarabad, Pakistan: 7.6
• Sumatra, Indonesia: 8.6
• Sendai, Japan: 9
b) The 2004 earthquake in Indonesia has the greatest magnitude (9.1). It triggered
the Indian Ocean tsunami and killed and displaced thousands of people. The
earthquakes of Nanshan in China, Turkmenistan, and Pakistan have the lowest
magnitudes (7.6).
c) graph on page 67 TG 3
Skills Book activity ‘Shaking Earth’
A. The students should look carefully at the locations of the earthquakes from 1990 to 2005
(Map 1), and then mark them on the tectonic plates (Map 2). They should find that the
earthquake zones are along the boundaries of tectonic plates.
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B 1. They are at the boundaries of tectonic plates.

2. They are far from the boundaries of tectonic plates.
Skills Book activity ‘Preparing for a natural disaster’
A 1 Responses should be similar to:

(i) An earthquake: They are hiding under a table to protect themselves from falling
rubble and other materials.
(ii) A forest fire: They are taking precautions to minimize damage to their property
from a fire.
(iii) A volcano: They are staying inside so they are not impacted by lava and other
dangerous elements from a volcanic eruption.
(iv) A flood: They are sandbagging houses to stop floodwater entering.
Skills Book activity ‘Natural disasters in Pakistan’
A 1. Students’ answers will vary.

Skills Book activity ‘Evacuation plan’
A 1 a) The students’ responses will depend on the layout of their homes.

Skills Book activity ‘Impact of natural disasters’
A. Earthquake:
Primary Impacts: collapse of buildings and infrastructure from shaking of the ground;
damage to roads, bridges; loss of lives and injuries; ground rupture and landslides.
Secondary Impacts: Aftershocks causing further damage to weakened structures;
disruption of services such as electricity, water supply, and communication; displacement
of populations and loss of homes; psychological and emotional trauma; possible debt and
train on economy to recover from damage to infrastructure and loss of productivity.
Floods:
Primary Impacts: Inundation of areas by excessive rainfall or overflowing rivers; damage
to buildings and infrastructure; destruction of crops and farmland; loss of lives and
injuries due to drowning.
Secondary Impacts: Spread of waterborne diseases; displacement of population;
contamination of water sources; disruption of transportation and communication
networks; loss of livelihoods and damage to businesses.
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Volcano:
Primary Impacts:
Eruption of lava, ash, and gases; destruction of surrounding landscape and vegetation;
pyroclastic flows, lava flows, and volcanic bombs; release of toxic gases and volcanic ash
into the atmosphere.
Secondary Impacts: Lahars (mudflows) and debris flows; ashfall affecting air quality and
visibility; disruption of air travel due to ash clouds; volcanic tsunamis in coastal areas;
long-term impacts on agriculture and ecosystems.
Tsunami:
Primary Impacts: Large ocean waves triggered by undersea earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, or landslides; inundation of coastal areas; destruction of buildings,
infrastructure, and coastal ecosystems; loss of lives and injuries due to drowning and
impact forces.
Secondary Impacts:
Contamination of freshwater sources with saltwater; coastal erosion and changes in
shoreline configuration; damage to marine habitats and ecosystems; displacement of
populations and loss of homes; economic impacts, particularly on coastal communities
reliant on tourism and fishing.
Avalanche/Landslide:
Primary Impacts: Rapid movement of snow, ice, rock, or debris down a slope; burial of
structures, roads, and infrastructure; destruction of vegetation and alteration of landscape.
Secondary Impacts: Damming of rivers and formation of landslide lakes; flooding due to
dam bursts or blockages; displacement of populations and loss of homes; disruption of
transportation and communication networks; impacts on ecosystems, including habitat
destruction.
Bushfire/Forest Fire:
Primary Impacts: Uncontrolled fire spreading through forests and vegetation; destruction
of plant and animal life; damage to buildings, infrastructure, and utilities; loss of lives and
injuries.
Secondary Impacts: Air pollution due to smoke and ash; soil erosion and degradation; loss
of biodiversity and habitat destruction; displacement of populations; economic impacts on
local communities and industries reliant on forests or tourism.
B. Answers may vary.
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6
Changing Earth and
UNIT
Human activities
Weathering and erosion are closely linked natural phenomena but are not exactly the
same. Weathering refers only to the effect on the natural feature, material, or structure that
is worn away: for example, rock can be broken by water that seeps into cracks and then
freezes. Erosion is when rocks and sediment are picked up and moved to another place by
the movement of ice, water, wind, or the force of gravity.
There are three types of weathering: physical (or mechanical), chemical, and biological (or
organic). Physical or mechanical weathering is very common where there is little soil and
few plants, for example, in hot deserts and in mountain ranges. Expansion and contraction
of the surface layer of rocks breaks them up. This is the result of the repeated melting
and freezing of water in climates where there are wide variations in temperature. It can
happen in colder climates such as tundra, alpine, or in hot desert climates.
Flowing water can also cause mechanical weathering, especially when the water carries
particles of grit and sediment. A common type of mechanical weathering is ‘freeze-thaw’
weathering, which takes place where water runs into cracks, freezes, and expands. This
expansion is powerful enough to break the rock into pieces.
Exfoliation is a more complex type of mechanical weathering. It takes place mainly on
high land where certain types of igneous rock are exposed and there is pressure from
other layers of rock. The pressure cracks the rock, and the cracks follow the land surface.
Where the land is flat, the cracks are wide and flat, rather than deep into the ground. On
mountain sides or hillsides, the cracks are quite steep. Water runs into the cracks and
dissolves some of the minerals in the rock, forming new minerals (chemical weathering).
The cracks enlarge, and large flat slabs of rock break off.
Chemical weathering happens mainly when materials react with minerals in the rock to
form new materials. Biological weathering: occurs when living things, including animals,
plants, or even microscopic organisms, break down rock. Tree roots grow through cracks
in the rock as they try to reach water. As they grow, they push the rock apart. Animals
scrape away rock to create a cavity for shelter, or the organic acid produced by plant roots
or microorganisms dissolves the rock.
Erosion often begins with weathering, during which flowing water or wind removes soil,
rock, or dissolved material from one place and transports it to another place. The force of
the water takes material from the riverbanks or riverbed and transports it downstream,
and then deposits it on other parts of the riverbanks or riverbed.
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U N I T 6 C h a n g i n g E a r t h a n d Hum a n a c t i v i t i e s
Animations of these processes can also be seen on My E-Mate companion website. Coastal
erosion happens where wave action, tidal currents, wave currents, drainage, or strong
winds remove material from coastal land and transport it out to sea or to other parts of the
coast. The processes are the same as for rivers. As for coastal erosion, the actions of water
and wind erode and shape high and lowland. Fastmoving water or air erodes the rock and
transports particles (even quite large ones).
The Grand Canyon in Arizona, USA, was cut through the mountains by erosion. Uluru,
in Central Australia, was created by erosion, where the softer rocks of the surrounding
high land were eroded, leaving the mountain that came to be known as Ayers Rock. When
the water or wind slows down or stops, it deposits material in a different place. This can
create fertile land (as in floodplains, such as those of the Indus and Nile).
Ice is important in land erosion: glaciers are constantly moving downhill, wearing away
the rock beneath them and depositing it in mounds, called terminal moraines, where they
stop. Glaciers formed the fjords of Norway and Iceland. Bare soil is eroded more easily
than land covered by vegetation, often leading to landslides.
Erosion by wind and water can be minimized by constructing physical structures such as
gabions, riprap, and windbreaks. Plants can help to minimize erosion: for example, grass
and other vegetation on sand dunes, or woodland, and even forests can be planted as
windbreaks.
Wetland coastal areas can be protected by creating living shorelines, with native plants
on a base protected by stone and sand. Animals such as oysters can also help to anchor
the soil. Once the land is secure, living shorelines become a natural habitat, protecting the
coast from erosion and storms.
People can help to minimize land and river erosion by ensuring that land is not left bare,
avoiding deforestation, and, where possible, leaving natural floodplains to flood—and
avoiding building on them.
Before we proceed
This unit explains different types of weathering and erosion and their effects, including
coastal erosion and landforms; and there are explanations of how the effects of erosion can
be minimized or avoided. Examples from around the world are included to illustrate how
deserts form and expand, and the role of humans in causing erosion and desertification.
The importance of vegetation, especially trees, in combatting erosion, is highlighted, with
examples of successful uses of vegetation.
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• Explain the terms ‘weathering’ and ‘erosion’
• Explain how weathering and erosion can affect the physical and human features of
places
• Describe some causes and effects of desertification, and give examples from Pakistan
and the rest of the world
• Identify some of the projects that are taking place in Pakistan to prevent the erosion of
farmland and habitats, and to prevent desertification
• Explain how human actions can cause or worsen erosion
• Identify the ‘push and pull’ factors of migration
• Discuss the causes, advantages, and disadvantages of migration
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Lesson #1
Topics Resources
• Denudation • Skills Book activity
• Weathering and erosion ‘The effects of
weathering’
• How does weathering occur?
Elicit what the students know about weathering and erosion and Teacher’s Notes
explain that denudation is a term that refers to the overall process
of weathering and erosion. It is the process by which the Earth’s
surface is worn away over time. Denudation is caused by a variety
of factors, including climate, tectonics, and human activity.
Different students could contribute to the explanation. Point out
that these processes are linked, but not the same, and that they are
going to find out more about them.
Ask the students to read page 75-77 to find out how weathering Teacher’s Notes
and erosion are different, then invite them to explain this without
looking at the Student’s Book. Ask them to close their Student’s
Books, then ask them to name the different types of weathering.
Invite volunteers to explain each of these and give examples. Ask
how rainwater can change the appearance of a building. Make sure
they understand the main features of each type of weathering. Also
ask what stalactites and stalagmites are; they will have learnt about
these in the first chapter.
Homework
The students can then complete Questions A and B. Ask the students to look at the Venn
diagram in Skills Book and explain how to use it. Venn diagrams are used to present information
visually. The overlapping sections are for weathering that involves more than one type of
process, for example mechanical and organic, which are the processes involved where people
wear away a stone step (the action involves living things and mechanical abrasion).
 I learned that weathering and erosion are involved in wearing away and breaking up rock.
 I learned that erosion also moves material that has been worn away and deposits it
somewhere
 else.
 I learned about the different types of weathering: mechanical, chemical, and organic.
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Lesson #2
Topics Resources
• Water erosion • Skills Book page 34
‘Preventing water
erosion’
Ask the students what they have learnt about weathering. They Teacher’s Notes
should know the main types of weathering and the difference
between weathering and erosion. Ask them to consider what
they know about the causes of erosion, and to list these in their
notebooks. After completing this topic, they should write a new list
and compare it with this one, to highlight what they have learnt.
Ask how rivers, streams, and rain cause erosion, and what happens Teacher’s Notes
to the soil and rock they erode. They should then read pages 77-
80 about the different types of water erosion. The students should
be able to complete Skills Book ‘Preventing water erosion’ for
homework. Ask them to look at each picture and make a note
of how water is causing erosion of the land, thinking about the
direction from which it is coming, the direction of its flow, and
what it is doing to the land. They should then consider how to
prevent this erosion: whether the water-flow could be diverted, or
its force reduced, or whether vulnerable parts of the land could be
strengthened and protected.
They can then consider the methods of erosion prevention they
have read about in the Student’s Book, choose the best solution, and
explain how it will help.
Homework
They can then complete Question C and Skills Book activity ‘Preventing water erosion.’
 I learned how streams and rivers erode land.
 I learned how run-off from rainfall can erode land.
 I learned how erosion by streams, rivers, and run-off can be prevented.
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Lesson #3
Topics Resources
• Wind erosion • a tray of dry, dusty soil
• Erosion caused by humans • a tray of wet soil
• a tray of soil with grass or
other plants growing in
it; this could be dry
• a hairdryer
Use the hairdryer on cold setting to show the students how wind Teacher’s Notes
erosion affects soil. Ask them to watch what happens.
1. Begin with the tray of dry soil and the hairdryer set on low
speed (cool setting, if possible, but warm will be fine). The
hairdryer should be directed so that it does not blow soil
onto anyone. Switch on the hairdryer and hold it slightly
above the soil and almost parallel with it, so that the air from
the hairdryer blows on the soil. Increase the speed of the
hairdryer if possible.
2. Repeat the above procedure on the tray of wet soil.
3. Repeat the above procedure on the tray of soil with plants
growing in it.
Ask the students to use what they have seen to explain what
happens when wind blows across dry, dusty land, wet land, and
land with vegetation growing on it.
Ask the students to read pages 80-82 ‘Wind erosion’ and ‘Effects Teacher’s Notes
of wind erosion’. Then ask them to explain how wind can change
the shape of a solid rock. Also ask what happens to the materials
eroded by wind. Ask how this material can affect farmland, crops,
buildings, people, animals, machinery, and traffic. Also ask how this
material can change the landscapes of other places; they should be
able to give an example in Pakistan. Ask them to explain how dust
from the Sahara Desert gets to places as far away as the north of
England.
Ask them to think about the trays of soil they looked at earlier in
the lesson and to suggest how wind erosion could be prevented or
minimized. (Keep the land moist and plant trees or other vegetation
that will help to hold the soil in place and keep it moist.) They
should then read about prevention of wind erosion.
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Homework
The students can then complete Question D. abrasion).
 I learned how wind erodes land.
 I learned how wind erosion can cut away solid rock.
 I learned how wind erosion can be prevented.
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Lesson #4
Topics Resources
• Desertification • Skills Book activity
• Desertification around the world ‘Damage from overuse of
land’
• Preventing desertification
• Oxford School Atlas for
Pakistan
Ask what desertification means. They should be able to figure out Teacher’s Notes
that it refers to land that changes into desert. Ask them how this
happens. Their previous learning about climate change and erosion
should help. Tell them that they are going to find out about some
ways in which farmers and landowners in Pakistan are helping to
protect their land from desertification, with help from the Pakistan
Agricultural Research Council.
Ask the students to read the sections of pages 83-84 headed Teacher’s Notes
‘Desertification’ and ‘Desertification around the world’ and ask
which parts of the world they think are likely to suffer from
desertification (places with arid and semi-arid climates).
They should now look at the world map that shows desertification
vulnerability. If necessary, explain how to interpret the map using
the key. They should use a political map of the world in the Oxford
School Atlas for Pakistan in conjunction with this map to help them
to find out which countries are vulnerable to desertification. Ask
them to read on to find out why much of the Africa is particularly
vulnerable to desertification.
Ask if Africa’s desertification problem could have been avoided, and
how (through better land management, including the avoidance of
overgrazing and deforestation). It is useful to discuss why people do
things that damage the land they need for agriculture. Point out that
people living in poverty or struggling to survive do not usually have
a choice about what fuels to use; they need to graze their livestock
to produce food, they cut down trees to make charcoal because they
need it for fuel, and they might overgraze their land because they
have no other way of feeding their livestock. Ask the students to
explain why land continues to deteriorate once desertification has
begun.
• Which tree that is native to countries in the Mediterranean region of
Europe is being planted in Punjab to help to prevent desertification?
(olive)
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• In what type of soil and climate do olives grow? (An arid
climate and poor soil.).
• How will olive trees help to prevent desertification? (They
will prevent wind and water erosion and help to stop the
Thar Desert expanding.)
• What useful products come from these trees? (Olives and
olive oil).
• Which tree is being planted in Khushab to protect land from
erosion and to stabilize the sand dunes? (Eucalyptus).
• What product will come from this tree? (wood)
• Which tree is being planted by farmers in Tharparkar, Sindh,
to help stop the expansion
he Thar Desert? (lemon). How will these trees be useful? (For their
fruit and to provide shade to reduce evaporation from the land)
They can then write a short report about the ways in which farmers
are helping to prevent desertification, including finding out more
from the Internet or other sources about a specific project in
Pakistan.
Homework
They can then complete Question F.
• I learned how human actions lead to desertification.
• I learned why some parts of the world are especially vulnerable to desertification.
• I learned about the actions we can take to prevent desertification.
• I learned how trees can help to prevent desertification.
• I learned about three projects that are helping to prevent desertification in Pakistan.
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Lesson #5
Topics Resources
• Effect of erosion on water supply • Skills Book activity ‘Net
• Migration migration’
• Impact of migration • Skills Book activity
‘Where are the world’s
refugees?’
‘Internally displaced
persons.’
Ask the students to define the word migration. Explain that it Teacher’s Notes
means moving from one place to live in another. Ask them to
suggest causes or reasons why people migrate. List their answers
and explain that they are going to learn more about what makes
people migrate and what it is about some places that makes people
want to migrate to them. Introduce and, if necessary, explain the
terms ‘emigration’ and ‘immigration’.
Before the first lesson, it is useful for the students to watch, listen,
or read the news and take note of any migration that is taking place,
and how the migrants’ needs are being met.
To begin the lesson, ask the students about any migration issues
that have been in the news. Ask what migrants need when they
arrive in a new country and how these needs are being met. Also
ask them about the advantages and disadvantages of migration:
• for migrants (considering the reasons why they migrated)
• for their new country
• for the country they have left
Ask the students to read ‘What does migration mean?’ and ‘Why Teacher’s Notes
do people migrate?’ on page 87 of the Student’s Book, including the
information in the illustration about ‘push and pull’ factors. Ask if
their list from the introductory discussion includes all the reasons
for migration given in the Student’s Book. Invite students who wish
to speak about any experiences of migration in their own families.
They might be able to identify some of the ‘push’ factors that made
them want to move away from the place where they lived, and the
‘pull’ factors that drew them towards the place where they live
now.
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Ask the students to read impact of migration and discuss more

about why people migrate and the problems they face. They might
have their own experiences to contribute, such as family members
who have emigrated, or who migrated across the Pakistan–India
border after Partition. They could discuss these topics in groups
and come up with questions; for example: What happened to the
migrants after they left their homes? Did they get any help? Who
helped them? They could make a note of anything they would like
to find out. Ask what they learned about people who migrate as
a way of life—why they do this and how it might affect aspectsof
their lives such as the types of homes they live in and their
children’s education.
Ask the students to read ‘Advantages and disadvantages of
migration’ on page 88 of the Student’s Book. The students should be
able to complete Questions.
Suggested activity
After the students have read the given pages, ask them to consider
all they have learnt about migration, and, in groups of about 6–8,
to plan a short role-play about migrants arriving in a new country.
They should consider what feelings the migrants might experience
when they set off from home, during their journey, when they first
arrive in their new country, and after they have been there for a
while. Some of them could enact the parts of people who deal with
migrants, the people the migrants meet on their journey, and those
they meet in their new country.
Once they have planned their role-play, they could each work on
their roles for homework. The roleplay of each group can then be
presented during another lesson, with the rest of the class watching
and noting anything they think might be incorrect for discussion
afterwards.
Homework
Ask students to complete Questions A, H3, and I. Ask the students to complete Skills Book
activities ‘Net migration’, ‘Where are the world’s refugees?’, and ‘Internally displaced persons.’
Ask the students to name the countries they know that have taken in refugees and then ask
them to read the table of countries with refugees of the Skills Book. Explain that it shows the
total number of refugees living in the countries, not the numbers the countries accepted each
year—the numbers have been changing over the years as more arrive in, or leave, the countries.
Ask them to consider the numbers of refugees compared with the countries’ total populations.
They can then calculate the percentage of each country’s population that is made up of refugees:
Number of refugees ÷ total population x 100
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 I learned about the ‘push’ factors that make people want to emigrate.
 I learned about the ‘pull’ factors that draw immigrants to a place.
 I learned about some of the ways in which immigration and emigration affect the places
people emigrate from and the places that receive immigrants.
 I learned how people have migrated throughout history to escape from danger.
 I learned about the lifestyles of people who migrate regularly as a way of life.
 I learned the meaning of net migration.
 I learned about the effects of illegal immigration.
 I learned about the effects of migration on migrants, and on their host countries.
Answers to Assessments
I. Soil
II. Mechanical
III. Chemical
IV. Biological
V. Abrasion
VI. Attrition
VII. Urbanisation
VIII. Overgrazing
B. 1 a) Weathering is when rock is broken into smaller pieces by conditions such as rain
or wind. Erosion is when sediment and fragments of rock are moved from one
place to another by wind, water, or gravity.
b) mechanical, chemical, and organic.
2 a) Chemical weathering occurs when rock dissolves in water or weak acids and
forms new materials. Mechanical weathering happens when rock is broken into
smaller pieces, for example, when water gets into holes in the rock and freezes.
Then it expands, cracking the rock.
b) Organic weathering is caused by living things, for example, when plants break
up rocks when their roots push through the small holes in the rock and enlarge
them, or when animals scratch rocks.
c) It breaks up the rock and soil.
3. Answers will vary. Erosion and weathering are natural processes that shape
the Earth’s surface. They have both constructive and destructive aspects.
Constructively, they create sediment and fertile soil, leading to the formation of new
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landforms and supporting ecosystems. They also carve out spectacular landscapes
and features. However, destructively, excessive erosion can lead to habitat loss,
property damage, and geological hazards. Balancing these forces is essential for
maintaining a sustainable and resilient environment.
C a) erosion of the bed of a river or stream: scour
b) piles of rocks or concrete rubble arranged on a riverbank to prevent bank erosion:
riprap
c) metal cages filled with rocks or concrete and fixed to a riverbank to prevent erosion:
gabions
d) cutting down forests: deforestation
e) when a large area of rock and soil moves down a hillside: landslide
f) rainwater running down the surface of land: run-off C 1 a) Streams and rivers carry
sediment that wears away the rock that the water flows across. Flowing water wears
away the banks and bed of the stream or river.
D. 1 a) Streams and rivers carry sediment that wears away the rock that the water flows
across. Flowing water wears away the banks and bed of the stream or river.
b. Students’ own suggestions should include either run-off barriers or terraces.
E 1 a) The soil is dry, and lighter than wet soil, so the wind can blow it away more
easily.
b) There are no natural barriers to slow the wind, so the winds there are stronger
and can pick up more material than can gentle winds.
c) Leave stubble from harvested crops to hold the soil in place. Plant trees or other
vegetation, whose roots can hold the soil in place. Spread mulch to keep the soil
moist.
F 1 a) Answers may vary. Farmers and developers engage in practices that lead to
erosion due to lack of awareness, economic pressures, and limited access to
alternative methods. Intensive farming or development without soil conservation
can degrade the soil. Clearing forests for agricultural or development purposes
can remove natural vegetation. Excessive grazing by livestock can remove
vegetation cover, leaving the soil vulnerable to erosion. Inadequate construction
practices, such as improper grading or lack of erosion control measures, can also
lead to erosion on construction sites.
b) Answers may vary. Terracing on the hillside can slow down water flow,
reducing erosion. Planting crops along the contours of the land helps reduce
water runoff and encourages water to infiltrate the soil, minimizing erosion.
c) Answers may vary. Measures such as planting cover crops during fallow
periods can cover the soil and protect it from raindrop impact, reducing erosion.
Adopting minimum or no-till farming practices helps keep the soil undisturbed,
improving its structure and reducing erosion caused by tillage operations.
Planting strips of vegetation, like grass or shrubs, along waterways or field edges
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can trap sediments and filter runoff, reducing water erosion.

d) Answers may vary. Employing efficient irrigation methods, such as sprinkler
systems, ensures water is targeted directly to plants, minimizing evaporation
losses. Planting rows of trees or shrubs around fields can reduce wind speed,
which lowers evaporation rates from the soil.
G 1 a-b) deforestation, overgrazing of livestock, poor methods of growing crops, and
urbanization
Deforestation
Trees help to prevent water and wind erosion by acting as windbreaks, and by
holding the soil together with their roots. Leaves that fall from the trees form
a layer of leaf litter. This, along with other plant and animal material, decays,
and forms humus. As more leaves fall, they cover the humus. Leaf litter and
humus are porous, so rainwater can percolate through them into the soil below,
rather than flowing over the surface as run-off. Another useful function of trees
is that their canopies shelter the forest floor from erosion by heavy rainfall.
Overgrazing
Where too many animals graze on the land for too long, they trample the
ground, squeezing out the air, so that it becomes compacted and absorbs less
water. If the land is overgrazed, the vegetation is reduced, making the land
vulnerable to wind and water erosion.
Poor methods of growing crops
Modern farm machinery ploughs the fields more deeply, breaking the soil into
small particles that can easily be blown or washed away. Modern pesticides
and chemical fertilizers kill the organisms that help to bind the soil together.
Urbanization
Urbanization (the building of cities, towns, and roads) speeds up erosion.
Heavy machinery used in construction work compacts the soil. Buildings
and roads cover land that used to be covered with vegetation. The ground in
towns has mainly asphalt or concrete surfaces, which are impermeable. This
changes the drainage patterns and creates run-off in places where water cannot
percolate through the soil. Towns also alter wind patterns—usually increasing
low-level wind speeds. This adds to wind erosion.
Run-off from urban areas carries sediment that is contaminated with oil and
other chemicals. So, not only is there increased run-off to erode nearby land and
flood the waterways, but polluted sediment is also deposited by this run-off.
2. The students’ own reports about a wasteland area that they know, should explain
what has happened to it and how they would try to put it right if they were a local
governor. This should focus on how the land became degraded or eroded and the
methods that could be used to improve it and prevent further damage. They should
use what they have learnt from this unit.
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H. 1 Development can lead to deforestation, soil erosion, and loss of nutrients.

Agriculture can overuse land and require chemical fertilizers. Increased demand for
natural resources can harm ecosystems and water levels.
2 a) Urbanisation and agriculture can harm animal habitats and soil quality. Water
scarcity can lead to conflicts, and pollution from buildings and factories can
harm the environment and public health.
b) People migrate for better job opportunities, education, family reunification, or
due to war, political instability, violence, and environmental issues.
c) Answers may vary.
3 a) Most of Pakistan’s immigrants come from Afghanistan, Iran, and Bangladesh.
b) The reasons for most of these immigrants coming to Pakistan include seeking
economic opportunities and jobs, fleeing conflicts and political instability in
their home countries, and accessing better living conditions and educational
opportunities.
Answers to the Skills Book

Skills Book activity ‘Sorting weathering and erosion’
1. Refer to page 76 of the Students Book
Skills Book activity ‘Experimenting with rocks’
A. Observations will vary. A sample is shared here:

• The rocks will start to rub against each other and against the sides of the jar. This
will cause them to wear away, and small pieces of rock will break off.
• The water will also help to erode the rocks. The waves will cause the water to move
back and forth, and this will wear away at the rocks.
• The chalk will help to show the erosion of the rocks. As the rocks wear away, the
chalk will rub off, and the rocks will become more visible.
• After 50 shakes, the rocks will be noticeably smaller than they were before. They
will also be more angular, as the sharp edges will have been worn away.
Conclusion:
When waves crash into rocks, they cause the rocks to erode. The waves cause the rocks to
rub against each other and against the seabed, and the water also helps to erode the rocks.
This erosion can be seen by the fact that the rocks become smaller and more angular over
time.
B. Observations will vary. A sample is shared here:
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• Chalk in water: The chalk in the jar of water will not change significantly after three
hours. The chalk may become slightly softer, but it will still be recognizable as
chalk.
• Chalk in vinegar: The chalk in the jar of vinegar will dissolve completely after three
hours. This is because vinegar is an acid, and acids can dissolve chalk.
Conclusion:
The chalk in the jar of water will not change significantly in size or shape. However, the
chalk may become slightly softer. On the other hand, the chalk in the jar of vinegar will
dissolve completely because vinegar is an acid, and acids can dissolve chalk.
Skills Book activity ‘The effects of weathering’
A 1. Chemical weathering: a Mechanical weathering: b and d Organic weathering: e

Organic and mechanical weathering: c
Skills Book activity ‘Preventing water erosion’
A 1. The students’ own ideas should include the fact that run-off water flows down the
gentle slope, taking soil with it, eroding the land. The water flow could be slowed
down by using run-off barriers (such as large bales of straw wedged into trenches,
or thick tubes of netting filled with straw, staked to the ground to hold them in
place) that stop the water flowing straight down the slope. Good drainage would
also help so that water could soak into the ground.
B 2 a) The riverbank could be strengthened and protected by riprap or gabions (which
should be drawn and described as in the Student’s Book).
b) The hillside could be terraced for agriculture or held in place by planting trees. It
would be too steep for run-off barriers.
c) The barren hillside should have run-off barriers to slow down the flow of water.
Skills Book activity ‘Overuse of land
A 1. Positive: economic growth and job opportunities, improved infrastructure, wider

access to services and amenities, social and cultural diversity in cities

Negative: loss of agricultural land, land fragmentation, rural-urban migration,
deforestation and environmental degradation, uneven distribution of resources,
social unrest, food insecurity.
B 1. Impact on the Natural Habitat of Animals:
Urbanization negatively affects wildlife habitats by reducing natural spaces. This
leads to loss of biodiversity and displacement of species. Animals may struggle to
find food and shelter, causing conflicts with humans.
Impact on Human Health:
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Urbanization has both positive and negative effects on human health. It can provide
better access to healthcare, education, and job opportunities. However, it can also
lead to air and water pollution, traffic congestion, and high population density
which can negatively impact public health. Pollution from vehicles and industries
can cause respiratory problems and overcrowded living conditions may spread
infectious diseases.
Impact on Availability of Food and Resources:
Urbanization can reduce available land for food production, leading to a greater
dependence on imported food and affecting food security. It also increases demand
for resources, putting a strain on local ecosystems and natural resources. Sustainable
practices must be promoted to support urban populations.
C. Answers may vary. Urban migration can lead to challenges like pressure on
infrastructure, crime, poverty, environmental degradation, and loss of cultural
identity. Overcrowding strains systems, causes congestion and pollution, and increases
competition for resources and opportunities, leading to crime and poverty. More
people require more resources, resulting in deforestation and pollution. Exposure to
new cultures can be positive but may also lead to a sense of alienation and loss.
Skills Book activity ‘Net Migration’
A 1. emigrants
2. It grew.
B 1 a) Australia, Canada, Saudi Arabia, the United States, the United Kingdom
b) Afghanistan, China, Democratic Republic of Congo, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia,
c) Canada encouraged immigrants because of its low population density which
developed the need for workers in the country.
d) conflict, civil unrest, poverty, and natural disasters such as volcano eruptions,
etc.
2 a) Australia
b) It attracted many immigrants because it offered job opportunities and high
quality of living.
3 a) Afghanistan
b) The students’ own responses from research. Talk about Afghan refugees. Since
1979, about 4 million refugees have migrated to Pakistan to escape from the Soviet–
Afghan war in their country and they continue to migrate to Pakistan for refuge
whenever there is unrest in their country. About 2 million refugees have also returned
to Afghanistan.
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Skills Book activity ‘Where are the world’s refugees?’
A 1-2 Chad: 3.24%

Ethiopia: 0.68%
Germany: 1.51%
Iran: 0.91%
Jordan: 27.34%
Kenya: 0.91%
Lebanon: 23.77%
Pakistan: 0.64%
Turkiye: 4.43%
Uganda: 3.34%
Skills Book activity ‘Internally displaced persons’.
A 1 a) internally displaced person(s)

b) They have not crossed an international border.
2 a) Dadu is in a region that is more susceptible to the impact of floods due to its
proximity to rivers and low-lying areas. Karachi, on the other hand, is situated
along the coastline and may not experience as severe flooding events.
b) IDP camps in Pakistan for 2022 flood relief are in Dadu, ShikarPur, Matiari,
Mirpur Khas, Jaccobabad, Jamshoro, Tando Allahyar, Thatta, Khairpur, and
Karachi
B a-b) Students’ responses will depend on their research. Refer to URL Answer’s
may vary from year to year. Sindh may face the biggest challenge in providing
food, shelter, healthcare, and education for its IDPs due to the large-scale
displacement, limited resources, infrastructure damage from natural disasters
and frequent extreme weather conditions, disrupted services, health risks,
educational disruption, social and cultural factors, coordination and response
issues, and the need for long-term support.
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Lesson Plan Reference
Subtopics Learning Outcomes Suggested Activities
no pages
1.1 • Geography 1-3 • Define geography. • Have students work in pairs, with one student acting as
• Tools of Geography • Recognise the a geographical tool and the other as a user. The “tool”
S CHE M E OF W ORK
modern techniques in explains its purpose and how it’s used, while the “user”
• How are maps
Geography (GIS, GPS, demonstrates how to use it in different scenarios.
read?
Google Maps, Google • Develop a game where students answer questions related
• More tools of
Earth, etc.). to map reading and use their map-reading skills to move
geography
through different locations.
1.2 • Internal Structure 3-6 • Describe the internal • Divide students into groups and assign each group a
of the Earth structure of the Earth. specific layer of the Earth. Have them create a short
• Tectonic Plates • Differentiate between presentation or skit imagining a journey through Earth’s
three layers of the layers, explaining the features they would encounter.
• What is rock?
Earth. • Have students create a diorama depicting different types
• What are rocks
• Explore the theory of of plate boundaries (divergent, convergent, transform)
made of?
tectonic plates. using craft materials. Label and explain the processes
occurring at each boundary.
• Provide students with various rock samples. They can
observe the color, texture, and other characteristics, and
then create a chart to classify the rocks based on their
properties.
1.3 • Different types of 7-10 • Identify different types • Have students work in groups to create a “rock museum”
rocks of rocks. where each group focuses on one type of rock. They can
• Igneous display rock samples, posters, and information about
how each rock type forms.
• Sedimentary
• Have students create a comic strip that follows a
• metamorphic
rock’s journey through the rock cycle, showcasing its
transformation from one type of rock to another.
1.4 • Rock cycle 10-13 • Explore the process of • Assign students to different roles (igneous rock,
• Economic benefits the rock cycle in the sediment, metamorphic rock) and have them write short
of rocks formation of rocks. narratives describing their experiences during the rock
Discover the uses of cycle.
• What is soil?
rocks. • Provide different soil samples and have students conduct
• Types of soil
• Describe the simple experiments to test properties like water retention,
importance of rocks permeability, and particle size.
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in the economy of the
region.
• Identify the most
commonly found rocks
in Pakistan.
1.5 • What is a mineral? 14 • Define and explain • Provide students with magnifying glasses, mineral
what a mineral is, samples, and rock samples. They can observe and
identify common compare the minerals’ physical properties and identify
characteristics differences between rocks and minerals.
of minerals, and
differentiate between
minerals and non-
mineral materials.
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2.1 • How are mountains 17-19 • Identify different types • Create a Venn diagram on the board with circles
different from other of mountains. representing different landscape types. Have students list
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landscapes? • Explain the formation characteristics unique to mountains and characteristics

• Types of mountains of different types of common to all landscapes in the appropriate sections.
(fold and fault mountains.
block mountains) • Discover the major
types of mountains in
Pakistan.
2.2 • Volcanic mountains 19-22 • Describe the • Assign different groups of students to research and
• Dome mountains importance of the create models of different types of mountains using craft
Himalayas in the materials. They can present their models to the class,
• Residual mountains
geography of Pakistan. explaining the processes that formed each type.
• How are grid
• Describe the
references used?
importance of
• Six grid references the Himalayas,
Karakoram, and
Hindu Kush
mountains.
2.3 • Effects of highland 22-25 • Compare the lifestyles • Assign students to design a settlement plan for a town
topography on of people living in located on a plateau and another town in a valley. They
human activities mountains, plateaus, must consider how topography affects factors like
and valleys. transportation, agriculture, and infrastructure.
• Explain the reasons for
frequent earthquakes
in Pakistan.
2.4 • Plateaus 25-29 • Differentiate between • Have students create a 3D diorama depicting a plateau
• Valleys a plateau and a landscape. They can use craft materials to construct
mountain. the plateau’s flat-topped surface, and add details like
• Differentiate between vegetation, rivers, and any distinguishing features.
V-shaped valleys and • Provide students with a template of a valley’s cross-
U-shaped Valleys and section profile. Have them color and label the different
their formation.
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• Describe rift valley parts of the valley, such as the valley floor, sides (slopes), and
and explore where it is watershed boundaries.
located.
• Identify some major
valleys in Pakistan.
2.5 • Landforms on 30 • Draw and interpret • Give students a blank map with a legend that includes
maps contour lines to landform symbols. Students search for real-world
identify and describe examples of each landform and mark them on the map
various landforms on using the appropriate symbols.
topographic maps,
and use contour lines
to create their own
topographic map of a
specific area.
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3.1 • Weather and 33-35 • Identify the difference • Create a Venn diagram on the board with circles
climate between weather and representing weather and climate. Have students
climate. list characteristics unique to each and characteristics
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• Factors affecting
climate • Identify factors that common to both.
• The air around us affect the climate of a • Divide students into groups and assign each group
region. a specific factor affecting climate. Have them create
dioramas illustrating how their assigned factor influences
the climate in different regions.
3.2 • Climatic zones of 35-39 • Name and describe the • Have students create collages representing different
the world climatic zones of the climatic zones using images from magazines or printed
• Tropical climate world. from the internet. Each collage should highlight the
characteristic features of the zone.
• Continental climate
• Temperate climate
3.3 • Arid climate 39-44 • Identify plants that • Provide students with climate data (temperature,
• Polar climate grow in different precipitation, etc.) for different climatic zones. They can
climatic regions. create comparison charts that highlight the differences
• Rainfall in Pakistan
and similarities among the zones.
3.4 • Climatic zones of 44-48 • Describe the climatic • Provide students with rainfall data from different cities in
Pakistan zones of Pakistan. Pakistan. They can analyse the data to identify patterns
and trends in rainfall distribution across the country.
• Assign each student or group a specific climatic zone
found in Pakistan (e.g., arid, coastal, mountainous). They
can research and present the characteristics, vegetation,
and human activities associated with that zone.
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4.1 • What is a forest? 51-53 • Uses of forests • Have students research and create a chart comparing the
• Difference between • Role of forests in the features of coniferous and deciduous trees, including
natural and planted global economy their adaptations, growth patterns, and uses.
forests • Urban planted forests
• Types of forests:
coniferous and
deciduous forests
4.2 • Types of forests: 53-55 • Compare and contrast • Assign each student a rainforest layer (emergent, canopy,
tropical rainforest rainforests with other understory, forest floor). They can create a 3D diorama
• Layers of tropical types of forests. depicting the vegetation, animals, and characteristics of
rainforest their assigned layer.
4.3 • Make a living in the 55-56 • Explore different • Assign each student a forest product (wood, paper,
rainforest of Brazil shapes and functions medicinal plants) and have them create displays
• Forests of Pakistan of the three layers of showcasing the product’s uses, benefits, and potential
• the rainforests. environmental impact.

• Describe the • Divide students into groups representing different
importance of the countries. Each group must trade forest-related products
Amazon rainforest. (timber, fruits, etc.) to understand the role of forests in
the global economy.
• Identify the four major
types of forests in • Have students design a plan for a small, planted
Pakistan. forest in an urban area. They can consider factors like
species selection, benefits to the city, and community
• Discover different
involvement.
types of trees in the
particular regions of
Pakistan.
• Explore why the
forests of the various
regions across Pakistan
differ.
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4.4 • Uses of forests 57-58 • Evaluate how forests • Provide students with a model “forest” made of blocks
• Role of forests in play an important role or other materials. They can simulate logging, point
the global economy in the economy of the out problems from it, and also discuss strategies for
region. sustainable forestry.
• Urban planted
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forests
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5.1 • What is a natural 63-65 • Describe the impact • Have students work in pairs to create news reports
disaster? of natural disasters on about how climate change can influence the occurrence
• Types of natural human beings. and severity of natural disasters. They can present their
disaster • Identify the primary reports to the class.
• Climate change and and secondary impacts
natural disaster of natural disasters.
5.2 • The impact of 65-67 • Analyse and describe • Provide students with images depicting the aftermath
natural disasters the various ways of different natural disasters. They can create collages
in which natural showing the immediate and long-term impacts on
disasters can affect communities, infrastructure, and the environment.
communities,
environments, and
economies.
5.3 • Climate change 67-68 • Explore how global • Have students design a model of a sustainable city that
and sustainable warming (the rising takes climate change and the risk of natural disasters
development surface temperature of into consideration. They should incorporate green
• Natural disasters the Earth) can change infrastructure and disaster-resilient features.
and the developing the frequency and • Assign each student or group a developing nation.
nations intensity of natural They research and present case studies on how natural
disasters. disasters impact these nations’ development and
• Identify the most strategies they can adopt for resilience.
common natural
disaster in Pakistan.
5.4 • Impact of human 68-69 • Explore how global • Divide students into groups, with each group
activities on natural warming (the rising representing a different human activity (deforestation,
disasters surface temperature of urbanisation, pollution). Have them discuss and present
the Earth) can change how these activities can exacerbate natural disasters.
the frequency and
intensity of natural
disasters.
• Identify the most
common natural
disaster in Pakistan.
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5.5 • Dealing with 70-72 • Suggest ways that • Organise a simulation activity where students role-play
natural disasters can help to deal with as disaster relief workers. They can work in teams to
natural disasters. provide aid, resources, and support to communities
• Sort out multiple ways affected by simulated natural disasters.
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to preserve natural
resources for future
generations, including
the three Rs (Reduce,
recycle, reuse).
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6.1 • Denudation 75-77 • Describe the processes • Create a Venn diagram on the board with circles
• Weathering and of weathering and representing weathering and erosion. Have students
erosion erosion. list characteristics unique to each and characteristics
common to both.
• How does
weathering occur? • Provide students with different rock types (e.g.,
limestone, granite) and various weathering agents (water,
temperature changes). They can observe and record how
different rocks weather over time.
6.2 • Water erosion 77-80 • Identify the types of • Create a mini landscape using sand and water. Students
erosion (water). can simulate rainfall and observe how water erosion
• Explain the four changes the landscape over multiple trials.
processes of coastal
erosion.
• Explain the effect of
the processes of coastal

erosion on landforms
6.3 • Wind erosion 80-82 • Identify the types of • Provide students with a tray of sand and a fan. They can
• Erosion caused by erosion (wind) experiment with how wind affects the sand’s surface and
humans forms features like sand dunes.
6.4 • Provide students 83-86 • Explain erosion caused • Divide students into groups and assign each group a
with a tray of sand by human activity on strategy for preventing desertification (afforestation,
and a fan. They can the Earth. sustainable farming). They create presentations or posters
experiment with outlining their strategies.
how wind affects
the sand’s surface
and forms features
like sand dunes.
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6.5 • Effect of erosion on 87-88 • Explain the causes of • Lead a class discussion about how erosion can affect
water supply migration. water supply through sedimentation in rivers and
• Migration • Identify both the reservoirs. Discuss the importance of soil conservation to
negative and positive protect water resources.
• Impact of migration
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effects of excessive • Have students write short stories from the perspective of
urbanisation on land migrants, describing their reasons for migrating and their
use. experiences in a new place. This can help foster empathy
and understanding.
127
U N I T 6 C h a n g i n g E a r t h a n d Hum a n a c t i v i t i e s GEOGRAPHY S KILL S CHECKLI S T
Geography Skills Checklist

Skills overview Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Unit 6
Use, interpret information, and complete missing
details on physical maps
Use and interpret Atlas maps
Use and interpret climate maps
Use and interpret ground, satellite, aerial,

topographic photos
Label and annotate maps
Make and complete a bar chart
Male and complete a line graph
Make and complete a pie chart
Use, interpret, and draw climate graphs
Understand and use numerical data
Use appropriate statistical measures (range,

mean, etc.) in explanations and analysis
Collect and interpret fieldwork data
Use written and digital sources
Write descriptively
Make analysis (finding limitations and

possibilities in policies, measures, and
suggestions; supporting views with reasoning
and evidence to explain choices, etc.)
Draw conclusions
Analyse sustainability or feasibility of options
Spatial awareness and understanding
Problem solving
Interdisciplinary links
Habitat mapping to identify ecological links
Global perspective
Environmental ethics, advocacy, and

engagement
128

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UNIT

WORLD WATCH SECOND EDITION

Components of the Lesson Plan

No. Unit Features Page

Answers for Assessments and Skills Book 16

Background and Lesson Plans 21

Answers for Assessments and Skills Book 36

Background and Lesson Plans 40

Answers for Assessments and Skills Book 54

Background and Lesson Plans 60

Answers for Assessments and Skills Book 76

Background and Lesson Plans 80

Answers for Assessments and Skills Book 93

Background and Lesson Plans 99

Answers for Assessments and Skills Book 110

Scheme of Work of Chapters 117

Geography Skills Checklist 128

and Types of Rocks

Expected learning outcomes of the Unit

Steps using the Student’s Book Duration: 35-40 min

recorded in their notebooks on a copy of the table, with an extra

What are rocks:

which is the movement of the Earth’s tectonic plates. The Earth’s

Ask the students to name some sedimentary rocks they

Using the Student’s book Duration: 35-40 min

b) quartz, feldspar, and mica.

Answers for Skills Book activities

A 1. sedimentary 6. calcite 11. pumice

A. top to bottom: melting; weathering, erosion, and deposition; compaction and

A. 1. Granite 2. Limestone 3. Sandstone

• Layering: Marble can exhibit layering if it has undergone regional metamorphism.

Expected learning outcomes

• Dormant (not known to be active): It has shown no sign of

Answers for the grid reference activity:

Suggested activity for volcanic mountains

Plateau (mainly in Punjab); the largest plain is the Indus Plain in

Tell them that Skardu is in a valley and discuss what makes a

Introduction Duration: 5-10 min

Hindu Kush, and Himalayan ranges.

Answers for Skills Book Activities

A 1–2. Check that the students mark in the correct places.

A 1 a) i) 2461 ii) 2360 iii) 2559

A and B. Use the Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan

a dense which in turn has contributed of irrigation Lahore's

Expected learning outcomes

1. Latitude / distance from the Equator

2. Land elevation / altitude

3. Size of the land mass / distance from the sea

4. Warm or cold sea currents

temperatures. It can also increase the amount of greenhouse gases

north-easterly during the cooler months. Central Nigeria and

Using the Skills Book Duration: 35-40 min

Climatic Average Types of

Answer for Skills Book activities

A 1 a) weather c) climate e) weather

A Conversion of data from Fahrenheit to Celsius:

A. Temperature and rainfall

Background knowledge for the unit

Temperate deciduous forests

A. top to bottom: melting; weathering, erosion, and deposition; compaction and

• Layering: Marble can exhibit layering if it has undergone regional metamorphism.

(iii) energy security Responses should include the closure of non-renewable

H. 1 Development can lead to deforestation, soil erosion, and loss of nutrients.

A 1. Chemical weathering: a Mechanical weathering: b and d Organic weathering: e

A 1. Positive: economic growth and job opportunities, improved infrastructure, wider