molecules

Review
Emerging Applications of Nanotechnology in Healthcare
and Medicine
Shiza Malik 1 , Khalid Muhammad 2, * and Yasir Waheed 3,4, *

1 Bridging Health Foundation, Rawalpindi 46000, Pakistan

2 Department of Biology, College of Science, UAE University, Al Ain 15551, United Arab Emirates
3 Office of Research, Innovation and Commercialization, Shaheed Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto Medical University,
Islamabad 44000, Pakistan
4 Gilbert and Rose-Marie Chagoury School of Medicine, Lebanese American University, Byblos 1401, Lebanon
* Correspondence: [email protected] (K.M.); [email protected] (Y.W.)

Abstract: Knowing the beneficial aspects of nanomedicine, scientists are trying to harness the
applications of nanotechnology in diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of diseases. There are
also potential uses in designing medical tools and processes for the new generation of medical
scientists. The main objective for conducting this research review is to gather the widespread
aspects of nanomedicine under one heading and to highlight standard research practices in the
medical field. Comprehensive research has been conducted to incorporate the latest data related
to nanotechnology in medicine and therapeutics derived from acknowledged scientific platforms.
Nanotechnology is used to conduct sensitive medical procedures. Nanotechnology is showing
successful and beneficial uses in the fields of diagnostics, disease treatment, regenerative medicine,
gene therapy, dentistry, oncology, aesthetics industry, drug delivery, and therapeutics. A thorough
association of and cooperation between physicians, clinicians, researchers, and technologies will
bring forward a future where there is a more calculated, outlined, and technically programed field of
nanomedicine. Advances are being made to overcome challenges associated with the application
of nanotechnology in the medical field due to the pathophysiological basis of diseases. This review
highlights the multipronged aspects of nanomedicine and how nanotechnology is proving beneficial
for the health industry. There is a need to minimize the health, environmental, and ethical concerns
linked to nanotechnology.
Citation: Malik, S.; Muhammad, K.;
Waheed, Y. Emerging Applications of Keywords: nanotechnology; nanobiotechnology; nanomedicine; medical applications; diagnosis;
Nanotechnology in Healthcare and disease treatment; drug-delivery; healthcare
Medicine. Molecules 2023, 28, 6624.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
molecules28186624
1. Introduction
Academic Editor: Ashok Kakkar
The world is theorized to have accidentally formed via the Big Bang that occurred
Received: 15 August 2023 from an unstable microscopic-sized energized particle (atom). A single bit created an entire
Revised: 5 September 2023
universe, and now scientists are working again on similar small particles to create marvels
Accepted: 12 September 2023
of science. From here, the world of nanoscience has arrived and taken a firm place in
Published: 14 September 2023
every aspect of science and technology [1]. The vision for nanotechnology was presented
by Nobel Prize-winning physicist Richard P. Feynman, who proposed the application
of more significant objects and mechanistic tools at a smaller tool and particle scale, as
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
he believed that “there is plenty of room at the bottom” [1,2]. Nowadays, apart from
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. physicists, scientists from multiple fields believe that in the future, nanoscale manufacturing
This article is an open access article technologies and instrumentation such as nanomachines, robotics, nanomedicine, and
distributed under the terms and diagnostic devices, among many others, will bring grand biomedical miracles to the world
conditions of the Creative Commons of medicine and other industries [3–7].
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// Nanoscale pertains to the size of one-billionth or 10−9 m of a material. A new scien-
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ tific field of science in the form of nanotechnology was created because it was observed
4.0/). that materials, products, and devices developed from nanoscale particles almost always

Molecules 2023, 28, 6624. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28186624 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/molecules

Molecules 2023, 28, 6624 2 of 30

exhibit properties different from those of large-scale bulk materials. This follows the basic
principles of physics and chemistry that as the state of matter is composed of atoms, any
changes in atomic size, shape, and arrangement directly affect the material’s properties [7,8].
Scientists think that nanotechnology is the future of science and thus they are looking for-
ward to benefitting from the application of nanotechnology in almost every possible way.
The unique properties and behavioral features of nanoscale products have also drawn the
attention of clinicians, physicians, and biological researchers [9,10]. The effort is on its
way to applying unique quantum phenomena at the nanoscale to the fields of medicine,
biomedical sciences, bioengineering, food technology, biochemistry, biophysics, and other
disciplines of biology and medicine [10–13].
Forty years of revolutionary interaction among biology, medicine, and nanotechnology
have led to present-day nano-biotechnology, which is now showing progressive application
in multiple aspects of the medical field [14]. From disease detection to treatment, many
medical issues such as disease diagnosis, drug discovery, personalized medical proce-
dures, cancer treatment, pharmaceutical discoveries, as well as the latest medical tools
and procedures, are now improving on the uses of nano-biotechnology [15]. Similar to
regular vaccination approval, nano-based medicine and nanovaccines are also obtaining
regular medical approval with the passage of time. Various nanotechnology-based diag-
nostic kits such as nanosensors, nanoparticle-based imaging agents, nanoparticle-based
PCR Assays, Lab-on-a-Chip devices, along with modern drugs and medicines such as
nanoparticle-based drug delivery vehicles, liposomal formulations and polymeric nanopar-
ticles, Nanomedicines (such as Abraxane (nanoparticle albumin-bound paclitaxel) and
Doxil (pegylated liposomal doxorubicin)), nanotechnology in gene therapy, nanoparticle-
based vaccines, and antimicrobial agents, etc. are being commercialized for research and
clinical usage [16].
Nanomedicine is a broad-spectrum field of science and technology that unites mul-
tiple streams of medical applications such as disease treatment and diagnosis, disease
prevention, pain relieving technologies, human health improvement medicine, nanoscale
technology against traumatic injury, and treatment options for diseases [12,15]. Thus,
an interdisciplinary approach is being adopted to apply the outcomes of biotechnology,
nanomaterials, biomedical robotics, and genetic engineering combined under the broad
category of nanomedicine [17]. On a broader level, nanoscaling of medical technologies
provides efficiency, a rapid response rate, and functional effectiveness in most biological
and chemical processes used to manufacture medical materials. Thus, research provides
constant hope for the upcoming new applications of nanomedicine [12,18].
In this review article, comprehensive analyses have been carried out to examine the
application of nanotechnology specifically in the field of medicine. The most advanced
form of nanotechnological applications have been highlighted with a slight emphasis
on the previous uses of nanotechnology in the past few years of the 21st-century. Some
modern medical applications, such as diagnostics, nanomedicine, regenerative medicine,
and personalized targeted therapies, have also been included to bring into account the
latest nanomedical applications.

2. Results and Discussion—Applications of Nanotechnology in the Medical Field

2.1. Applications of Nanotechnology in Diagnostics
Diagnostic sciences are now using nanodevices for early and rapid disease identifi-
cation for further medical procedural recommendations. It also utilizes nanotechnology
for the predisposition of disease at the cellular and molecular level to develop insights
into treatment options [16]. Nanotechnology has the potential to revolutionize the field
of healthcare diagnostics by improving the accuracy, sensitivity, and speed of medical
tests [18]. One of the profound applications includes nanoparticle-based diagnostic imag-
ing, in which nanoparticles can be attached to specific biomarkers to enhance imaging
modalities such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computerized tomography (CT)
scans, and positron emission tomography (PET) scans, making them more sensitive, ac-
Molecules 2023, 28, 6624 3 of 30

curate, and specific [19]. Similarly, nanotechnology-enabled point-of-care diagnostic tests

can quickly and accurately detect infectious diseases, cancers, and other illnesses, enabling
timely treatment and prevention [9,19].
Biosensors are yet another dimension of application in which nanotechnology has
enabled the development of highly sensitive biosensors that can detect even low levels
of biomolecules in bodily fluids such as blood and urine, facilitating early detection and
disease management [20,21]. Similar applications come in the form of microfluidic devices
that incorporate nanomaterials and can be used to isolate and analyze specific cells, proteins,
and genetic material, providing rapid and accurate diagnosis of diseases [19,22]. Another
use may involve nanopore sequencing, which is a novel technology that uses nanopores to
detect the sequence of DNA or RNA molecules, allowing for rapid and accurate diagnosis
of genetic disorders such as cancer and genetic diseases [23].
Recent advances show that nanomedicine can be used in in vitro diagnostics sciences
to increase the efficiency and reliability of disease apprehension [24]. This is achieved
via nanodevices at the subcellular level, with samples prepared from human tissue, cell
culture, body fluids, etc. [19,25,26]. In in vivo diagnostics, the nanomedicine approach
is being used to develop devices capable of working, responding, and modifying within
the human body with the sole purpose of early diagnosis of any irregularities in the
human body that could lead to toxicity or tumor development events [22,27]. A few types
of nanoparticles that are currently in use for diagnostic purposes include paramagnetic
nanoparticles, nanocrystals, quantum dots, nanoshells, and nanosomes [28,29]. Overall,
nanotechnology has enormous potential in healthcare diagnostics and is expected to play a
significant role in the development of personalized medicine.

2.2. Nanotechnology and Lab-on-Chip Technology

Nanotechnology and Lab-on-Chip Technology have revolutionized the field of health-
care by offering innovative solutions for disease diagnosis, personalized treatment, and
drug delivery [15]. The combination of these two technologies has led to the development
of advanced diagnostic tools that are faster, more accurate, and more cost-effective than
traditional diagnostic methods [30]. Lab-on-Chip technology is making progress in differ-
ent fields of science; for example, it is being considered for use against viral and cancerous
diseases [15,24]. The whole process revolves around analyzing genetic information at the
cellular level [30]. Advanced procedures of gene sequencing and body fluid sampling have
further assisted in revolutionizing nanotechnology in service of cures for diseases that were
previously unimaginable [31,32].
Together, these two technologies have led to the development of Lab-on-Nanoparticles,
which are small devices that can perform multiple functions, including diagnostics, drug
delivery, and monitoring of various health conditions [31,32]. These devices are made up
of nanoscale materials that can detect and respond to changes in the body, allowing for
real-time monitoring and personalized treatment [26]. One of the significant applications
of nanotechnology and Lab-on-Chip Technology in healthcare is cancer diagnosis [20,21].
Nanoparticles can be designed to target cancer cells, allowing for early detection and
treatment [33]. Lab-on-Chip devices can also be used to diagnose various health conditions,
including infectious diseases, genetic disorders, and metabolic disorders [32,34].
The use of nanotechnology and Lab-on-Chip Technology in healthcare has also led
to the development of advanced drug delivery systems [31]. Nanotech systems such as
nano-Liposomes can target specific cells or tissues in the body, enhancing drug efficacy
and reducing side effects [28,35]. Moreover, viral detection is considered a feature that
will be linked to future generations of nanoscale diagnostic devices. Such devices are
expected to enable the detection of the release of medications in the organs of the body,
which will help in the calculation of treatment efficiency and efficiency rates [36]. In simple
terms, nanotechnology is trying to increase the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic
properties of drugs to stay longer inside the body, work faster and more efficiently, and at
essential sites [37].
 will be linked to future generations of nanoscale diagnostic devices. Such devices are ex-
pected to enable the detection of the release of medications in the organs of the body,
which will help in the calculation of treatment efficiency and efficiency rates [36]. In sim-
ple terms, nanotechnology is trying to increase the pharmacokinetic and pharmacody-
namic properties of drugs to stay longer inside the body, work faster and more efficiently,
Molecules 2023, 28, 6624 4 of 30
and at essential sites [37].

2.3. Applications
2.3. of Nanotechnology
Applications in Pharmaceutical
of Nanotechnology Sciences Sciences
in Pharmaceutical
A briefofoverview
A brief overview of nanotechnological
nanotechnological applications
applications in pharmaceutical
in pharmaceutical sciencessciences
has has
been covered in the following section with a diagrammatic representation
been covered in the following section with a diagrammatic representation in Figure 1. in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Applications
Figure 1. of nanotechnology
Applications in pharmaceutical
of nanotechnology sciences. sciences.
in pharmaceutical

2.3.1. Nanoscience and Drug Dose Specifications

2.3.1. Nanoscience and Drug Dose Specifications
Nanoscience has revolutionized the pharmaceutical industry by enabling the produc-
Nanoscience has revolutionized the pharmaceutical industry by enabling the pro-
tion of improved therapeutic drugs with enhanced efficacy and lower toxicity. Nanoparti-
duction of improved therapeutic
cles can improve drugs with enhanced
the pharmacokinetics efficacy
of drugs and lower
by increasing their toxicity.
solubility,Nano-
stability, and
particles can bioavailability
improve the pharmacokinetics of drugs by increasing their solubility,
[38]. They can also target specific tissues and cells, reducing side stabil-
effects and
ity, and bioavailability [38]. efficacy
enhancing their They can also
[25]. Thetarget
nanoscale sizetissues
specific and unique and physicochemical
cells, reducing sideproperties
effects and enhancing their efficacy
of nanoparticles demand[25]. The specifications
precise nanoscale size in and
termsunique physicochemical
of drug dose and administra-
properties oftion [39,40]. The demand
nanoparticles dose of nanoparticles depends on in
precise specifications various
termsfactors such
of drug as their
dose andsize,
ad- shape,
surface properties, and the method of administration [40]. For instance,
ministration [39,40]. The dose of nanoparticles depends on various factors such as their oral administration
may require
size, shape, surface a higherand
properties, dosethe
to achieve
methodthe of same effect as intravenous
administration [40]. For administration
instance, oral due to
the differences in absorption and biodistribution [40,41].
administration may require a higher dose to achieve the same effect as intravenous ad-
Furthermore, nanoparticles have complex pharmacokinetics and dynamic behavior
ministration due to the differences in absorption and biodistribution [40,41].
in vivo, requiring a careful consideration of their dose regimen [40]. Researchers need to
Furthermore, nanoparticles
determine the optimalhavedosecomplex pharmacokinetics
range, frequency, and duration andofdynamic behavior
nanoparticles to achieve
in vivo, requiring a careful consideration of their dose
their therapeutic goals while minimizing adverse effects [41,42]. In theneed
regimen [40]. Researchers past, to
medical
studies have resulted in very advanced treatment options; however, there is still a gap in
effectively neutralizing drug overdoses. The use of nanoparticles as absorbents of toxic
drugs is a feature being taken into account to create a rich method of drug absorption in
Molecules 2023, 28, 6624 5 of 30

the medical sciences [40–42]. The design of nanosponge-type substances is on the way
to absorb unnecessary toxic dosages of drugs in blood to reduce the side effects of drug
overdoses and treat ailments from body fluids [43]. Such antiviral drug absorbents have
been introduced by researchers that work as nanoscale molecules to render anticancer
and antiviral nucleoside analogs by linkage with squalene [44]. These nano-assemblies
work as superior anti-cancerous molecules to treat human cancer cells that have yet to
be developed beyond in vitro studies [45]. In summary, the development of nanomedical
products requires careful consideration of the dose and administration of nanoparticles
to ensure their efficacy and safety. The nanoscience community must collaborate with
regulatory agencies to develop guidelines for nanomedicine testing to ensure their safety
and efficacy.

2.3.2. Nanotechnology and Drug Delivery Technologies

Nanotechnology has revolutionized the field of drug delivery by providing an effective
and targeted delivery of drugs, minimizing side effects, and increasing the therapeutic
efficacy of drugs. The application of nanotechnology in drug delivery involves the use
of nanoparticles that are designed to carry drugs and deliver them to the desired site of
action [46]. The use of nanotechnology in drug delivery has several advantages. First, it
allows for targeted and controlled delivery of drugs to specific sites in the body, such as
tumors, inflamed tissue, and infected areas [46]. This reduces the amount of drugs required
and minimizes side effects. Secondly, nanoparticles can improve the solubility and stability
of drugs, making them more effective in treating diseases [47]. Thirdly, nanotechnology can
increase the bioavailability of drugs by enhancing their absorption and distribution in the
body. This allows for lower doses of drugs to be used, resulting in reduced toxicity [48,49].
Drug delivery technologies are also being given full consideration to be modified as
per the new rules of nanoscaling. Some kinds of medical nanorobots are in line to be used
for medicine delivery [32]. These materials swim across veins and carry drugs to specific
sites. These aspects are being used for antitumoral responses of drugs [48]. Scientists are
even working on performing wireless intracellular and intranuclear nanoscale surgeries
against multiple malignancies and diseases [46,48]. Marvelous scientific arrangements
are being carried out in the form of manufacturing and testing mechanical red blood cell
technologies called respirocytes. Nanorobotics share the potential to deliver 200+ times
more oxygen to body tissues as compared to natural red blood cells [49,50]. This could
make one think about the potential of nanotechnology to be utilized for the diagnosis and
treatment of various blood-linked disorders and their cure in the future [50]. In conclusion,
the application of nanotechnology in drug delivery has revolutionized the field of medicine.
It has provided an effective and targeted delivery of drugs, minimized side effects, and
increased the therapeutic efficacy of drugs. The future of drug delivery lies in the continued
development of nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems.

2.3.3. DNA Nanotechnology and Drug Delivery System

DNA-based drug delivery devices have been introduced in the past few years, such
as DNA guns and DNA vaccines. Based on similar principles, an emerging field of DNA
nanotechnology is being introduced in the nanomedicine industry [51]. These medical
tools allow for the self-assembly of nanostructures and molecules that ultimately enhance
drug targeting and reduce the toxicity associated with these drugs. With such technology,
toxicity measures can be easily dealt with in diseases such as cancer, where the major issue
is the drug toxicity associated with chemotherapeutic drugs [24,51].
The latest advances in research indicate that modern programing optimization and
in silico approaches are being adopted to design DNA nanostructures with precise size,
structure, surface chemistry, and functioning properties against specific diseases [22,52].
The effort is also to create personalized targeted drug therapies using nanotechnology-
based DNA medicine [51]. Efficient drug biomolecules, such as doxorubicin and CpG
oligonucleotides, have been successfully amalgamated with DNA-based nanostructures to
Molecules 2023, 28, 6624 6 of 30

increase cellular intake efficiency [53]. The future holds the potential to create RNA-based
medication using principles similar to those employed in DNA-based medication [54].

2.3.4. Nanobiotechnology and Gene Therapy

Nanobiotechnology and gene therapy are two fields that often intersect in the devel-
opment of innovative therapeutic approaches for the treatment of various diseases. In
gene therapy, DNA molecules are introduced into the patient’s cells to replace defective
or missing genes, with the aim of treating genetic disorders and other diseases [55]. One
application of nanobiotechnology in gene therapy is the use of nanoparticle-based delivery
systems to transport therapeutic genes to target cells [41,56]. These nanocarriers protect the
DNA molecules from degradation and enhance their ability to penetrate the cell membrane,
increasing the efficacy and safety of gene therapy [53,56].
Other nanobiotechnology approaches that support gene therapy include the devel-
opment of gene editing technologies that use nanoscale tools to precisely modify DNA
sequences and correct genetic mutations [57]. Additionally, nanoparticle-based sensors
can be used to monitor gene expression and other molecular events in real-time, provid-
ing valuable information for personalized medicine [32]. Modern therapeutic concepts
including gene therapy and molecular DNA-based therapies are already being practiced
in healthcare and the arrival of nanotechnology has forwarded further advances in it [58].
Since the very basis of working gene therapy is at the molecular level of disease prevention
and genetic adjustments, nanoscale technology plays a vital role in gene therapy [58].
Gene therapy processes are being modified to attach different kinds of biodegradable
and non-biodegradable organic and inorganic particles fabricated with nano-assemblies.
These structural combinations help bind DNA and access it across cellular surfaces [59].
Moreover, polymer-based nanoparticle mixtures are also prepared for intravenous drug
injections. These modified technologies are a gateway to further advances in nanogenetic
therapies [60]. Overall, the integration of nanobiotechnology and gene therapy is expected
to lead to advanced treatments for a wide range of diseases, including cancer, genetic
disorders, and infectious diseases.

Gene Therapy Approaches via Polyplex Micelles

Polyplex micelles are a type of nano-sized structure that are formed by the self-
assembly of cationic polymers with nucleic acids, such as small interfering RNA (siRNA) or
plasmid DNA (pDNA) [61]. These polyplex micelles have attracted significant attention for
their potential in gene therapy and as drug delivery systems. In the context of tumor treat-
ment, various polyplex micelle-based strategies using siRNA and pDNA have been studied.
siRNA is an RNA molecule that is used to specifically target and knock down the expression
of disease-related genes [62,63]. Plasmid DNA (pDNA) is a circular DNA molecule that
can carry therapeutic genes to the target site. Polyplex micelles can encapsulate siRNA or
pDNA within their core, protecting them from degradation and facilitating their delivery
to tumor cells [63,64]. Additionally, the cationic nature of the polyplex micelles allows
for electrostatic interactions with the negatively charged cell membrane, promoting their
uptake by tumor cells [64].
These polyplex micelle-based strategies have been investigated for the treatment of
various tumors, including pancreatic adenocarcinoma [63]. Pancreatic adenocarcinoma is
a particularly challenging type of solid tumor resistant to many conventional treatment
options. By using polyplex micelles, siRNA or pDNA can be delivered specifically to the
tumor cells, enabling targeted gene therapy or enhancing the efficacy of chemotherapeutic
drugs [64]. Thus, nanotechnology, specifically polyplex micelles, offers a promising ap-
proach for delivery of siRNA or pDNA to tumors such as pancreatic adenocarcinoma. These
micelles can protect genetic material, promote cellular uptake, and potentially enhance the
effectiveness of treatments for intractable solid tumors [65].
Molecules 2023, 28, 6624 7 of 30

2.3.5. Green Nanotechnology-Driven Drug Delivery Assemblies

Nanomedicines are largely produced through chemical and physical methods of
downgrading particles up to micro- and nanoscales. However, with the concerns of en-
vironmental and toxic health impacts, nanomedicine is now employing the concept of
green chemistry and green engineering into the manufacturing of nanobiomedicine [66].
The purpose of this green technology is to create eco-friendly nanoassemblies with less
environmental and health-related negative impacts [66]. Subsequently, the combination
of green nanoassemblies with drugs, vaccines, or diagnostic markers will be the next step
to propel the field of green nanomedicine. Many inorganic nanoassemblies have been
introduced to the market and manufactured on the principles of green engineering and
nanotechnology [67]. Some examples may include gold and silver nanoparticles, quan-
tum dots, organic polymeric nanoparticles, mesoporous silica nanoparticles, dendrimers,
nanostructured lipid carriers, solid lipid nanoparticles, etc. [66–68].
These nanoassemblies are attached with drugs, DNA molecules, or specific enzymes,
proteins or peptides for further handling in nanomedicine purposes [66]. However, the
need is to establish research studies that demonstrate the difference and effectiveness level
of nanomedicine produced using normal bioengineering against that of manufacturing of
nanomedicines through the elaborative principles of green bioengineering [66–68]. This
will allow scientists to opt for the best manufacturing conditions for nanoassemblies in
the future.

2.3.6. Nanotechnology—Antiviral and Antibacterial Applications

The causative agents of viral, bacterial, and other microscopic diseases work at the
microscopic level; therefore, the best way to fight against them is at the nanoscale. Nan-
otechnology is thus the gateway to the cure and diagnosis of a wide range of viral, bacterial,
and fungal diseases [69]. Although traditional Greek medicinal practices have been using
metals such as silver to cure diseases for a long time, an updated version of nanoscale-
based material conversion has been shown to improve the efficiency of such traditional and
modern medication options [70]. One such study carried out by Nycryst Pharmaceuticals
(Canada) showed that nanosized silver particles are more reactive to cure burn or wound
as they easily penetrate the skin at some small scale [71].
The genomic and proteomic fields are already contributing much to the elucidation of
molecular insights into disease, and with the assistance of nanotechnology, new opportuni-
ties are being put in the hands of researchers to create powerful diagnostics tools with the
power of genetic elucidation of irregularities at the level of the gene [72]. Research indicates
that soon, nanotechnology-based diagnostic and treatment options will be available for
preventive and regenerative medicine with targeted and personalized therapy potential
against pathogenic and pathophysiological diseases [70–73]. All these benefits are coupled
with the cost-effective and time-saving aspect of this new technology.

2.3.7. Barriers Associated with Nanoparticle-Based Delivery Efficiency and

Clinical Translation
There are several barriers or issues associated with nanoparticles in terms of deliv-
ery efficiency and clinical translation. The accumulation of nanocarriers in organs of the
reticuloendothelial system, especially the liver, poses a significant challenge for clinical
translation as it captures a majority of the injected dose, hindering the delivery of an
adequate dose to the targeted disease site and potentially causing toxicity concerns [74].
Researchers have developed various approaches to address this issue, including precondi-
tioning macrophages with chloroquine, saturating the reticuloendothelial system organs
with drug-free nanocarriers, and transient stealth-coating scavenger cells to enhance the
efficiency of drug-loaded nanoparticles reaching the diseased tissue [75–77]. Additionally,
the incorporation of targeted cellular on the surface of nanocarriers such as those apply-
ing the “do not eat us” strategy, helps evade capture by the reticuloendothelial system,
improving the accumulation of nanodrugs at the desired site [73,76].
Molecules 2023, 28, 6624 8 of 30

On the other hand, surface shielding of nonionic hydrophilic polymers such as PEG
on nanocarriers reduces cellular uptake and endosomal escape, resulting in poor delivery
efficiency despite improving colloidal stability and stealth in a biological environment [77].
To overcome this “stealth dilemma,” targeting ligands are strategically placed at the distal
end of the PEG segments to facilitate specific ligand receptor-mediated uptake [78]. Another
strategy involves wrapping anionically charged polymers on positively charged mRNA-
polyplexes to promote endosomal escape by converting them into positively charged
polymers in response to the acidic pH of the endo/lysosomal compartments [79].
The use of messenger RNA (mRNA)-loaded lipid nanoparticles is limited by their
hepatic protein expression, even when administered locally through intramuscular and
intratumor injections [80]. Minimizing the off-target hepatic expression would be advan-
tageous for protein replacement therapies and cancer immunotherapies. One approach
involves incorporating microRNA target sites in therapeutic mRNAs to selectively pre-
vent their expression in the liver [80]. Some other generalized barriers associated with
nano-based drug delivery mechanisms are included in Table 1. It is important to note that
although nanoparticles face these barriers and issues, significant advancements are being
made in addressing them, bringing us closer to their successful clinical translation.

Table 1. Barriers associated with nano-based drug delivery.

Sr. No. Barriers Associated with Brief Explanation Examples References

Nano-Based Drug Delivery
The size of nanoparticles plays a crucial
role in their delivery efficiency. Very
small nanoparticles may be cleared Liposomal nanoparticles although
quickly from the bloodstream, while initially promising for drug delivery,
1. Size and stability larger nanoparticles may have limited have faced challenges due to their size [15,16,35]
tissue penetration. Additionally, variability and instability, leading to a
maintaining the stability of nanoparticles limited clinical translation.
during storage and delivery can
be challenging.
Efficient release of the encapsulated drug
Researchers working on tumor-targeted
or payload at target site is critical. It
drug delivery have faced challenges in
requires precise control over the release
2. Controlled release achieving the controlled release of drugs [16,17]
mechanism, kinetics, and release triggers
from nanoparticles thereby reducing
(pH, temperature, and enzymes) to
their therapeutic efficacy.
ensure optimal therapeutic effects.
Nanoparticles often require
functionalization with targeting ligands Gold nanoparticles functionalized with
to enhance their specificity toward antibodies for cancer-targeted
3. Targeting specificity diseased cells or tissues. Achieving photothermal therapy have faced issues [66,74]
selective targeting while minimizing related to non-specific accumulation and
off-target effects remains a targeting of healthy tissues, leading to
toxicity concerns
significant challenge
Nanoparticles should be biocompatible
Carbon nanotubes showed significant
to avoid adverse reactions and toxicity.
toxicity concerns due to inflammation
This includes minimizing immune
4. Biocompatibility and toxicity and tissue damage, limiting their clinical [74]
responses, toxicity to healthy tissues, and
translation despite their
ensuring nanoparticles do not
potential applications.
accumulate excessively in the body.
The development of nanoparticles
Promising nanoparticle formulations
suitable for large-scale production and
have failed to progress to clinical trials
5. Scalability and manufacturing manufacturing can be challenging.
due to scalability issues and the inability [68,74]
Ensuring reproducibility and stability
to reproduce them consistently at
across batches is crucial for
clinical translation. larger scale.

Nanoparticles as drug delivery systems

require rigorous regulatory assessment The regulatory approval process for
for safety, efficacy, and quality control. nanoparticles such as liposomes or
6. Regulatory approval Meeting the extensive regulatory polymeric nanoparticles often involves [35]
requirements demanded for clinical long and complex pathways, delaying
translation can be lengthy and their clinical translation.
resource-intensive.
Molecules 2023, 28, 6624 9 of 30

2.4. Applications of Nanotechnology in Regenerative Medical Sciences

2.4.1. Nanotechnology and Bone Regeneration Technology
Nanotechnology is the science of creating and manipulating materials at the molecular
and atomic levels. Bone regeneration technology creates new bone tissue, or helps existing
bone tissue heal, with the use of materials that promote bone growth [81]. Nanotechnology
is increasingly used in bone regeneration technology to create better, more precise and
targeted materials for promoting bone growth [80]. For example, researchers are exploring
the use of nanoparticles to deliver drugs or other molecules that promote bone growth
directly to the areas that need them, improving the effectiveness of the treatment [80].
Nanoparticles can also be used to create scaffolds that mimic the structure of bone,
which can help guide new bone growth and aid in bone regeneration. Additionally, ad-
vances in 3D printing technology that uses nanoscale materials can be used to create highly
precise and customized implants for bone regeneration [81]. Bone weakening and dysfunc-
tion is a widespread problem and this has been marked by nanotechnologists as an issue of
the utmost importance when linking nanotech to medicine. Some studies are being carried
out regarding bone formation and structuring with the help of nanotechnology [80,81]. Sci-
entists are trying to develop bone graft substitutes in the form of nanostructured materials
with similar properties to be accepted by body and organ tissues. If these studies succeed,
they will bring a new wave of regenerative technology to cure damaged bones and broken
muscular fragments [82].
Principle investigation on biomineralization is being carried out to reduce the particle
size of bone materials that could be coupled with its crystalline properties to be embedded
into collagen fibers [80]. The purpose is to create a penetrating composition in damaged
bone areas with specific mechanical properties to revolutionize the field of osteology and
bone tissue engineering [80,81]. Similar studies are being carried out to make artificial
joints, nanoscale collagen-mimicking coatings for knees and hips that act to stabilize the
process of bone formation by osteoblasts [83,84]. Overall, the use of nanotechnology in
bone regeneration technology holds great promise for improving the outcomes of bone
repair and regeneration, including faster healing times, improved bone strength, and
reduced complications.

2.4.2. Nanotechnology and Regenerative Medicine

Regenerative medicine is an interdisciplinary field of medical applications in which
the benefits of cell therapy and tissue engineering methods are well fabricated to device
mechanisms for the treatment, maintenance, improvement, and reparation of damaged
and dead cells, tissues, and organs [73]. Previously, it was difficult to deal with the body
at the cellular level but with the emergence of nanoscale technology, a huge opportunity
has become available in the form of regenerative medicine to interact with cells and their
components so that the linked cellular responses and extracellular material production
can be controlled [80]. Tissue repair has been greatly upgraded with the powerful tissue
regeneration abilities of nanoassemblies. These technologies are being directed for cellular
adhesion, migration, differentiation, and other mechanical aspects that initiate tissue
regeneration [85].
Exploration in the field of nanomedicine is going on to manufacture nanoscale ma-
terials, such as gold and silver nanoparticles, dendrimers, nanorods, carbon buckyballs,
nanoshells, nanocubes, and many other forms of nanoparticles [73,79]. Each is specific to
its linked properties, which can be directly utilized in targeted tissues and organs. Multiple
research groups are working worldwide to explore the diagnostic, therapeutic, anti-viral,
antifungal, and most importantly anticancerous properties of these nano-agents [70,72,86].
Progress shows that soon, a world of nanotechnology will bring a revolution to the treat-
ment options for incurable diseases such as cancers, for which early diagnosis through
nanotechnology is already on board and has been successfully explored [73,86].
Molecules 2023, 28, 6624 10 of 30

2.5. Applications of Nanotechnology in Surgery

Molecules 2023, 28, x FOR PEER REVIEWA brief overview of nanotechnological applications in surgery is covered in11theof follow-
31
ing section with a diagrammatic representation in Figure 2.

Figure2.2.Applications
Figure Applications of
of nanotechnology
nanotechnologyininsurgery.
surgery.

2.5.1.
2.5.1.Surgical
Surgical Nanorobotics andNano-Bioelectric
Nanorobotics and Nano-Bioelectric Medicine
Medicine
Surgical
Surgical nanorobotics involvesthe
nanorobotics involves thedevelopment
development andanduseuse of tiny
of tiny robots
robots or nanorobots
or nanorobots
that
that can performsurgical
can perform surgical procedures
procedures withwith
high high
precisionprecision and efficiency
and efficiency [87]. These [87].
nano-These
nanorobots
robots can be can be guided
guided to specific
to specific locations
locations within within
the body the body
using using advanced
advanced imaging
imaging tech-
techniques,
niques, andand theythey
cancan
thenthen perform
perform tasks
tasks suchsuch as delivering
as delivering drugs,
drugs, removing
removing tumors,
tumors, or or
repairing damaged tissues. Nano-bioelectric medicine, on the other
repairing damaged tissues. Nano-bioelectric medicine, on the other hand, involves using hand, involves using
electrical signals
electrical signals to tostimulate
stimulatethe body’s
the healing
body’s processes
healing [88,89].
processes This emerging
[88,89]. field fo-field
This emerging
cuses on the use of nanoscale technologies to access and control the
focuses on the use of nanoscale technologies to access and control the electrical activity electrical activity of of
cells and tissues in order to treat a wide range of medical conditions, including
cells and tissues in order to treat a wide range of medical conditions, including chronic pain, chronic
pain, wound
wound healing,healing, and heart
and heart disease
disease [90].
[90]. Both
Both surgicalnanorobotics
surgical nanorobotics and andnanobioelec-
nanobioelectric
tric medicine
medicine have have
thethe potential
potential totorevolutionize
revolutionize the
the field
fieldofofmedicine
medicine andandimprove
improve patient
patient
outcomes. However,
outcomes. However, therethereisisstill
stillmuch
muchresearch
research needed
needed to to
fully explore
fully explorethe the
potential of of
potential
thesetechnologies
these technologies andand ensure
ensuretheirtheirsafety
safetyand
andefficacy
efficacy [88].
[88].
Programming, engineering,
Programming, engineering,and andbiological
biological fields
fields areare
working
working inter-connectively
inter-connectively to to
develop a surgical nanorobot that works through the vascular system. These small-scale
develop a surgical nanorobot that works through the vascular system. These small-scale
devices are manufactured with the multipurpose function of searching diagnostics and
devices are manufactured with the multipurpose function of searching diagnostics and
treatments against lesions and pathogens [87,88]. These robots work at a minute scale that
treatments against lesions and pathogens [87,88]. These robots work at a minute scale that
can be used to cut even a single dendrite and neuron at the cellular surgery level without
can be used to cut even a single dendrite and neuron at the cellular surgery level without
causing harm to other neurons bound in a complex network. These experiments have been
causing harm to other neurons bound in a complex network. These experiments have
confirmed in animal models where a nanoscissor action has been governed by these na-
been confirmed in animal models where a nanoscissor action has been governed by these
norobotics [91]. The results have pushed scientists to perform further experiments before
nanorobotics [91]. The
optimizing surgical results have
conditions pushed patients.
on diseased scientistsAtonew perform
wave further experiments
of bioelectric medicine before
optimizing
is also in the market which adheres to biological components for more effective diagnostic is
surgical conditions on diseased patients. A new wave of bioelectric medicine
also
andin the market
therapeutic which adheres
therapies. to biological components
This nanobioelectronic for moreineffective
is being employed cancerous diagnostic
dis-
and therapeutic therapies. This nanobioelectronic is being employed
eases, cardiovascular disorders, and other malfunctions in the human body [92]. However, in cancerous diseases,
cardiovascular
many improvements disorders, and other
are needed malfunctions
to successfully in the
apply thishuman bodyin[92].
technology However,
a clinical many
setting
improvements are needed
for multipronged complex diseases. to successfully apply this technology in a clinical setting for
multipronged complex diseases.
Molecules 2023, 28, 6624 11 of 30

2.5.2. Implantable Medical Nanogenerators

Nanogenerators, as the name indicates, are a class of self-powered and implantable
medical nanosensors. They work on the principle of conversion of mechanical energy from
body movement into an electric spark [87]. As the body converts chemical energy from
glucose, muscle converts this energy to mechanical energy and in turn these nanogener-
ators convert it into electric energy which can be used to charge and power implantable
nanodevices that are aggressively being manufactured for medical purposes nowadays [88].
Implantable medical nanogenerators (IMNGs) are miniature devices that use mechanical
energy from body movements to generate electrical energy [87]. They can be implanted
inside the human body and used to power various medical devices, including pacemakers,
neurostimulators, and drug delivery systems [93].
IMNGs are made up of thin layers of materials, such as piezoelectric materials, which
convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. These materials generate electric charges
when they experience mechanical stress, such as bending or pressure [87]. They can also be
designed to harvest energy from other sources, such as temperature changes or fluids in
the body [88]. IMNGs have several advantages over traditional batteries used to power
implantable medical devices. They can eliminate the need for battery replacements, which
can be invasive and costly. They can also improve device reliability as battery failures can
cause serious medical problems [93]. Additionally, IMNGs are environmentally friendly
since they do not require the disposal of toxic batteries [94].
Despite their potential benefits, there are still challenges to overcome in developing
IMNGs. The devices must be durable enough to withstand the harsh conditions inside
the body, including high temperatures and corrosion from body fluids [95]. They must
also be small enough to be implanted inside the body without causing discomfort or
obstruction [94,95]. Overall, IMNGs hold great promise for improving the safety, reliability,
and convenience of implantable medical devices in the future. Therefore, researchers are
continuously working toward their development to make them practical for human use.

2.5.3. Nanotechnology and Anesthesia Induction

Anesthesia induction is a critical step in dental surgeries and other sensitive medical
procedures, such as brain surgeries. For such anesthesia induction procedures, researchers
are working on nanorobotic suspension mixtures that make a colloidal suspension with
millions of nanoscale active analgesic nanoparticles [96]. These nanoparticles work on
patients’ gingival and other sensitive portions and penetrate deep up to the level of loose
tissue. This passage of nanomaterials is conducted via the combinational principles of
chemical and temperature gradients and positional navigation that are monitored and
controlled by onsite nanocomputers [97]. This nanoscale anesthetic action helps to carry
out the desired effect, attained quickly with an even distribution of anesthetic in the
projected organ such as the dental surface. The sensitivity action can also be controlled for
a particular tooth for which surgical action is required. After the completion of surgeries,
nanorobots are controlled via nanocomputers to restore tooth sensitivity to normal [98].

2.6. Applications of Nanotechnology in Dentistry

Nanodentistry is a separate branch of nanomedicine that involves a broad range of ap-
plications of nanotechnology ranging from detection to diagnosis, to cure treatment options
and prognostic details about tooth functions [99]. A wide spectrum of oral health-related
issues can be dealt with using nanomaterials [100]. These nanomaterials derive their roots
from tissue engineering and biotechnologically manufactured dental nanorobotics [100,101].
Some recent advances under oral nanotechnology may include treatment options such
as anesthesia, dentition renaturalization, hypersensitivity cures, orthodontic realignment
problems, and modernized enameling options for the maintenance of oral health [99,102].
The nanoscale technology used for such functions are named mechanical dentifrobots.
They work to sensitize nerve impulse traffic at the core of the tooth in real-time calcula-
tion and hence could regulate the tooth tissue penetration and maintenance for normal
 Molecules 2023, 28, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 31

Molecules 2023, 28, 6624 12 of 30

The nanoscale technology used for such functions are named mechanical dentifro-
bots. They work to sensitize nerve impulse traffic at the core of the tooth in real-time cal-
culation and hence could regulate the tooth tissue penetration and maintenance for nor-
functioning [103]. The functioning is coupled with programmed nanocomputers to execute
mal functioning [103]. The functioning is coupled with programmed nanocomputers to
actions from external stimuli via connection with the localized internal nerve stimuli. These
execute actions from external stimuli via connection with the localized internal nerve stim-
mechanistic
uli. These insights could
mechanistic help dental
insights surgeons
could help dentalsuggest
surgeonsa strategic
suggest atreatment option that
strategic treatment
mayoption that may be conducted directly via in vivo nanorobot action using acousticelaborated
be conducted directly via in vivo nanorobot action using acoustic signals, as signals,
earlier [100–104].earlier
as elaborated Some[100–104].
of the applications
Some of the ofapplications
nanotechnology in the field ofindental
of nanotechnology science
the field of
have been compiled at the end of this section in Figure 3.
dental science have been compiled at the end of this section in Figure 3.

Figure
Figure 3. Major
3. Major applications
applications ofofnano-dentistry.
nano-dentistry.

2.6.1. Nanotechnologies,
2.6.1. Nanotechnologies,Tooth
ToothRepair,
Repair,and
andHypersensitivity Treatment
Hypersensitivity Treatment
Scientists areare
Scientists further
furtherworking
workingtotouseusenanotechnology
nanotechnology for forthe
thecreation
creationofofdental
dental cures
cures
andand treatment
treatment strategies.
strategies. This
This maymay include
include thethe stimulationofofthe
stimulation thenatural
naturalbiomineralization
biomineraliza-
tion process
process or the utilization
or the utilization of nanomaterials
of nanomaterials for artificial
for artificial toothtooth development
development withwith sen-
sensitivity
sitivity programed
programed by nanorobotics
by nanorobotics [100,105]. [100,105]. tryingare
They are They to trying
developto the
develop the tissue
hardest hardest tis-
enamel
sue enamel
by using by using
nanoscale nanoscale manufacturing
manufacturing of nanorods of nanorods
derived fromderived
calcium from calcium hydrox-
hydroxyapatite crys-
talsyapatite
to help crystals
regulatetothe
help regulate
function ofthe function
teeth. of teeth. Additionally,
Additionally, reconstructive reconstructive dental
dental nanoparticles
arenanoparticles are patients
utilized to offer utilized to offer patients
a rapid a rapid and
and long-term curelong-term cure against hypersensi-
against hypersensitivity [106].
tivity [106].
2.6.2. Tooth Repositioning and Renaturalization
Repositioning of the tooth is a matter of greater concern for patients as it sets the
basis for further cure or disruption of dental health in case of maladjustment. Orthodontic
nanorobots could be used in this case to manipulate tissues in such a way that a smooth
painless straightening, rotation, and repositioning of the tooth could be attained [107].
Moreover, with time, customers are more interested in improving the aesthetic standing of
their physical appearance, and so the concept of dental esthetics has emerged. In this regard,
Molecules 2023, 28, 6624 13 of 30

nanotechnology is considered to perform actions such as excavating dental amalgams or

remanufacturing teeth alongside fillings, crowns, and other such modifications [107,108].

2.6.3. Nanotechnology and Dental Durability

Much more effort is being put into securing dental durability and the appearance of
teeth in normal dentistry practices. Nanotechnology provides a more secure and long-
lasting solution in the form of nanostructured dental materials with carbon nanotubes that
provide fracture-resistant properties [109]. Additionally, simpler dentifrobots are being
incorporated into mouthwashes and toothpastes to replenish dental surfaces on a routine
basis for cleaning and continuous calculus debridement [110]. These dentifrobots have the
ability to highlight and destroy specific pathogenic bacteria from the mouth and retain the
useful oral microflora in a healthy balance [111]. All these benefits delay the conventional
causes and processes of dental decay with the remedial disappearance of oral diseases,
especially in the early years [100,112].

2.7. Applications of Nanotechnology in Oncology Field

2.7.1. Nanotechnology and Cancer Treatment Strategies
In the world of medicine, complex and incurable diseases such as cancer are always
given a special focus to find treatment and early diagnosis options for these modalities [113].
Nanotechnology is providing a good opportunity for researchers to develop such nano-
agents, fluorescent materials, molecular diagnostics kits, and specific targeted drugs that
may help to diagnose and cure disease in a better way in the future [114]. Scientists are
trying various protocols to conjugate already available drugs with nanoparticles to enhance
drug specificity and targeting in organs [113–115].
Nanomedicine acts as the carrier for hundreds of specific anticancerous molecules
that could be projected at tumor sites. Moreover, the tumor imaging and immunother-
apy approaches linked with nanomedicine must also be kept in mind when diving deep
into nanomedicine and cancer links [34]. The effectiveness of nanomaterials in cancer
therapies has pushed scientists to replace traditional cancer therapy approaches with
targeted therapies that may be utilized alone or in conjugation with already available
anti-cancerous drugs [16,34]. The focus is also being drawn toward lessening the impact
of chemotherapeutic drugs by increasing their tumor-targeting efficiency and improving
their pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties. Similarly, heat-induced ablation
treatment against cancer cells alongside gene therapy protocols are also being coupled with
nanorobotics [52].
Some other cancer treatment options, in the form of enhanced tissue imaging and
tumor microenvironments, as well as adjustment by the release of nanoparticle-bounded
drugs, are being practiced in the oncology field [59,116]. These nanomedicines hold the po-
tential to overcome drug solubility, instability, and resistance issues. Various nanomedicines
that act as anticancerous medicines are being researched, while some have been ap-
proved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and European Medicine Agency
(EMA) [117]. These anticancerous drugs may utilize the “Enhanced Permeation and Re-
tention Effect” (EPR effect) and/or active targeting of nano assemblies such as liposomes,
albumin nanospheres, micelles, and gold nanoparticles [118]. Some of the applications of
nanotechnology in the oncology field are discussed in the following section and a summary
(Figure 4) is shown at the end of this section.

2.7.2. Nanotechnology in Cancer Diagnosis

Cancer diagnosis is the most observable problem in cancer patients. Cancer largely
remains uncured due to late detection in the third or fourth stages. To fight this cause,
nanotechnology is being employed to allow early detection of tumors in organs [16].
Nanotechnology provides a very sensitive and specific multiplexed measurement capacity
to detect cancer biomarkers in extracellular settings and in vivo bioimaging techniques [19].
Nanotechnology has enormous potential in the field of cancer diagnosis. Nanoparticles are
Molecules 2023, 28, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 31
Molecules 2023, 28, 6624 14 of 30

osomes, albumin
incredibly nanospheres,
small and can penetrate micelles, and
cell walls andgold nanoparticles
the blood–brain [118].
barrier. Some
This of the
makes themappli-
ideal for
cations delivering drugs and
of nanotechnology other
in the therapeutic
oncology agents
field are to cancer
discussed incells. They can section
the following also be and
used to detect
a summary cancer
(Figure 4) cells and identify
is shown the location
at the end and nature of the disease [119].
of this section.

Figure 4. Applications of Nanotechnology in Oncology field.

Figure 4. Applications of Nanotechnology in Oncology field.

2.7.2. Nanotechnology in Cancerareas

One of the most promising Diagnosis
of nanotechnology in cancer diagnosis is the devel-
opment of targeted
Cancer nanoparticles.
diagnosis is the mostThese are nanoparticles
observable problem in designed
cancer to adhere specifically
patients. Cancer largely
to cancer cells, allowing them to be easily identified and targeted by doctors. This could
remains uncured due to late detection in the third or fourth stages. To fight this cause,
result in more accurate early detection, better monitoring of cancer progression, and faster
nanotechnology is being employed to allow early detection of tumors in organs [16]. Nan-
diagnosis [120]. Another promising application of nanotechnology in cancer diagnosis is
otechnology
in the development very sensitive
providesofabiosensors. and specific
Biosensors multiplexed
are small measurement
devices that capacity to
can detect specific
detect
biomarkers in a patient’s blood or other bodily fluids. These biomarkers can be indicative [19].
cancer biomarkers in extracellular settings and in vivo bioimaging techniques
Nanotechnology
of cancer and couldhasbeenormous potential
used to detect cancerinat the fieldstage
an early of cancer
[92,93].diagnosis. Nanoparticles
are incredibly smallnanotechnology
In conclusion, and can penetrate cell wallspotential
has enormous and the inblood–brain barrier.
the field of cancer This makes
diagnosis.
Withideal
them targeted nanoparticles
for delivering andand
drugs biosensors, it could help
other therapeutic in thetodevelopment
agents cancer cells. of a more
They can also
beaccurate, non-invasive
used to detect cancerand
cellseffective way to
and identify diagnose
the locationcancer. However,
and nature of thethe challenges
disease [119].
pertaining to such
One of the mostdiagnostic
promising kits remain
areas and the need is to
of nanotechnology inovercome these challenges
cancer diagnosis is the devel-
and update the nanotechnology-based diagnostic methods for cancer
opment of targeted nanoparticles. These are nanoparticles designed to adhere and other disease
specifically
diagnostics and prognoses in the future [19,120].
to cancer cells, allowing them to be easily identified and targeted by doctors. This could
result
2.7.3.inMultifunctional,
more accurate Multimodal,
early detection, better monitoring
Theranostics-Based of cancer
Anticancer progression, and faster
Therapy
diagnosis [120]. Another
Multifunctional promising
theranostics application
therapy of nanotechnology
is an emerging in cancer
field in cancer diagnosis
treatment that is
incombines
the development of biosensors. Biosensors are small devices that can
multiple modalities into a single treatment approach. This approach aims to bothdetect specific
biomarkers
diagnose and in atreat
patient’s
cancerblood
using or other bodilyNanomaterials,
nanomaterials. fluids. These biomarkers can be indicative
such as nanoparticles, are
ofhighly
cancerversatile
and could duebetoused
their to detectproperties
unique cancer atatanthe
early stage [92,93].
nanoscale [121]. They can be engi-
neered to have various
In conclusion, functionalities,has
nanotechnology such as imaging
enormous capabilities,
potential drug
in the delivery
field systems,
of cancer diagno-
and targeted therapy agents. By using these multifunctional nanomaterials,
sis. With targeted nanoparticles and biosensors, it could help in the development of a more theranostics
therapy non-invasive
accurate, can provide simultaneous
and effectivecancer
way todiagnosis
diagnose and treatment
cancer. [122]. the
However, In parallel, the per-
challenges
term multimodal refers to the combination of multiple treatment modalities in a single
taining to such diagnostic kits remain and the need is to overcome these challenges and
therapy [123]. In the context of theranostics therapy, multimodal treatment can involve dif-
update the nanotechnology-based diagnostic methods for cancer and other disease diag-
ferent approaches, such as chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and immunotherapy [124]. These
nostics and prognoses
modalities in the future
can be incorporated [19,120].
into nanomaterials used for therapy, allowing for targeted

2.7.3. Multifunctional, Multimodal, Theranostics-Based Anticancer Therapy

Multifunctional theranostics therapy is an emerging field in cancer treatment that
combines multiple modalities into a single treatment approach. This approach aims to
Molecules 2023, 28, 6624 15 of 30

delivery and enhanced efficacy. The theranostic approach also enables real-time monitoring
of treatment outcomes [124]. By incorporating imaging agents into nanomaterials, clinicians
can track the distribution and effectiveness of the therapy. This information helps guide
treatment decisions and allows for adjustments to optimize patient outcomes [123]. Thus,
the combination of multifunctional and multimodal theranostics therapy using nanomate-
rials holds great promise in the fight against cancer. It offers the potential for personalized
and targeted treatment, improved efficacy, and reduced side effects compared to traditional
cancer therapies [121,125].

2.7.4. Targeted Nano Drug Delivery Technology for Cancer Therapy

Targeted nano drug delivery technology for cancer therapy is a form of treatment that
uses nano-sized particles to deliver drugs specifically to cancer cells in the body. These
nanoparticles can be engineered to selectively bind to cancer cells, allowing the drugs to
be delivered directly to the tumor site, while minimizing damage to healthy tissues [5].
The development of targeted nano drug delivery systems has several advantages in cancer
therapy. Firstly, it can enhance the efficacy of the drugs by increasing their concentration
at tumor sites. This is especially important for drugs with low solubility or high toxicity
as it allows for higher doses to be delivered directly to the cancer cells [24]. Additionally,
targeted nano drug delivery systems can help overcome some limitations of traditional
chemotherapy, such as poor drug bioavailability or resistance. By encapsulating the drugs
within nanoparticles, their stability and solubility can be improved, leading to better drug
delivery and higher therapeutic effects [5,126].
There are various types of targeted nano drug delivery systems being explored, in-
cluding liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimers, and carbon nanotubes. These
nanoparticles can be functionalized with ligands or antibodies that specifically bind to
receptors or proteins overexpressed on the surface of cancer cells [127]. This targeting
moiety allows for the selective binding and internalization of nanoparticles into cancer cells,
enabling efficient drug delivery. Furthermore, targeted nano drug delivery systems can
also be combined with imaging agents, enabling real-time monitoring of drug distribution,
tumor targeting, and uptake [24,128]. This helps in tracking the therapeutic response and
adjustment of treatment protocols as needed [128]. Overall, targeted nano drug delivery
technology has the potential to revolutionize cancer therapy by improving the efficacy
and safety of drugs, minimizing systemic side effects, and enabling personalized medicine
approaches. However, further research and development is still needed to optimize these
systems and ensure their clinical translation [128,129].

2.7.5. Nanotech Based Magnetic Drug Delivery Technology and Cancer Therapy
Nanotechnology and magnetic drug delivery technology are both innovative ap-
proaches in the field of medicine that improve drug delivery and enhance treatment effec-
tiveness. Magnetic drug delivery technology utilizes the application of an external magnetic
field to guide drug-loaded nanoparticles to a specific site within the body [130]. Magnetic
nanoparticles can be functionalized with drugs and then injected into the bloodstream. By
applying a magnetic field externally, the nanoparticles can be directed toward the desired
location, such as a tumor [131]. This approach allows for more precise drug delivery,
minimizing systemic exposure and reducing side effects [39]. Similarly, by engineering
nanoparticles, researchers can create drug carriers with unique properties that are not in
conventional drug delivery systems [130–132]. These nanoparticles can be functionalized
and designed specifically to target diseased cells or tissues, improving drug concentration
at the desired site and minimizing off-target effects [131].
Additionally, nanoparticles can protect the drug payload from degradation, resulting
in improved stability and prolonged drug release. Thus, the combination of nanotech-
nology and magnetic drug delivery technology has shown promise in several areas of
medicine [130]. For example, in cancer treatment, magnetic nanoparticles can be used
to deliver chemotherapy drugs directly to tumors, increasing drug concentration at the
Molecules 2023, 28, 6624 16 of 30

tumor site and reducing toxicity in healthy tissues. This approach can enhance treatment
efficacy while minimizing adverse effects [133]. Furthermore, magnetic drug delivery
can also be utilized in targeted therapy for other diseases, such as neurological disorders.
Nanoparticles loaded with neuroactive drugs can be guided to specific regions in the
brain using externally applied magnetic fields, allowing for more targeted treatment and
potential reduction in systemic side effects [133]. Thus, the integration of nanotechnology
and magnetic drug delivery technology has the potential to revolutionize drug delivery by
improving targeting, reducing side effects, and enhancing treatment outcomes. Ongoing
research and development in this field hold great promise for the future of medicine.

2.8. Other Applications of Nanotechnology in the Medical Field

2.8.1. Applications of Nanotechnology in Medical Machinery
As nanotechnology is making progress in the field of medicine and biological sciences,
eyes are on the board as to how this technology will bring revolution to medical machin-
ery [25]. It is predicted that soon, micro and nanoscale materials will be integrated with
useful robotic characteristics that may include nanoscale manipulator arms, sorting rotors,
reagent purification kits, and super diagnostic surfaces that will be modeled to respond to
particular disease diagnostics and treatment. These nanomaterials and robotic connections
are assumed to be controlled via nanocomputers [25,134].
Nanocomputers are expected to control, activate, deactivate, and deter the response
rates of nanomechanical devices [134]. They will be programed to execute specified medical
and dental operations with a connection to a wider network of interconnected nanocom-
puters, such as programmed nanomachines and robotics, which have the potential to
allow physicians and clinicians to perform precise medical procedures at a subcellular
level [135–137]. Furthermore, these robotic elements are expected to work in gerontological
and pharmaceutical research phases, diagnostics, and dentistry [138].

2.8.2. Nanotechnology and Veterinary Medicine

In addition to the application of nanomedicine to humans, beneficial applications of
nanomedicine are now being used on animals. Multiple variations of nanovaccines and
nanoadjuvants have started their way into veterinary sciences [11,139]. The previously
used animals’ therapeutic, diagnostic, treatment, and veterinary vaccinations along with
disinfection, breeding, reproduction, and nutritional concerns are now being modernized
using the concept of nanotechnology [139].
Nanotechnology has the potential to revolutionize the field of veterinary medicine,
offering new diagnostic tools and treatment options for animals. In the area of diagnostics,
nanotechnology can improve the accuracy and sensitivity of diagnostic tests used to detect
various diseases [140]. Nanoparticles can be engineered to bind to specific biomarkers in
the body that are indicative of disease, allowing for early detection and treatment [140]. In
the field of therapeutics, nanotechnology can improve drug delivery systems, enhancing
drug efficacy while minimizing side effects. Nanoparticles can be designed to improve
drug solubility, stability, and specificity, ensuring that drugs reach their intended targets
and remain active for longer periods of time [139–142].
Additionally, nanotechnology can be used to develop novel vaccines and immunother-
apies, as well as new tools for regenerative medicine. For instance, nanoparticles can be
used to create scaffolds for tissue engineering and repair, promoting the growth of new tis-
sue and accelerating healing processes [73,85,86]. The use of such small-scale nanomedicine
shows a direct impact on public health due to the interconnectedness among humans and
animals within the same living environment. The effort is going on to increase meat and
milk production, leading to a reduction in vaccine residues and drug resistance problems in
veterinary medicine [142,143]. Moreover, this medicinal revolution remains cost-effective
and helps to minimize the amount of discarded milk and meat products. In addition to
that, in modern pet care, nutritional and hygienic products are also being introduced in
the market under the genesis of successful practices in nanotechnology [143]. Overall,
Molecules 2023, 28, 6624 17 of 30

nanotechnology offers exciting possibilities for improving animal health and welfare and
has the potential to revolutionize veterinary medicine.

2.8.3. Nano Sensors, Nano Microbivores and Chemical Warfare Technology

Nanosensors refer to small devices that can detect and analyze chemical or biological
agents at the molecular level. They have various applications, including monitoring air
quality and detecting pathogens in food and water [12]. Nano-microbivors, on the other
hand, are small (microscopic) organisms that can consume or break down contaminants
such as organic chemicals and heavy metals in the environment [17]. They can be used for
bioremediation purposes and for treating contaminated soil and groundwater [144,145].
There is an interlink between these concepts, in that nanosensors and nano-microbivors can
be used in the detection and remediation of chemical warfare agents [146]. For example,
nanosensors can be developed to detect the presence of chemical warfare agents in air
or water, while nano-microbivors can be used to break down or detoxify these agents in
the environment [146,147]. In this way, these technologies are important tools in ensuring
national and global security.
A new wave of nanosensors is being developed to be utilized for military purposes
against detection of airborne and released chemical agents that could be easily exhaled and
inhaled with toxic outcomes [12,17]. Phagocytes have a cellular clearing digestive function;
based on this principle, artificially designed nanoscale microbiomes are being used in
studies to clean the bloodstream by digesting toxic pathogens [146]. They perform this
function in a very limited time as compared to other medication options without causing
any toxicity or septic shock conditions. A similar principle of action will be utilized to
detect the amount of inhaled prohibited drugs such as marijuana, banned substances, and
alcohol concentrations in individuals, against which the use of such substances is strictly
prohibited in patients [148]. Such advanced technologies may take the place of traditional
procedures, which are extensive and time-consuming diagnostic procedures.

2.8.4. Nanomedicine and COVID-19

During the COVID-19 pandemic, nanomedicine has played a crucial role in developing
diagnostic tools, treatment strategies, and vaccine delivery methods. The link between
the coronavirus and nanoparticles based on size and function is relatively straightforward.
In terms of size, both the virus particles and nanoparticles are tiny particles with a size
on the nanoscale [149]. This small size allows them to interact with each other on a very
tiny scale. Similarly, in terms of functional similarities, nanoparticles can be engineered or
designed to have specific functions. For example, some nanoparticles can be coated with
molecules that make them stick to viruses such as the coronavirus [150]. This function is
essential because it allows nanoparticles to “grab onto” the virus. Thus, in the context of
the coronavirus, scientists have explored how nanoparticles can be used in various ways
including detection, treatment, and protective responses. Nanoparticles can be designed to
bind to specific parts of the coronavirus. When they attach to the virus, they can change
color or emit light, making it easier for scientists and doctors to detect the presence of the
virus in a sample, such as a patient’s blood or saliva [151]. Similarly, nanoparticles can also
be used to deliver medicines directly to the virus or infected cells. Think of nanoparticles as
tiny delivery vehicles that can carry antiviral drugs right to the site of infection, potentially
making treatments more effective [152]. In addition, regarding the protective technologies
against COVID-19, Some masks and face coverings have been designed with nanoparticle
coatings that can trap and neutralize viruses, including the coronavirus, when they come
into contact with the mask’s surface [149,151]. Furthermore, nanoparticles have been used
to create highly sensitive and specific diagnostic tests that can detect SARS-CoV-2 in patient
samples [149]. Nanoparticles have also been used to develop therapeutics that can directly
target the virus, as well as improve the delivery and efficacy of existing drugs [149].
In addition, nanotechnology has been used to improve the stability and efficacy of
vaccines, as well as develop new delivery methods such as nasal sprays and microneedle
Molecules 2023, 28, 6624 18 of 30

patches [149,150]. These approaches can help increase vaccine accessibility and effective-
ness, particularly in resource-limited settings. The breakthrough and rapid responses
coming from nanomedicine can be ascertained by the fact that nanotechnology is also
being utilized for vaccine drug manufacturing technologies against COVID-19 [151]. Since
nanomedicine has already proven its benefits for disease diagnosis, treatment, and preven-
tion, it is being employed to tackle the pandemic. Now, nano-based technology is on hand
and is being considered for utilization in manufacturing antiviral technology to integrate
into personalized medical equipment and to manufacture nano-based drugs [150,151]. The
sole purpose is the greater safety of medical workers and to save patients suffering from
the impediments of the coronavirus with more sensitive medicine and machinery.
In this regard nanomaterials, such as quantum dots, are being introduced into biosen-
sors for diagnostics experiments and other nanoassemblies, such as liposomes, polymeric
and lipid nanoparticles, metallic nanoparticles, and micelles, which are being utilized for
antiviral drug encapsulation and drug conjugation [150–153]. The great benefit would be
increased pharmacological impact and more efficient drug targeting. Studies are showing
that these antiviral properties of nanoparticles function by blocking the binding, entry, and
replication of coronavirus in the body [154]. With this technology, the toxicity linked to
normal body cells owing to nanoparticle application is the major factor of concern and thus
needs to be investigated and improved for future applications [155]. Overall, nanomedicine
holds great promise in the fight against COVID-19 and could potentially revolutionize
the way we diagnose, treat, and prevent infectious diseases in the future. Figure 5 below
shows the link between nanoparticles and coronavirus in terms of the chemistry of the
structure, size, and functionality that could be used as an exemplary overview as to how
Molecules 2023, 28, x FOR PEER REVIEW
nanotechnology could be majorly utilized to discover antiviral treatments in the 20 offuture.
31
Commercial applications of nanotechnology in medical field are summarized in Table 2.

Figure
Figure 5. link
5. A A link between
between coronavirus
coronavirus andand nanoparticles
nanoparticles basedbased onand
on size sizefunction.
and function.

Table 2. Examples of nanotechnological applications and their commercialization in the medical

field.

Examples of
Nanotechnological
Applications and
Sr. No. Their Brief Explanation References
Commercialized
Cases in Medical
Field
Nanoparticles can be used to deliver drugs directly to
Drug delivery targeted areas, improving their efficacy and reducing
1 [5,15,24,28]
Molecules 2023, 28, 6624 19 of 30

Table 2. Examples of nanotechnological applications and their commercialization in the medical field.

Examples of Nanotechnological
Sr. No. Applications and Their Commercialized Brief Explanation References
Cases in Medical Field
Nanoparticles can be used to deliver drugs directly to
targeted areas, improving their efficacy and reducing
1 Drug delivery systems [5,15,24,28]
side effects. Examples include Abraxane (paclitaxel
nanoparticles) and Doxil (liposomal doxorubicin).
Nanotechnology-based platforms can detect cancer
biomarkers with high sensitivity and specificity. One
2 Cancer diagnostics example is MagArray, a magnetic [113–115]
nanotechnology-based biosensor for breast
cancer diagnosis.
Nanomaterials such as nanofibers and nanocomposites
can be used to construct artificial tissues and scaffolds
3 Tissue engineering to promote tissue regeneration and repair, as seen in [16,17,156]
the commercialized case of CardioCel for
cardiovascular tissue repair.
Nanoparticles can enhance the contrast of medical
imaging techniques such as MRI, CT, and PET scans.
4 Imaging agents [19,133,157,158]
Feridex (iron oxide nanoparticles) is an example of a
commercialized MRI contrast agent.
Nanoscale antibacterial agents can be incorporated into
medical devices such as catheters to prevent infections.
5 Antibacterial coatings [6,69,70,77]
The commercial product Nano-Silver Catheter is one
such example.
Quantum dots or gold nanoparticles can be engineered
to detect and quantify target molecules, enabling
6 Diagnostic nanoparticles highly sensitive medical diagnostics. ClearLight™ [118,129,155]
Diagnostics uses quantum dots for molecular imaging
in tissue diagnostics.
Nanofabricated sensors can detect disease-related
biomarkers and monitor conditions in real-time, such
7 Biosensors as glucose monitoring devices for diabetes [12,17,20,21,26]
management, for example, FreeStyle Libre.
Nanofiber-based dressings and coatings can accelerate
8 Wound healing [159]
wound healing by promoting
Nanoparticles can be loaded with therapeutic agents
such as chemotherapy drugs or gene therapies,
9 Chemotherapy allowing targeted treatment of cancer cells. Examples [4,16,32,39,40,160]
include Doxil (liposomal doxorubicin) and Onivyde
(nanoliposomal irinotecan).
Nanomaterials can stimulate tissue regeneration and
10 Regenerative medicine repair, such as the commercialized product [73,79,85]
BioCartilage for osteochondral defects.
Nanotechnology can assist in designing and
fabricating artificial organs with improved functional
11 Artificial organs [85,161]
properties. The HeartWare™ Ventricular Assist System
is a commercialized example for heart failure patients.
Nanosensors can detect early-stage diseases through
biomarker analysis, potentially enabling early
12 Early disease detection intervention and improved outcomes. [16,19,52,92,93]
CarisomeOvarian is a nanosensor-based test for early
detection of ovarian cancer.
Tiny nanorobots can be engineered to perform specific
13 Nanorobots for targeted therapy [91,92,99]
medical tasks, such as delivering drugs or unclogging.

14 Nanomaterials are used in dental restoration materials,

Dental applications such as nanocomposites [99–105]

Nanotechnology enables high-throughput screenings

and drug design methods, accelerating the discovery
15 Drug discovery of new therapeutic compounds. The commercialized [112,115–120]
product Nanotax uses nanotechnology for
drug discovery.
Molecules 2023, 28, 6624 20 of 30

2.9. Toxicology and Safety Analyses of Nanotechnologies

The side effects of nanotechnology are of great concern for humans, animals, and the
overall environment. While the toxicity attached to these assemblies is poorly understood,
the scientific community remains unsure as to what level they can extend the applications
of nanotechnology, especially in medicine, which is quite a sensitive domain of health-
care [142]. In previous years, some nano-based products were introduced but later pulled
back from the market owing to the reported side effects in the general public. The risk
assessment of nanomedicine is thus a critical topic and needs to be assessed soon [145].
The need is to prioritize experiments for nanoparticle safety, dosing adjustment, and
usage. The miracles of nanotechnology itself can be used in sensors and markers for
biological, chemical, and environmental remediations [162]. Toxicity profiling of consumer
products should be specifically carried out. Skin care and dental products containing
different nanomaterial liposomes, cubosomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, and dendrimers
must be specifically assessed, and their side effects must be determined so that more
modified, effective, and harmless nanoemulsions can be introduced and utilized in the
future [163].
Similarly, the issue of bioaccumulation and persistence is attached to nanotechnology.
Nanomaterials have the potential to persist in the environment for extended periods and ac-
cumulate in living organisms [162–164]. This can lead to potentially adverse effects on both
human health and ecosystems. Additionally, in healthcare settings, medical professionals
who handle nanomaterials may be at risk of potential exposure through inhalation, dermal
contact, or ingestion. Safe handling practices and adequate protective measures must be
implemented to minimize exposure risks [165]. Moreover, the use of nanomaterials in
medical applications also raises ethical considerations regarding informed consent, privacy,
equity of access, and potential impacts on vulnerable populations. There is a need to
address these ethical concerns to ensure the fair and responsible use of nanomaterials in
healthcare [166].
To ensure the safe and sustainable use of nanomaterials in the medical field, several
measures can be implemented, such as rigorous and comprehensive risk assessments,
which should be conducted to evaluate the potential hazards and risks associated with
specific nanomaterials before their deployment in medical applications. Similarly, adequate
regulatory frameworks should be in place to ensure the safe production, handling, and
utilization of nanomaterials [142,166]. This includes the evaluation of their safety, labeling
requirements, and monitoring of their effects in healthcare settings. Additionally, standard-
ized testing methods should be developed to assess the safety and efficacy of nanomaterials
for medical use. This includes standardized protocols for toxicity testing, characterization,
and quality control. Furthermore, strict control measures should be implemented to mini-
mize occupational exposure to nanomaterials [165]. This includes the use of engineering
controls, personal protective equipment, and employee training programs. Moreover, trans-
parent communication about the potential risks and benefits associated with nanomaterials
is essential for establishing trust among stakeholders, including healthcare professionals,
patients, and the general public [165,166].
The need is to prioritize experiments for nanoparticle safety, dosing adjustment,
and usage. The miracles of nanotechnology itself can be used to produce sensors and
markers for biological, chemical, and environmental remediations [166]. Toxicity profiling
of consumer products should be specifically carried out. Skin care and dental products
containing different nonmaterial liposomes, cubosomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, and
dendrimers must be specifically assessed, and their side effects must be determined so that
more modified, effective, and harmless nano-emulsions can be introduced and utilized
in the future [145,166]. Overall, by evaluating potential risks, implementing appropriate
regulatory measures, and promoting responsible use, nanomaterials can be safely and
sustainably utilized in the medical field for improved diagnostics, drug delivery, and
disease treatment.
Molecules 2023, 28, 6624 21 of 30

2.10. Future Prospects Regarding Nano-Medical Applications

Nanomaterials hold significant promise for various biomedical advancements and
industrial applications. However, their unique physicochemical properties raise concerns
about their potential impact on human health and the environment. In order for medical
nanomaterials to enter the market, there are many obstacles to overcome, such as FDA
certifications and permits, as well as safety and ethical concerns. In recent years, regulatory
bodies worldwide have focused on developing appropriate frameworks to ensure the safe
and responsible use of nanomaterials. Such an issue should be addressed more intensively
in the coming years of nanotech research. Review papers, in this regard, should aim
to provide researchers, policymakers, and industry professionals with a comprehensive
understanding of the recent regulatory affairs surrounding nanomaterials. By critically
examining the current state of nanomaterial regulation, this paper highlights the need
for harmonization and collaboration among regulatory agencies worldwide. Regulating
industrialization affairs surrounding nanomaterials in medical sciences involves several
steps. It is important to note that these steps provide a general framework, but the specific
details and processes may vary depending on the jurisdiction and specific requirements
of each country or region. A general outline of the process is provided in a table format
(Table 3) below. Steps needed to regulate the industrial affairs of nanotechnology are shown
in Table 4.

Table 3. FDA approved and commercialized nanomedicines.

Sr. No. Names of Products Brief Explanation References

Patisiran is used to treat hereditary
transthyretin-mediated amyloidosis (hATTR),
a rare genetic disease. It works by targeting
Patisiran (Onpattro® )—FDA-approved lipid and silencing the gene responsible for
nanoparticles (LNPs) are a type of delivery producing transthyretin, a protein that forms
1. system used in RNA interference (RNAi) drugs. abnormal amyloid deposits in tissues such as [164,167–169]
RNAi is a biological process that regulates gene the nerves and heart. LNPs are crucial in
expression by silencing specific genes. delivering a small piece of RNA (siRNA) that
specifically binds to and prevents the
production of the disease-causing
transthyretin protein.
Comirnaty® is the brand name for the
mRNA-LNP vaccine developed by
Pfizer-BioNTech, while Spikevax® is the
mRNA-LNP vaccine produced by Moderna.
These vaccines use messenger RNA (mRNA)
technology to provide instructions to the
body’s cells to produce a harmless piece of the
spike protein found on the SARS-CoV-2 virus.
Comirnaty® and Spikevax® —both are
2. The LNPs in these vaccines act as delivery [160,161,164,167–169]
mRNA-LNPs, based COVID-19 vaccines
vehicles to protect and transport the mRNA
into the cells. The cells then use these
instructions to produce the spike protein,
enabling the immune system to recognize and
mount a defense against the spike protein.
This immune response prepares the body to
defend against a subsequent infection with the
actual SARS-CoV-2 virus.
Molecules 2023, 28, 6624 22 of 30

Table 4. Steps needed to regulate industrialization affairs surrounding nanomaterials in the

medical sciences.

Sr. No. Steps Needed for Industrial Regulation Brief Explanation References
There is need to conduct a comprehensive risk
assessment to understand the potential risks associated
1 Risk assessment: with the use of nanomaterials in medical applications. [170]
Evaluate the toxicity, exposure pathways, and potential
environmental impacts of these materials.
Develop a regulatory framework specifically tailored to
govern the industrialization of nanomaterials in medical
2 Regulatory framework sciences. This framework should consider existing [170–172]
regulations and guidelines but also address the unique
properties and potential risks posed by nanomaterials.
Establish criteria for classifying and characterizing
different types of nanomaterials used in medical sciences.
This should include their physical and chemical
3 Classification and characterization [170,173]
properties, intended uses, and potential risks. This
information will assist in determining appropriate
regulations and handling requirements
Introduce a registration or approval process for
nanomaterials used in medical applications.
Manufacturers must submit detailed information about
4 Product registration and safety assessment the materials, including their synthesis methods, [173,174]
intended applications, potential hazards, and safety data.
Conduct a thorough safety assessment based on this
information before granting approvals.
Implement labeling requirements to ensure proper
identification and traceability of medical products that
contain nanomaterials. Labels should provide clear
5 Labeling and traceability [174,175]
information about the presence of nanomaterials, their
type, concentration, and any potential risks associated
with their use.
Establish manufacturing standards and best practices
specifically for nanomaterials used in medical
applications. These standards should address issues such
6 Manufacturing standards [170,173]
as quality control, handling, storage, transportation, and
waste management, considering the unique properties
of nanomaterials.
Develop a surveillance system to monitor the usage,
performance, and safety of nanomaterials in medical
7 Monitoring and surveillance sciences. Regularly review and update regulations based [174]
on emerging scientific evidence, advancements in
technology, and any new risks identified.
Foster collaboration and information-sharing initiatives
with other regulatory bodies and international
Collaboration and international organizations to harmonize standards and regulations
8 [175]
harmonization for nanomaterials used in medical sciences. This will
help avoid duplication of efforts, facilitate global trade,
and ensure a consistent level of safety worldwide.
Engage the public, stakeholders, and healthcare
professionals in the regulatory process. Conduct public
consultations, disseminate information about regulations,
9 Public engagement and communication and address concerns raised by various stakeholders. [175]
Effective communication will help build trust and ensure
transparency in the regulation of nanomaterials in
medical sciences.

3. Materials and Methods

A comprehensive search strategy was adopted for this systematic review to include
data from diverse, recent, and the most cited sources of study.
Molecules 2023, 28, 6624 23 of 30

3.1. Search Strategy

Data were collected via a systematic literature search through various online sources
including Google Scholar, PubMed, NIH (National Library of Medicine), Web of Science,
European database, Springer, and Embase databases. Since the study was focused on
the applications of nanotechnology in medicine and healthcare, the major research items
were “nanotechnology”, “nanobiotechnology”, “nanomedicine”, “nanotechnology and
medical applications”, “nanotechnology and diagnosis”, “nanotechnology and treatment”,
“nanotechnology and drug-delivery”, and “nanotechnology and healthcare and esthetics”,
among other similar search terms. After a thorough analysis of titles and abstracts of
publications related to applications of nanotechnology in the medical and healthcare
industry, the data was selected to be part of this study. Only studies published in the
English language were included in this study. Moreover, only data from 2010 onwards
were included in the article.

3.2. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

Multiple types of sources were used, including data from research articles, book
chapters, review articles, case reports, clinical trials, and case studies published starting
beginning in 2010. Studies with incomplete citations and published before 2010 were
excluded from the study.

4. Conclusions
The future of nanotechnology in healthcare and medicine holds immense potential
for revolutionizing the way we diagnose, treat, and prevent diseases. Nanotechnology
involves the manipulation of materials at such a small scale where the properties of ma-
terials significantly differ from their bulk counterparts, allowing for precise control of
their physical, chemical, and biological properties. This opens up new opportunities for
developing novel therapies, targeted drug delivery systems, and sensitive diagnostic tools.
In addition to drug delivery, targeted delivery, improved drugs, limited dosages, and
reduced systematic side effects, nanoparticles can also be used to enhance the efficacy of
existing drugs by improving their solubility, stability, and bioavailability. Additionally,
nanotechnology-based sensors and devices can monitor patient health in real-time, enabling
early detection and personalized treatment plans. In the future, nanotechnology may even
enable the development of nanorobots that can navigate through the bloodstream to target
and destroy cancer cells or deliver payloads of drugs to particular tissues.
The broad spectrum of nanomedicine covered in this article may be lacking in various
other aspects of nanomedicine still in the research pipeline. The vision of nanotechnology
might seem heretic and abstract, similar to the in silico experimentation and computational
bioinformatics field that was criticized a few years back. However, the field of nanobiotech-
nology is rapidly appearing as a cutting-edge technology of the 21st century, with diverse
implications in science and technology. The theoretical knowledge is there, and applied
research is ongoing to make it more progressive. It is predicted that soon, nanotechnology
will not remain an option but rather be compulsory in the medical industry. As soon as the
cost associated with technology becomes accessible, it is predicted to affect our dentistry,
healthcare, and human life more profoundly than in the past. The major need is to curtail
the toxicological concerns and risks that are attached to high doses and the excessive use
of nanomaterials in drug and treatment regimes. This is important if scientists want to
enable the successful operation of nanotechnology in medicine. Overall, the future of
nanotechnology in healthcare and medicine holds great promise for improving patient
outcomes and revolutionizing the way we approach disease prevention and treatment.
Molecules 2023, 28, 6624 24 of 30

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.M., K.M. and Y.W.; methodology, S.M., K.M. and Y.W.;
validation, S.M., K.M. and Y.W.; formal analysis, S.M., K.M. and Y.W.; resources, K.M. and Y.W.; data
curation, S.M., K.M. and Y.W.; writing—original draft preparation, S.M., K.M. and Y.W.; writing—
review and editing, S.M., K.M. and Y.W.; supervision, Y.W.; funding acquisition, K.M. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: K.M.’s work was supported by the United Arab Emirates University UPAR-Grant#G3458.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not Applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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