Results in Engineering 22 (2024) 102281

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Results in Engineering
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Strength, durability and finite element analysis of hybrid jute/basalt fiber

reinforced polymer confined concrete column under axial compression
D. Akhil Varma a, Lakshmi Joseph a, Mini K. Madhavan a, **, Karingamanna Jayanarayanan b, c, *,
Alessandro Pegoretti d
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Amrita School of Engineering, Coimbatore, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, India
b
Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Amrita School of Engineering, Coimbatore, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, India
c
Center of Excellence in Advanced Materials and Green Technologies (CoE-AMGT), Amrita School of Engineering, Coimbatore, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, India
d
Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Trento, Via Sommarive 9, 38123, Trento, Italy

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Implementing retrofitting measures for a civil structure may guarantee its ongoing safety and operation, while
Compressive strength also extending its lifespan. The present investigation focused on the examination of compressive axial loads on
Concrete columns concrete columns that were confined by natural fiber reinforced polymer (FRP). In particular, concrete cylinders
Confinement
confined with jute and basalt fiber epoxy composites were evaluated for their strength and durability. Various
Ductility index
Energy absorption
strength tests were conducted on unconfined and, jute, basalt, and hybrid jute-basalt FRP confined concrete
Epoxy cylinders with varying thicknesses of the FRP layers. Effectiveness of these natural FRP systems in providing
Fiber reinforced polymers external confinement to concrete columns in various environmental conditions were investigated, including
Finite element analysis exposure to acidic, alkaline, seawater, and potable water environments. Test results demonstrated that external
Hybrid fiber wrapping confinement with hybrid FRP wraps, i.e. with both jute and basalt fibers, enhanced the load-bearing and energy
Retrofitting absorption capacities by 63.64 % and 287 %, respectively. The confinement effectiveness of FRP wrapped
specimens were 213 %, 164 %, 166 % and 163 % respectively compared to the unconfined specimens after
exposure to acidic, alkaline, seawater and potable water environments. These impressive outcomes may be
ascribed to the intrinsic rigidity of hybrid fibers. Furthermore, a finite element analysis (FEA) model of FRP
confined concrete columns was performed using ABAQUS software calibrated with the experimental data. A
close agreement between the experimental results and the adopted numerical model was observed. The outcome
of the study suggests that the confinement with natural FRP can be used as a prominent retrofitting technique for
columns in a variety of environments which can thus enhance the durability and sustainability of civil
constructions.

1. Introduction existing structure must be conducted to assess the extent of the degen­
eration or deficiency. Besides, rebuilding work needs to be done in
Retrofitting with fiber reinforced polymers (FRPs) aims to strengthen compliance with relevant building codes and standards, to ensure the
existing concrete columns to enhance their performance and service life. safety and durability of the structure. Retrofitting of concrete columns is
This is extremely important when a column is found to be deficient in a complex process that requires careful planning and execution.
some way, such as when it has unconcealed cracks, inability to bear the Jacketing is a technique where a new layer of concrete, steel or FRP is
stipulated load, or non-compliant with prevailing building codes and added around the existing column to improve its strength and endur­
industry standards [1]. Columns can be strengthened through various ance. In columns with circular cross-sections, transverse fiber rein­
techniques - jacketing and ductility retrofitting. Prior to plan any forcement is used to enhance the confinement of concrete. Jacketing is
reconstructive work, a systematic inspection and evaluation of the often resorted to in cases where the extant column is structurally sound,

* Corresponding author. Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Amrita School of Engineering, Coimbatore, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham,
India.
** Corresponding author. Department of Civil Engineering, Amrita School of Engineering, Coimbatore, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, India
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (M.K. Madhavan), [email protected] (K. Jayanarayanan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2024.102281
Received 3 April 2024; Received in revised form 11 May 2024; Accepted 15 May 2024
Available online 17 May 2024
2590-1230/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc/4.0/).
D.A. Varma et al. Results in Engineering 22 (2024) 102281

but requires additional strength to support new or increased loads [2]. like jute, silk, pineapple, and abaca with standard epoxy resin, polyester
Several jacketing techniques can be used for the retrofit of concrete resin, thixotropic epoxy resin and concrete was proposed [28]. The
columns, including reinforced concrete jacketing, steel jacketing, FRP extent of concrete damage progression was evaluated by ultrasonic pulse
jacketing and Textile Reinforced Mortar (TRM) jacketing. Ductility velocity test [29].
retrofitting of columns, on the other hand, entails addition of new ma­ Based on the previous studies and reports, improvement in the me­
terials or reinforcement bars, to enhance the column’s ductility or ability chanical and durability performance of concrete columns wrapped with
to deform without breaking. This technique is pursued in cases where natural fibers bonded with epoxy is of high practical significance.
the existing column is vulnerable to brittle failure, ensued by inadequate Therefore, this study examines the mechanical and durability properties
reinforcement or low-quality concrete [3]. Jacketing is a more reliable of the hybrid FRP confinement made of jute and basalt systems for
method than ductile retrofitting. FRP jacketing process is quicker and concrete strengthening and retrofitting. Jute fibers are natural fibers
easier in comparison with other retrofitting techniques. This procedure obtained from the jute plant and have multiple desirable characteristics
includes enveloping the column with FRP sheets or strips to establish a such as biodegradability after service life, low cost, better tensile
confinement for the concrete column on the outside layer, resulting in strength and easy availability. However, jute fibers also have certain
enhanced strength of the column and ductility [4]. FRPs provide notable limitations like poor resistance to moisture and susceptibility to bio­
attributes such as easy installation, resistance to corrosion, a high ratio logical attacks which can be limited by the inert basalt fibers if located as
of strength to weight, and improved tensile strength. These qualities outer layers [30]. Basalt fibers are derived from basalt rocks through a
make them highly valuable materials for structural rehabilitation pur­ process of melting and conversion of the resulting melt into fibers. These
poses [5,6]. fibers possess advantageous characteristics such as high tensile strength,
The enhanced strength and resistance to cracking and deformation non-toxicity and inertness, resistance to UV radiation and chemicals.
provided by FRPs improves the durability and service life of the jacketed Additionally, they exhibit exceptional impact resistance, excellent
column. Glass and carbon fibers are flame-resistant, which concurrently thermal and acoustic insulation, and can withstand temperatures
raises the fire resistance of fiber-jacketed columns. It was also observed ranging from − 260 ◦ C to 700 ◦ C. Furthermore, basalt fibers are more
that various hybrid arrangements of carbon fiber reinforced cementi­ economical when compared to other commonly used fibers such as
tious matrix increased the strain, energy dissipation capacity, and carbon, kevlar, and fiberglass. It should be noted that, apart from
strength of the columns [7,8]. FRP and cementitious mortar are merely a increasing compressive strength, FRP confinement increased ductility
few of the applications for high-strength fibers, such as bonding fiber and fracture energy of wrapped concrete specimens [31].
meshes (or grids) to structural members with an inorganic matrix. The This study evaluates the performance of individual Jute FRP (JFRP)
dense matrix layers and the high fabric strength afford a significant and Basalt FRP (BFRP) systems along with Hybrid Jute Basalt FRP
degree of thermal resistance [9,10]. Reconstruction of different mem­ (HJBFRP) systems as a strengthening system in concrete. An attempt is
bers of concrete buildings to extend their service life by the usage of made to evaluate the behavior of the confined concrete specimens in
natural fibers is remarkable [11–13]. However, the choice of the axial compression, energy absorption and ductile characteristics of
appropriate type and the quantity of fibers must be carefully considered HJBFRP confined concrete columns under various environmental con­
to ensure optimal performances and compatibility with the concrete mix ditions, namely acidic, alkaline, sea water, and potable water exposure.
design. Furthermore, their stress strain behavior, ductility, and axial load car­
Hybrid FRP confinements have been proven to be capable to increase rying capacity are analyzed. Besides, a finite element model of the
the ductility, energy absorption, and load-bearing capacity of concrete concrete column confined by the HJBFRP system was simulated using
[14,15]. An analysis of the usage of natural fiber composites as a sub­ ABAQUS software [32], to predict the failure pattern of hybrid HJBFRP
stitute for traditional materials and the corresponding sustainability systems. The current study can throw light on the possibility of
aspect is reported [16,17]. The confinement of concrete columns by jute employing natural hybrid FRP as a replacement to the commonly used
and sisal fibers improved its load-bearing and energy absorption prop­ costly synthetic FRPs like carbon, glass etc. and can thus bring sustain­
erties [18]. The mechanical behavior under axial loads of square and ability in construction. The plant based jute fiber is protected by the
circular columns was investigated when fiber reinforced polymer com­ outer layer of basalt fiber to improve the durability of the proposed
posites were encased [19,20]. When square columns having side length confinement.
same as the diameter of circular columns were compared, the circular
column had greater confinement effect even though the axial surface 2. Materials
area is higher for the square column, and the layer count increased their
compression strength and deformability. Hoop reinforcement is found to The main materials used in this experimental study are M20 concrete
be effective in strengthening square-shaped columns that are shear with mix proportion of 1:1.5:3 of cement, fine aggregate and coarse
sensitive. They provide better stability as well as enhanced confinement aggregate respectively, jute and basalt bi-directional fibers and epoxy as
effects around the column perimeter [21]. matrix for FRP. A concrete mixer was employed to blend the components
Due to its high durability, axial strength, high strength-to-weight of concrete, while a concrete vibrator was utilized to compact the con­
ratio, stiffness, and chemical resistance, epoxy resin is commonly used crete into steel molds. The concrete cylinders were made using steel
for bonding FRP systems to surfaces of concrete. However, on exposure molds with a diameter of 150 mm and a height of 300 mm. Water which
to harsh environmental conditions, epoxy resin degrades over time [22, is free from organic matter and having a pH value of 7 is utilized for
23]. Comparison between carbon/epoxy FRP and hybrid glass/polyester concrete mixing.
FRP systems revealed that arrangements of fibers in hybrid offers an
economic solution [24,25]. The variability of the stress strain curve 2.1. Concrete
decreases as the strain increments increase in hybrid glass – basalt FRP
systems [14]. However, before wide-scale deployment, the durability A target strength of 20 MPa was set for the concrete cylinder speci­
characteristics of FRP confinement need to be addressed, as they are mens prepared in accordance with IS 12269:2013, utilizing Portland
impacted significantly by high temperatures in terms of bonding, Pozzolana cement of Grade 53 [33]. The material requirement for the
strength and stiffness [26]. Epoxy matrix’s performance is principally preparation of concrete is listed in Table 1. Fine aggregate was
determined by its glass transition temperature (Tg), since it loses its composed of river sand from grading zone II with a fine modulus and
mechanical properties like tensile strength and bond strength at high specific gravity of 2.82 and 2.64, respectively. The coarse aggregates
temperatures [26,27]. The bond strength and load strain relationship used had a maximum size of 20 mm and were found to have a specific
between natural fiber reinforced polymer prepared using various fibers gravity of 2.65 and a bulk density of 1.51 kg/l. Table 2 presents the

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D.A. Varma et al. Results in Engineering 22 (2024) 102281

Table 1 attainment. After 28 days of curing, the concrete samples were taken out
Quantity of material used. from the curing chamber for testing.
Cement (kg/ Fine Aggregate (kg/ Coarse Aggregate (kg/ Water (kg/
m3) m3) m3) m3) 3.2. FRP wrapping of specimen
503.8 754 1300 226.7
The cleaned samples were externally confined using FRP adopting a
hand layup procedure [38]. Fig. 1 shows a schematic illustration of the
sample preparation process. The radial surface of the concrete cylinder
Table 2
Material properties. specimens was cleaned and coated with one layer of fiber sheet
impregnated with epoxy. There was a 150 mm extra length of fiber for
Material Property Test Result Test Reference
having a proper overlapping between each layer of the woven fabric
Cement Specific Gravity 3.16 IS 4031 - Part 11 [34] wrapping. To guarantee proper resin impregnation between the layers, a
Normal Consistency 33 % IS 4031 – Part 4 [35]
second coating of epoxy resin was applied over the initial fiber sheet
Initial Setting Time 42 min IS 4031 – Part 5 [36]
Final Setting Time 560 min IS 4031 – Part 5 [36]
after wrapping. Rollers were used to remove the entrapped air.
Fine Aggregate Specific Gravity 2.64 IS 2386 - Part 3 [37] Following a 24-h curing period at room temperature, the subsequent
Water Absorption 1.1 % IS 2386 - Part 3 [37] layers were wrapped in a similar pattern. As a result of epoxy resin’s
Coarse Aggregate Specific Gravity 2.65 IS 2386 - Part 3 [37] adhesive properties, the concrete core and FRP layers were able to bond
Water Absorption 1.00 % IS 2386 - Part 3 [37]
properly. After 7 days of FRP wrapping curing at room temperature,
tests were conducted on the control unconfined and FRP confined con­
properties of the materials used for the preparation of concrete. crete specimens.
The present study used jute and basalt fibers for FRP confinement.
Jute fiber layers are susceptible to biological attacks and have poor
2.2. Fibers
moisture resistance, which was overcome by providing inert basalt fiber
layers as outer layers. Unconfined specimens (control specimens),
Go Green Products, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, supplied the basalt and
hybrid FRP confined specimens and single layer fiber FRP confined
jute fibers as bidirectional woven plain fabrics. The areal density of both
specimens were the primary categories of specimens. Several hybrid
fabrics was kept constants at 250 g/m2 for a proper adhesion between
designs made up of different numbers of inner and outer confinements
the layers and through penetration of the epoxy matrix.
were used in the test program. The preparation of FRP confinement of
specimen is depicted in Fig. 2 where the FRP wrapping methodology of
2.2.1. Jute
concrete cylinders are depicted.
Jute fibers are natural fibers obtained from the jute plant and have
Table 3 lists the terminology applied to the test specimens. In the
multiple desirable characteristics such as biodegradability, low cost, and
nomenclature CFJXBY, CF represents confined FRP specimen, JX rep­
availability. The fiber density was 1300 kg/m3. The fibers were alkaline
resents jute fiber layer where X is number of jute fiber layers, BY rep­
treated by complete immersion in 5 % of solution of Sodium Hydroxide
resents basalt fiber layer where Y is number of basalt layers. C is the
(NaOH) followed by air drying for 72 h at room temperature. Following
control unconfined specimen.
the treatment, the surface roughness improved, which further enhanced
bonding of the jute fibers with epoxy and concrete.
3.3. Test procedure
2.2.2. Basalt
3.3.1. Strength analysis
Basalt fibers are derived from volcanic basalt rocks via the process of
Using a compression testing machine of capacity 2000 kN, cylin­
melting and subsequently converting the melt into fibers. The density of
drical specimens were axially compressed. A uniform load distribution
basalt fibers is 2700 kg/m3.
was achieved on the concrete core by 0.01 m thick high-strength steel
plates kept on the upper and lower surfaces of the test specimens. A
2.3. Epoxy constant loading rate of 0.14 MPa/min was maintained throughout the
testing. The axial strain on concrete specimens was measured using
Epoxies have exceptional chemical resistance to alkaline solutions. linear variable differential transducers (LVDT).
Epoxies provide superlative adhesion, chemical and heat resistance, The crack propagation inside the concrete cylinder was analyzed by
mechanical characteristics, as well as remarkable electrical insulating ultrasonic pulse velocity test according to IS: 13311-1 (1992) [39]. This
capabilities. Epoxy resins not only have very little shrinkage, but they method consisted of placing transducers on both ends of the specimens
also exhibit outstanding dimensional stability, great durability to high and transmitting the signals directly. A 300-mm-long travel path was
temperatures, fatigue resistance, and strong adherence to re­ adhered to, and a 0.10 s time frame was employed.
inforcements. High performance (two-part) epoxy resin supplied by
Covai Seenu Company was adopted for the study. In accordance with the 3.3.2. Durability analysis
supplier’s recommendations, resin (LY556) was blended with hardener Durability describes the endurance of a material to chemical attack
(HY991) in the proportion of 100:15. and weathering. The current study examined four cases in accordance
with actual environmental conditions which structures may experience
3. Methodology [22]. After FRP wrapping, the cylindrical concrete specimens were
exposed to four distinct environmental conditions: an acidic environ­
3.1. Preparation of concrete cylinder ment, an alkaline environment, a saltwater environment, and water
environment for 120 days.
The M20 grade concrete was prepared using a conventional concrete Four groups of specimens were tested under acidic and alkaline
mixer and the dimensions of cylindrical specimens maintained at 150 chemical conditions for 120 days: unconfined (C), JFRP confined
mm diameter and 300 mm height. The concrete was poured into steel (CFJ2B0), BFRP confined (CFJ0B2), and HJBFRP confined (CFJ2B2).
molds and were compacted using a vibrator for eliminating the voids in Three samples of each group were immersed in i) acidic environment of
the cylinder specimens. After 24 h, the specimens were demolded and a 5 % solution of H2SO4, and ii) alkaline environment of a 7 % solution of
were immersed in water for 28 days of curing for proper strength NaOH conforming to ASTM C1898-20 [40].

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D.A. Varma et al. Results in Engineering 22 (2024) 102281

Fig. 1. An illustration of the FRP specimen preparation.

Fig. 2. Various stages involved in FRP specimen wrapping – (a) Concrete cylinder is thoroughly cleaned on the curved surface (b) Fiber sheets are soaked with epoxy
(c) Wrapping of epoxy soaked fiber sheets around the concrete cylinders.

4. Results and discussion

Table 3
Nomenclature of test specimens.
4.1. SEM analysis of jute fiber
Serial Specimen Number of Number of Total Number of
Number ID jute layers basalt layers Number of specimens
SEM images of the surface topographies of the jute fibers, before and
(Inside) (Outside) layers
after alkali treatments, are depicted in Fig. 3. Fig. 3(a) and (b) illustrate
1 C 0 0 0 15 the smooth surface of untreated jute fibers as well as the presence of
2 CFJ2B0 2 0 2 15
3 CFJ2B1 2 1 3 3
lignin and hemicellulose. It is likely that hemicellulose and lignin are
4 CFJ2B2 2 2 4 15 responsible for keeping the surface smooth as observed in Fig. 3 [12].
5 CFJ2B3 2 3 5 3 Nevertheless, in Fig. 3(c) and (d), rough and clean surfaces can be
6 CFJ0B2 0 2 2 15 observed due to the removal of hemicelluloses and lignin by alkaline
treatment. By increasing the roughness of the fibers, a large section fiber

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D.A. Varma et al. Results in Engineering 22 (2024) 102281

Fig. 3. SEM images of jute fibers (a & b) untreated jute fiber with the presence of hemicellulose and lignin and (c & d) treated jute fiber with rough and clean surface
after alkaline treatment.

surface can be wetted by the epoxy matrix, thereby boosting the adhe­
sion between the fiber and the epoxy matrix by encouraging interfacial
interaction [43–45,48,49].

4.2. Confinement effect at room temperature

The results from the axial compressive tests of the confined concrete
cylinders namely compressive behavior, stress strain response, energy
absorption and ductile behavior are discussed in this section.

4.2.1. Compressive behavior in axial direction

The axial compression test results are presented in Table 4 for
specimens wrapped in various FRP combinations. f’us corresponds to
unconfined concrete specimen strength, whereas f’cs corresponds to FRP
confined concrete specimen strength. The efficiency of confinement,
which is measure of stress enhancement due to FRP confinement is
obtained by the ratio f’cs/f’us. Experiments with unconfined and FRP-
strengthened specimens show axial strains which are represented by
Ɛus and Ɛcs, respectively. The elastic modulus is calculated from the axial
compressive stress by axial compressive strain. The energy absorbed is Fig. 4. Maximum compressive load at room temperature.
area under the stress strain curve of the confined specimen.
The test results showed that jacketing of ordinary concrete cylinders From Fig. 4, it is seen that the load carrying ability of individual hybrid
with FRP significantly increased their load bearing capability. The jute and the hybrid basalt fiber composite confined concrete cylinders
hybrid jute basalt FRP composite wrapped specimens showed a notice­ have significantly improved. It is evident that from the comparison of
able improvement in axial load carrying capability, as shown in Fig. 4.

Table 4
Results of axial compression tests of unconfined and confined specimens at room temperature.
Serial Specimen Compressive Axial Strength Confinement Compressive Axial Elasticity Energy Energy
Number Stress, MPa (f’cs ors f’us) Enhancement (%) Efficacy (f’cs/f’us) Strain, % (Ɛcs or Ɛus) Modulus (GPa) Absorbed Ductility
(MPa) Index

1 C 22.76 ± 0.5 1.10 ± 0.1 2.07 ± 0.02 15.21 1.00

2 CFJ2B0 27.68 ± 0.6 21.62 1.22 1.48 ± 0.05 1.87 ± 0.03 34.77 2.29
3 CFJ2B1 32.4 ± 0.4 42.36 1.42 1.72 ± 0.07 1.89 ± 0.03 47.16 3.10
4 CFJ2B2 38.54 ± 0.3 69.33 1.69 1.80 ± 0.12 2.14 ± 0.04 58.88 3.87
5 CFJ2B3 40.20 ± 0.4 76.63 1.77 1.87 ± 0.08 2.15 ± 0.02 65.03 4.28
6 CFJ0B2 30.98 ± 0.4 36.12 1.36 1.60 ± 0.04 1.94 ± 0.03 41.97 2.76

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D.A. Varma et al. Results in Engineering 22 (2024) 102281

CFJ2B3 and CFJ2B2, the CFJ2B3 is showing only a marginal increase of increasing confinement efficiency of the specimens, ductility increases,
7.3 % with respect to CFJ2B2 in compressive strength by introducing an which results in increased energy absorption without catastrophic
additional basalt layer. Thus, from an economical and performance disintegration of the concrete confined specimen. As a measure of
perspective, CFJ2B2 wrapping was selected as the optimum for further ductility, the energy ductility index is calculated as the fracture energy
analysis. Compared to individual jute and individual basalt composite of FRP confined specimen to that of the control specimen [49]. A list of
jacketing, the hybrid jute basalt FRP confinement (CFJ2B2) showed a the energy absorption and ductility values for various specimens is
considerable improvement in load bearing capacity. This may be shown in Table 4. A significant increase in ductility is achieved by FRP
ascribed to better capability of the hybrid fibers to synergistically confinement. As a result of monolithic compressive behavior, specimen
improve load bearing capacity, in line with the observations by Ispir CFJ2B2 had energy absorption rate of 58.88 MPa, a 287 % improvement
et al. [46]. in energy absorption, and a ductility index value of 3.87 compared to
specimen C, the unconfined control specimen. It should be noted that,
4.2.2. Stress-strain behavior apart from increasing compressive strength, FRP confinement increased
Fig. 5 illustrates the axial compression response of control and FRP- ductility and fracture energy of wrapped concrete specimens [31].
confined cylinders. There were various regimes in the FRP-confined
specimens, but only one linear regime with the plain concrete speci­
mens [47]. Compression behavior of the specimens in the initial portion 4.3. Durability analysis
of the stress strain curve was almost identical to those under unconfined
conditions. At the beginning, the effect of the FRP jacketing was not 4.3.1. Effect of chemical exposure
apparent due to the negligible lateral deformation of the core. There is a Four groups of specimens were tested under acidic and alkaline
transition zone that develops when compressive strength reaches a chemical conditions for 120 days: unconfined (C), JFRP confined
maximum value under applied stress. When the stress-strain curve rea­ (CFJ2B0), BFRP confined (CFJ0B2), and HJBFRP confined (CFJ2B2).
ches its maximum compressive strength, confinement impact is more Three samples of each group were immersed in an acidic environment of
evident and active. In addition, a linear trend with a lowering slope was 5 % H2SO4 acid, and an alkaline environment of 7 % NaOH as per ASTM
observed in the stress strain curve. A linear relationship between the FRP C1898-20 [40].
layer number and the axial compressive strength-strain indicates that
addition of FRP layers will improve the properties of the confined 4.3.1.1. Compressive behavior in axial direction. An examination of the
specimens. A previous study involving sisal and jute fibers revealed that specimens exposed to harsh chemical (acid) environment for 120 days
as the number of sisal and jute layers are increased in the confinement, a revealed that the unwrapped specimens are seriously disturbed as
significant improvement was observed in the properties of the confined illustrated in Fig. 7, by the spalling and cracking behavior of concrete. In
specimens [15]. Ispir et al. [46], analyzed the effects of fiber types in a contrast, the concrete core of confined specimens remained resistant to
hybrid fiber system and found that the internal and external layers of harsh chemical environments [28]. The acidic and alkaline environment
FRP break concurrently. Moreover, they observed that often the layer was shown to have a slight effect on FRP layers at the exterior surface,
with least elongation-capability fails first. but not on the inner surfaces [50].
A common failure pattern is illustrated in Fig. 6 for both confined and The FRP layers ruptured when compression force was applied to
unconfined specimens. Every specimen that was confined with FRP confined specimens, resulting in minor cracks along the surface, prior
exhibited failure precisely at the center of the curved surface of the the collapse of the concrete core. Due to large stress concentrations
confinement and cylinder, as seen in Fig. 6. There is a reduced proba­ during loading, cracks first appeared near the ends of the cylinder and
bility of a catastrophic collapse, demonstrating its potential application then moved toward the center, prior to being disintegrated. The failure
in earthquake-prone areas [48]. pattern of the confined specimens was primarily observed in the central
half portion of the cylinders for all the confined specimens (Fig. 8) after
4.2.3. Energy absorption and ductile behavior exposure to the acid environment. Based on the failure patterns and test
In order to avoid failure of catastrophic proportions of structures, it is results, exposure duration and conditions had a major effect on uncon­
commonly suggested that large deformations should be accommodated. fined concrete specimens, with minor effects on confined specimens.
A high rate of energy absorption combined with ductility in members Fig. 9 presents the failure pattern of specimens after the exposure to
affords adequate cautionary warning before the final failure. By alkaline environments. The failure patterns and test findings indicate
that the length and circumstances of exposure significantly impacted the
unconfined concrete specimens.
The average compressive failure loads of CFJ2B2 wrapped specimens
in acidic and alkaline conditions were 411.60 kN and 644.85 kN,
respectively, whereas the compressive loads of unconfined specimens
were 193.05 kN and 327.30 kN. CFJ2B2 wrapped samples performed far
better than unconfined specimens in these harsh environments, as
shown in Fig. 10.

4.3.1.2. Ductile behavior and stress-strain response. The final strain

exhibited in confined specimens was higher than that detected in un­
confined specimens under acidic and alkaline conditions when subjected
to compressive loading. HJBFRP specimens remained intact despite the
chemically aggressive environments. Compared to unconfined speci­
mens, hybrid FRP confined specimens could effectively withstand the
aggressive conditions. When the HJBFRP specimen under normal con­
ditions is compared to the HJBFRP specimen after acidic and alkaline
exposure, it can be noticed that after chemical attack a reduced ductility
is observed under the axial compression test. Fig. 11 shows the stress
Fig. 5. Stress-strain curve of specimens at room temperature after axial strain response of unconfined and confined specimens after acidic
compression test. exposure. It is evident that all the confined specimens after acid

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D.A. Varma et al. Results in Engineering 22 (2024) 102281

Fig. 6. Experimental failure patterns of specimens after axial compression test at room temperature.

Fig. 7. Unconfined and confined specimens after 5 % of H2SO4 acid exposure of 120 days.

Fig. 8. Failure patterns of unconfined and confined specimens after 5 % of H2SO4 acid exposure of 120 days after axial compression test.

Fig. 9. Failure patterns of unconfined and confined specimens after 7 % NaOH solution of alkaline exposure of 120 days after axial compression test.

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D.A. Varma et al. Results in Engineering 22 (2024) 102281

samples. An environment of sea water was simulated by immersing the

specimens in a 3.5 % solution of sodium chloride per liter of water, and
an environment of potable water was simulated by immersing specimens
in potable water at room temperature conforming to ASTM C1585-11
[51].

4.3.2.1. Compressive behavior in axial direction. After being exposed to

both salt and potable water for 120 days, the specimens were subjected
to axial compression testing. A visual examination of the exposed
specimens revealed no signs of cracking or spalling. The ultimate failure
of plain concrete was not impacted by saltwater, as seen in Fig. 10, and a
non-hazardous environment for the material. Seawater can degrade
reinforced cement concrete (RCC) components, by virtue of its infiltra­
tion through the ruptures in surface of concrete can cause electro­
chemical corrosion of the steel bars which can be impeded by hybrid
Fig. 10. Maximum axial compressive loads of unconfined and confined speci­
mens after exposure to acidic, alkaline, salt and potable water environment.
confinement.
In Table 6, residual mechanical characteristics were compared be­
tween confined and control specimens. It can be seen that systems
wrapped with CFJ2B2 that were subjected to potable water and salt­
water conditions had comparable load bearing capacities. Under
normal, seawater, and potable water conditions, CFJ2B2 specimens
showed axial compressive strengths of 38.54 MPa, 35.75 MPa, and
36.57 MPa, respectively, with an increase of nearly 65 % in compressive
strength compared with unconfined specimen. After exposure to salt and
potable water, the axial compressive strength of the control specimens
shows a reduction of 5.5 %. In addition, during the salt water immersion,
the fiber was subjected to chemical attack which lowers the fiber’s ul­
timate tensile strength [52].
The failure pattern of the confined specimens was primarily observed
Fig. 11. Stress Strain response of unconfined and confined specimens (a) in the central half portion of the cylinders for all the confined specimens
Control cylinder (C), (b)CFJ2B0, (c) CFJ2B2, (d) CFJ0B2 after acid exposure. as presented in Fig. 13 after exposed to saltwater environment. Based on
the failure patterns and test results, exposure duration and conditions
had a minor effect on unconfined concrete and confined specimen.
exposure showed similar stress strain response to that of confined
Fig. 14 presents the failure patterns of specimens after the exposure
specimens at room temperature.
to potable water environment, the failure occurred in the central portion
Fig. 12 depicts the stress-strain behavior of unconfined and confined
of the FRP confinement. The failure patterns and test findings indicate
specimens after exposure to alkaline environment. The behavior pattern
that the length and circumstances of exposure slightly impacted the
of stress-strain response of all the confined specimens at room temper­
unconfined concrete specimen and confined specimen after potable
ature was observed to be identical.
water exposure.
Table 5 shows a significant decrease in the energy absorption rate
FRP-confined specimens were found to be more resilient to salt water
and energy ductility index of control specimens after being exposed to
and potable water conditions than unconfined specimens. Saltwater
acidic and alkaline environments. Energy absorption was 4.87 and 3.72
immersion significantly decreased ductility in both control and CFJ2B2-
times greater for CFJ2B2s on exposure to acidic and alkaline conditions,
confined specimens treated to the aforementioned regimes for condi­
respectively.
tioning. Moisture penetration could be improved by a damaging process
triggered by salt ions in the wrapping systems. Fig. 15 shows the stress
4.3.2. Effect of water exposure
strain response of unconfined and confined specimens after saltwater
Four samples consisting of three specimens each, were immersed in
exposure. It is evident that all the confined specimens after saltwater
salt water and potable water conditions for 120 days to study the impact
exposure showed similar stress strain response to that of confined
of water exposure on FRP confinement, unconfined (C), JFRP confined
specimens at room temperature.
(CFJ2B0), BFRP confined (CFJ0B2), and HJBFRP confined (CFJ2B2)
Fig. 16 depicts the stress-strain behavior of unconfined and confined
specimens after exposure to a potable water environment. The stress-
strain response of all the confined specimens at room temperature was
observed to be identical to that of confined specimens after potable
water exposure.

4.3.2.2. Ductile behavior and stress-strain response. FRP confinement has

the capacity to increase specimen ductility in addition to mechanical
characteristics and durability [49]. The performance of the confined
hybrid FRP columns was superior to that of the confined BFRP and JFRP
columns, whereas the performance of the unconfined specimens was
inferior.
According to Tables 6 and in both saltwater and potable water
conditions, the energy absorbed by CFJ2B2 was 3.8 and 3.73 times more
Fig. 12. Axial stress strain response of unconfined and confined specimens (a) than that of unconfined concrete.
Control cylinder (C), (b)CFJ2B0, (c) CFJ2B2, (d) CFJ0B2 after alka­
line exposure.

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D.A. Varma et al. Results in Engineering 22 (2024) 102281

Table 5
Results of axial compression tests on unconfined and FRP confined specimens exposed to acidic and alkaline environments.
Serial Specimen Compressive Axial Stress (MPa) Confinement Efficacy (f’cs/f’us) Energy Absorbed (MPa) Energy Ductility Index
Number (f’cs or f’us)

Acidic Alkaline Acidic Alkaline Acidic Alkaline Acidic Alkaline

exposure exposure exposure exposure exposure exposure exposure exposure

1 C 10.93 ± 0.6 18.53 ± 0.5 – – 6.44 11.59 1.00 1.00

2 CFJ2B0 15.39 ± 0.3 22.14 ± 0.8 1.41 1.19 16.94 25.88 2.63 2.23
3 CFJ2B2 23.3 ± 0.5 30.3 ± 0.4 2.13 1.64 31.38 43.11 4.87 3.72
4 CFJ0B2 18.34 ± 0.7 24.7 ± 0.6 1.68 1.33 21.90 31.38 3.40 2.71

Table 6
Results of axial compression tests on unconfined and FRP confined specimens exposed to sea water and potable water exposure for 120 days.
Sl. Specimen Compressive Axial Stress (MPa) (f’cs Confinement Efficacy (f’cs/f’us) Energy Absorbed (MPa) Energy Ductility Index
No. or f’us)

Saltwater Potable Water Salt water Potable Water Salt water Potable Water Salt water Potable Water
exposure exposure exposure exposure exposure exposure exposure exposure

1 C 21.55 ± 0.4 22.37 ± 0.6 13.88 14.68 1.00 1.00

2 CFJ2B0 25.91 ± 0.5 26.73 ± 0.3 1.20 1.19 31.38 32.82 2.26 2.24
3 CFJ2B2 35.75 ± 0.3 36.57 ± 0.4 1.66 1.63 52.68 54.82 3.80 3.74
4 CFJ0B2 29.00 ± 0.4 29.82 ± 0.5 1.35 1.33 38.07 39.65 2.74 2.70

Fig. 13. Failure patterns of unconfined and confined specimens after 3 % NaCl saltwater exposure of 120 days after axial compression test.

Fig. 14. Failure patterns of unconfined and confined specimens after potable water exposure of 120 days after axial compression test.

4.3.3. Ultra pulse velocity (UPV) test the pulse passes through the concrete and starts propagating, identical
The UPV determines the quality of concrete by measuring how fast transducers on the opposing side detect it. Next, the pulse travel time,
an ultrasonic wave travels through it. A lesser velocity of travel often has and hence the velocity, were determined from the UPV test set up.
less density compared to a high velocity, as measured according to IS: In Fig. 17, UPV values are displayed for specimens that were sub­
13311-1 (1992) [39], which reports a range of 3500 m/s to 4500 m/s for jected to various environmental conditions and compressive loads. Un­
good concrete and above 4500 m/s for superior quality concrete. After confined specimens showed a dramatic fall in velocity when exposed to

9
D.A. Varma et al. Results in Engineering 22 (2024) 102281

(CFJ2B2) confined specimens showed the highest pulse velocity. The

number, size, and development of internal fractures as well as their
degree of severity and breadth directly affect the reduction in pulse
velocity. It follows that confinement protects the concrete core internal
structure against failure.

5. Finite element modelling of HJBFRP confined specimen

5.1. Adopted model

Since the HJBFRP specimen showed maximum efficacy in experi­

mental analysis, it is considered for the finite element analysis using the
ABAQUS software. The concrete core was simulated as unconfined,
concrete that fails when the transition from the elastic to the plastic
stage is reached during compression. The elastic modulus, Ec, and
Poisson ratio μ served as the expressions for the concrete’s constitutive
model in the elastic domain [32]. For concrete, Poisson’s ratio is typi­
Fig. 15. Axial stress strain response of unconfined and confined specimens (a) cally fixed at 0.2 [53] and the concrete’s elastic modulus was calculated
Control cylinder (C), (b)CFJ2B0, (c) CFJ2B2, (d) CFJ0B2 after 3 % NaCl salt­ from Eq. (1) [54]:
water exposure.
ʹ
Ec = 4700√fuc (1)

ʹ indicates the compressive strength of the concrete cylinder in

where fuc
MPa.
Concrete Damage Plasticity Model (CDPM) was used for simulating
concrete core using an ABAQUS restricted peak strain model [41]. The
two primary failure criteria used by CDPM are tensile cracking and
compressive crushing [42,44,45].
The parameters of the constitutive relationships of concrete are
described in Table 7, using the plastic flow potential, yield surface
function, and softening rule/strain hardening. The plastic flow potential
is expressed by dilation angle of concrete (ψ ) which defines the direction
of plastic strain and correlates the volume change during plastic defor­
mation. Flow potential eccentricity (e) is a small positive number that
defines the rate at which the hyperbolic flow potential approaches its
asymptote [32]. The yield surface defines the boundary between the
deformations caused by the elastic and plastic phases of a material. For
Fig. 16. Axial stress strain response of unconfined and confined specimens (a)
concrete, a composite material, comprehending its yield surface is
Control cylinder (C), (b)CFJ2B0, (c) CFJ2B2, (d) CFJ0B2 after potable essential for evaluating its structural efficacy and safety. Plastic flow
water exposure. potential and flow potential eccentricity expresses the relation between
the stress state and elastic strain in general for concrete [46,47,55,56].
Strength ratio (f /fʹ ) defined as the ratio of tensile meridian second
b0 uc
stress invariant to the compression meridian and, aspect ratio (Kc)
defined as the ratio of the compression meridian’s second stress
invariant to the tensile meridian were used [32]. Viscosity parameter (μ)
is used for the visco-plastic regularization of the concrete constitutive
equations in ABAQUS/Standard analyses and the parameter is ignored
in ABAQUS/Explicit. In Table 7, the concrete damage plasticity pa­
rameters – plastic flow potential, aspect ratio, flow potential eccentric­
ity, strength ratio and viscosity are listed.
Eq. (2) and Eq. (3) show definitions of the compressive and tensile
damage behavior used in CDPM, respectively [32].
( )
dc σc
εplc = εinc − (2)
1 − dt E0
Fig. 17. UPV responses of specimens for different environmental conditions –
normal room temperature, acidic, alkaline, saltwater and potable water ( )
environments.
dt σt
εplt = εck
t − (3)
1 − dt E 0
a hostile environment, indicating the presence of numerous internal
cracks or the possibility of collapse of the concrete core within. The
Table 7
velocity variation was gradual in the case of confined specimens. As a Concrete damage plasticity parameters.
result, it may be inferred that the intensity of inner fracture decreases
Dilation Aspect Flow potential Strength ratio Viscosity
due to confinement. Under exposure to acidic conditions, unconfined
angle ratio eccentricity e f /fʹ μ
specimens showed the highest reduction in pulse velocity, followed by ψ Kc
b0 uc

JFRP(CFJ2B0) and BFRP (CFJ0B2) confined specimens, while HJBFRP

35 0.667 0.1 1.16 0.0001

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D.A. Varma et al. Results in Engineering 22 (2024) 102281

where. Table 9
Properties of HJBFRP considered in the finite element analysis.
εplcis compressive plastic strain,
Young’s modulus (MPa) Poisson’s ratio Shear modulus (MPa)
εin
c is compressive inelastic strain,
dc is compressive damage parameter, E12 E13 E23 μ12 μ13 μ23 G12 G13 G23
σ c is compressive stress, 5600 5600 1820 0.25 0.25 0.3 2240 2240 700
εplt is tensile plastic strain,
εck
t is tensile inelastic strain, 5.3. Boundary conditions and loading
dt is tensile damage parameter,
σ t is tensile stress and The HJBFRP model used for simulation limits all degrees of freedom
E0 is initial elastic stiffness of material. at the base of a column. Along the primary axes of the column, pressure
The end plates are made out of steel which has a density of 7850 kg/ loads are applied to the top. Upper surfaces have zero displacements on
m3. In the elastic stage, steel was considered to be characterized by a both the X- and Z-axes. Column specimens allow displacement only
Young’s modulus of 2 × 105 N/mm2 and a Poisson ratio of 0.30. Further, along their main axis at their top surfaces. In contrast, all three axes of
the yield stress was considered to be 500 N/mm2. An elastic perfectly rotation are free. Each axis of displacement and rotation is restricted on
plastic model was adopted [53]. the bottom surface. The concrete and hybrid FRP system’s geometry,
Laminates of epoxy and FRP (CFJ2B2) were prepared and the tensile interactions, applied loads, and mesh components are depicted in
properties of epoxy specimens were evaluated according to the ASTM Fig. 18. The size of concrete cylinder is considered same as that of the
D3039 standard using an INSTRON 502 universal testing machine with a experimental one. The thickness of FRP (HJBFRP) is taken as 3 mm. In
crosshead speed of 1 mm/min. The dimensions of the epoxy and FRP order to replicate the results of the experiment, the same boundary
laminate specimens were 100 mm in length, 10 mm in breadth, and 3 conditions of actual test conditions are adopted for the finite element
mm in thickness. The obtained experimental tensile properties of the modelling.
laminates are listed in Table 8.
The properties of HJBFRP used in finite element analysis i.e. Young’s
moduli, Poisson’s ratio and shear moduli are listed in Table 9. FRP is 5.4. Load-deflection behavior
usually conceived as an orthotropic material. Although FRP possesses
high longitudinal tensile strength and exhibits elastic behavior, The results of experimental and finite element (FE) stress-strain re­
compressive strength is essentially completely overlooked [53]. The sponses of confined concrete specimens made from HJBFRP are shown
material type, "LAMINA", was used to model the elastic behavior of in Fig. 19. It is evident that the stress strain response of experimental and
HJBFRP, and the elastic modulus in the hoop direction E12 was FE analysis is showing similar trajectories which support the proposed
considered to be 5.6 GPa for FRP and E23 to be 1.82 GPa for Epoxy model to effectively predict the mechanical behavior of these hybrid
material. For FRP and epoxy, the Poisson ratios were taken to be 0.25 FRP systems.
and 0.3, respectively. From Table 10, the maximum axial stress and maximum axial strain
for the HJBFRP-confined concrete specimen in the FE model were 40.83
5.2. Meshing and interactions MPa and 1.91 %, respectively. As reported in Table 10, the HJBFRP-
confined concrete specimen’s FE model showed deviations from the
In the C3D8R element, a three-dimensional 8-node linear brick (Hex) experimental results of 5.94 % and 5.56 %, for axial stress and axial
with reduced integration was modeled as a deformable three- strain of, respectively.
dimensional brick with hourglass control (Hex). C3D20R was used to The maximum stress response (S, Mises) at the integration points of
model HJBFRP as a 20-node quadratic brick element with reduced the element is a value used to determine if a given material will yield or
integration (2 × 2 × 2 integration points). In order to prevent pene­ fracture which is considered as the strength of the material used in the
tration between the elements, all surfaces have a firm contact in normal ABAQUS analysis [32]. The maximum stress response (S, Mises) at the
directions, and transverse frictional contacts. The contact between the integration points of the element of a concrete specimen wrapped in
top and bottom surfaces of rigid steel and concrete load plates were HJBFRP is shown in Fig. 20. The elastic behavior of HJBFRP specimens
simulated, assuming coefficients of friction of 0.35 in normal and was precisely tracked using the suggested FEM. In plain concrete spec­
transverse directions, for both hard contact and frictional contact in­ imens confined with HJBFRP, some differences were observed in elastic
teractions. The steel plate surface was designated as the slave surface, and post-peak collapse behavior. These differences may be due to the
while the concrete core surface was designated as the master surface. An minor discrepancies in the actual test conditions, which may be
inner node region of the HJBFRP was connected to the surface of steel boundary conditions, initial geometric imperfections, concrete and FRP
rigid plates as a master surface. Mesh size represents the accuracy of the strengths, manufacturing defects, accuracy of testing instruments, and
results obtained from the finite element analysis, smaller the mesh size assumptions in FEA calculations etc. Coefficients of friction considered
greater the accuracy and greater time consumption for analysis. Con­ for the property contact information between concrete and steel plates
crete, steel, and HJBFRP mesh sizes were 2.5 mm, 2.5 mm, and 1 mm may account for the minor discrepancy between damage evolution and
respectively. friction coefficients for FRP materials. However, the comprehensive
comparison of stress-strain response between experimental and FEA
specimens in Fig. 19 and data in Table 10 strongly supports the appli­
cability and accuracy of the suggested FEM.

Table 8 5.5. Failure patterns

Tensile Properties of Epoxy and FRP laminate.
Laminate Tensile strength Young’s modulus Elongation at break The axial stress and strain of HJBFRP wrapped specimens showed a
(MPa) (MPa) (%) linear trend during the initial phases of loading, but once the specimens
Epoxy 37 ± 0.9 1820 ± 0.2 7.3 ± 0.4 started to yield, the axial stress increased linearly, resulting in the sec­
CFJ2B0 73.62 ± 1.4 4100 ± 1.2 7.9 ± 0.3 ond linear segment of the curve. When the axial stress reached its
CFJ2B2 110.73 ± 1.8 5600 ± 0.9 8.7 ± 0.9 maximum level, HJBFRP ruptured, with an abrupt loss in stress with­
CFJ0B2 89.47 ± 1.0 4800 ± 0.7 8.2 ± 0.5
stand capability. Fig. 21 shows the experimental and analytical cracking

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D.A. Varma et al. Results in Engineering 22 (2024) 102281

Fig. 18. Finite Element Simulation (a) geometry of concrete cylinder (diameter 150 mm and height 300 mm), (b) HJBFRP is wrapped around concrete cylinder, (c)
meshed elements of concrete cylinder and HJBFRP and (d) pressure load on top of wrapped specimen through steel plate and fixed boundary conditions at the bottom
of the surface.

287 % and 63.64 %, respectively. As a result, the outer FRP jackets

were able to resist external loads for an extended period of maximum
loading.
● In concrete columns wrapped with FRP composites, the hybrid
confinement improved both maximum strain and compressive
strength. Increasing the number of FRP layers enhances strength and
ultimate strain. The strength and ductility of the columns do not
improve significantly beyond two layers each of jute and basalt,
indicate diminishing return with additional layers of jute and basalt.
The ductility index and energy absorption of confined concrete
improved significantly with hybrid confinement, and both parame­
ters changed with the thickness of FRP layer.
● FRP confined systems determined the ultimate stress-strain response
of confined specimens. FRP layers provided the required resistance
against lateral expansion of concrete once the inner layer rupture
Fig. 19. Stress-strain response for HJBFRP concrete cylinders. after concrete reaches its peak strength.
● The constitutive finite element model was capable of accurately
pattern for the HJBFRP wrapped concrete specimen. The HJBFRP describe the mechanical behavior of Hybrid Jute Basalt Fiber Rein­
confinement rupture caused the specimen to disintegrate with a char­ forced Polymer (HJBFRP) confined concrete columns and showed
acteristic loud noise, followed by the failure of the concrete core and a good agreement with experimental results.
crack extending in the longitudinal direction (Y-axis). The failure ● The ultrasonic pulse velocity results showed that confinement pro­
pattern of experimental and FEA crack are comparable and the crack are tected the concrete core’s internal structure against failure.
observed at the half portion of the confinement.
Results of the performed tests confirmed the validity of the proposed
6. Conclusions FRP confinement to the repair and retrofit of concrete structures. In this
hybrid confinement configuration, the lower strength and bio degrad­
The use of Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) to reinforce concrete able nature of natural jute is compensated by the higher performance of
structures was explored in this investigation, by confining concrete basalt FRP confinement. The good agreement in proposed FEA model
cylinders with natural fibers coated with epoxy matrix. Individual jute, with experimental results of HJBFRP confined specimens can be used for
individual basalt, and hybrid jute basalt combinations together with simulating the new hybrid FRP systems without wastage of time in
epoxy matrix is used for confining the concrete samples. Besides natural costly experimental testing.
conditions, the samples were exposed to various aggressive environ­
mental conditions such as acidic, alkaline, sea water, and potable water. CRediT authorship contribution statement
The following conclusions were reached.
D. Akhil Varma: Writing – original draft, Validation, Software,
● FRP wrapping improved the load bearing capacity of the structure in Resources, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation. Lakshmi Jo­
the axial direction, as evidenced by compression test results. The seph: Writing – original draft, Supervision, Methodology, Formal
ductility characteristics, such as energy, and axial strain improved by analysis, Data curation. Mini K. Madhavan: Writing – review & editing,

Table 10
Comparison of axial stress and strain response of HJBFRP (CFJ2B2).
Specimen Experimental Test Finite Element Analysis (FEA) Variation

Compressive Axial Compressive Axial Compressive Axial Compressive Axial Compressive Axial Compressive Axial
Stress (MPa) Strain (%) Stress (MPa) Strain (%) Stress (MPa) Strain (%)

CFJ2B2/ 38.54 ± 0.3 1.80 ± 0.12 40.83 1.91 5.56 5.94

HJBFRP

12
D.A. Varma et al. Results in Engineering 22 (2024) 102281

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