Composites Part C: Open Access 14 (2024) 100448

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Composites Part C: Open Access

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Stress-strain behavior of square concrete columns confined with hybrid

B-CSM composites and development of novel prediction models
Phromphat Thansirichaisree a, Hisham Mohamad b, Ali Ejaz c, Panumas Saingam d,
Qudeer Hussain e, Suniti Suparp f, *
a
Thammasat Research Unit in Infrastructure Inspection and Monitoring, Repair and Strengthening (IIMRAS), Faculty of Engineering, Thammasat School of Engineering,
Thammasat University Rangsit, Klong Luang, Pathumthani, Thailand
b
Civil & Environmental Engineering Department, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Seri Iskandar, Malaysia
c
National Institute of Transportation, National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad, Pakistan
d
Department of Civil Engineering, School of Engineering, King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, Bangkok 10520, Thailand
e
Civil Engineering Department, Kasem Bundit University, Thailand
f
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Srinakharinwirot University, Nakhonnayok, 26120, Thailand

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This paper presents a comprehensive investigation into the behavior of concrete confined with hybrid Basalt and
Hybrid jacket Chopped Strand Mat (B-CSM) fibers. The newly proposed B-CSM confinement technique substantially enhances
Peak strength the brittle compressive stress-strain behavior, leading to a noteworthy increase in peak strength (approximately
Ultimate strain
90%) and ultimate strain (approximately 461 %). The efficiency of B-CSM confinement is affected by the strength
Compressive behavior
Concrete
of plain concrete, with lower-strength specimens indicating a more pronounced enhancement. The performance
Analytical modeling of existing analytical models for FRP confinement in predicting ultimate strength and strain in B-CSM confined
concrete is assessed, highlighting the need for tailored models. Regression-based equations are proposed for
characteristic points along the stress-strain curve, enabling accurate prediction of material behavior. The pre­
dicted stress-strain curves exhibit a high level of agreement with experimental results. These findings provide
valuable insights for the design and application of B-CSM confinement techniques in structural engineering,
facilitating improved performance and ductility of concrete structures under compressive loading conditions.

1. Introduction labor-intensive and can impose installation challenges [13,14]. In recent

years, the use of Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) jacketing has gained
Several studies have demonstrated that applying external confine­ popularity as a replacement for conventional jacketing techniques. This
ment to concrete substantially improves both its strength and ductility can be attributed to the significant advantages of FRP, including its high
[1–3]. Traditional methods of confining concrete comprise reinforced strength-to-weight ratio, improved corrosion resistance, and ease of
concrete jackets [4,5] or steel jackets [6–9]. Steel jacketing has been application [15,16].
found to be more effective than concrete jacketing due to the additional Several studies have investigated the use of FRP jackets as a
weight and increased cross-sectional area imparted by the latter [10]. In confining material for concrete. In a study conducted by Xiao and Wu
particular, Campione et al. [11] strengthened reinforced concrete [17], the mechanical properties of concrete were investigated through
beam-column joints by using steel cages and concluded that the failure experiments on 27 cylindrical specimens. External confinement was
in columns of control specimens was effectively shifted to the beams in applied by using carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) composite
strengthened specimens. Ferrotto et al. [12] strengthened the axial jackets. The study focused on the strength of plain concrete and the
behavior of reinforced concrete columns by using steel cages and found number of CFRP layers as the parameters of interest. The findings
a substantial improvement in axial load capacity but the level of indicated that the mechanical properties of confined concrete were
improvement was subjected to the magnitude of service loads present primarily influenced by the compressive strength of plain concrete and
before strengthening. Nonetheless, concrete and steel jacketing are the confinement modulus. In another study by Mirmiran and Shahaway

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Suparp).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomc.2024.100448

Available online 29 February 2024

2666-6820/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
P. Thansirichaisree et al. Composites Part C: Open Access 14 (2024) 100448

[18], the lateral dilation of concrete was found to be prevented by FRP Some recent studies are dedicated to exploring the capability of
jackets by reversing the direction of volumetric strains. Nanni and utilizing low-cost hybrid FRPs to improve the strength and ductility of
Bradform [19] performed experiments on cylindrical specimens under concrete that incorporates natural stone aggregates [39,40]. The
axial compression and compared FRP-confined and unconfined con­ concept of hybrid confinement endeavors to leverage the individual
crete. The results discovered that the utilization of FRP jacketing sub­ advantages of different uniaxial or biaxial fibers by combining them,
stantially increased both the strength and ductility of concrete. Lam thereby increasing the overall performance of the confinement system
et al. [20] performed a study targeting an enhanced compressive [41]. Wahab et al. [42] assessed the efficacy of a novel Jute/Polyester
behavior of ultra-high-performance concrete by utilizing FRP jackets. hybrid FRP composite in confining concrete made with natural aggre­
The stress-strain response of the confined specimens exhibited a gates. Specimens with circular and square concrete cross-sections were
consistent and continuous increase directly related to the number of FRP externally wrapped with jute and polyester fiber sheets. The results of
jackets. Abu Tehnat et al. [21] tested CFRP-confined exterior reinforced the study exhibited that the Jute/Polyester hybrid FRP composites
concrete joints. The brittle failure of the joint was successfully averted substantially enhanced both the axial strength and deformation of the
by the application of CFRP jackets. Zeng et al. [22] examined the per­ confined concrete. However, it was established that the existing
formance of CFRP in improving the compressive behavior of seawater confinement models were ineffective in accurately predicting the axial
sea-sand concrete with a square cross-section. The study contemplated strength of Jute/Polyester hybrid FRP confined concrete.
several test parameters, including the thickness and type of FRP jackets, Shah et al. [43] explored the utilization of sisal and coir fibers both
as well as the water content in the self-consolidating concrete (SCC) mix. individually and in hybrid mode. The fibers were cut to various lengths,
The results demonstrated that under the influence of a single FRP layer, ranging from 10 mm to 30 mm, and added to the concrete mix at con­
the compressive stress-strain curves exhibited a softening post-peak centrations of 0.5 %, 1.0 %, and 1.50 % by weight of cement. The
branch. However, with two to three layers of FRP confinement, a experimental results implied that hybrid fiber-reinforced concrete
hardening branch was observed. Choi et al. [23] utilized FRP wire-type demonstrated a substantial improvement in compressive strength, with
jackets to enhance the compressive behavior of concrete and noticed the highest enhancement of 35.98 % observed at a fiber length of 20 mm
that the stiffness ratio of FRP jackets had significant influence on the and a concentration of 0.5 %. Abd El-Baky et al. [44] examined the
corresponding ductility of specimens. That is, a local maximum and mechanical properties of a hybrid Basalt/E-glass FRP composite, which
minimum were observed. While FRP jackets have offered significant involved combining basalt fiber, plain weave E-glass fabrics, and epoxy
capability in enhancing the mechanical behavior of various concrete resin. The hybrid composite showed superior mechanical properties in
types, their widespread use may be limited due to the associated high comparison to non-hybrid FRP composites. Padanattil et al. [45] intro­
costs [24–26]. Moreover, the production of synthetic FRPs involves the duced a novel hybrid combination of glass and sisal fibers to strengthen
use of certain chemicals that can potentially lead to contact dermatitis, reinforced concrete. Their results concluded that the axial ductility of
causing irritations and allergic reactions [27,28]. the hybrid confined concrete was similar to that of the concrete confined
In recent times, the use of natural fiber-reinforced polymers (NFRP) with CFRP. Recently, Chaiyasarn et al. [26] employed a hybrid
has become increasingly popular in the realm of structural strength­ Basalt/E-glass FRP composite to address the substandard mechanical
ening. This can be ascribed to their relatively cheaper nature than syn­ properties of RBAC. The application of the hybrid FRP composite
thetic FRP and easy availability, making them a promising alternative resulted in a substantial improvement in both compressive strength and
[29]. An extensive research database is not yet available on the use of ductility. Moreover, the level of improvement was directly proportional
NFRP in enhancing the mechanical properties of concrete, and only to the number of hybrid FRP layers.
some researchers have used NFRP for strengthening applications. The existing literature review indicates that the implementation of
Hussain et al. [30] used jute, sisal, and hemp NFRPs to improve the hybrid FRP confinement presents a potential and promising solution for
mechanical properties of concrete and observed that the highest in­ augmenting the compressive behavior of concrete incorporating both
crease in ultimate strength and ductility of the concrete was obtained by natural and recycled aggregates. However, the detailed exploration of
hemp NFRP. Cogurcu [31] examined the effect of red pine needles on the hybrid Basalt/E-glass FRP confinement in concrete is still lacking, with a
compressive behavior of concrete. Red pine needles were exposed to limited number of studies representing the current state-of-the-art in this
alkaline treatment to remove organic matter and subsequently cut into field. Basalt FRP is unidirectional [46], providing negligible strength in
lengths of 30, 40, and 50 mm. These fibers were then mixed into orthogonal direction. On the contrary, fibers in E-glass FRPs are
self-compacting ultra-high-performance concrete at different volume randomly oriented and provide strength in multi-directions. Moreover,
fractions of 0.25 %, 0.50 %, 0.75 %, and 1.00 %. Notably, the specimen the stress-strain behavior of Basalt FRP is linear, highlighting its brittle
containing 30 mm long fibers with a volume fraction of 0.50 % exhibited nature [47]. Again, the behavior of E-glass FRPs is nonlinear [26]. Thus,
a significant 15.6 % increase in compressive strength after 28 days. a hybrid system comprising E-glass and Basalt FRPs can effectively
Saingam et al. [32] used hemp NFRP to strengthen the mechanical overcome the limitations associated with Basalt FRPs alone. Therefore,
properties of recycled brick aggregate concrete (RBAC). The use of hemp the main objective of this was to investigate the compressive perfor­
confinement specifically led to remarkable improvements, with the ul­ mance of the concrete with a square cross-section and confined with
timate compressive strength and strain experiencing enhancements of hybrid Basalt/E-glass FRP. The influence of plain concrete strength on
up to 272 % and 457 %, respectively. Joyklad et al. [33] used low-cost the effectiveness of hybrid Basalt/E-glass FRP confinement remains
fiber chopped strand mat composites to strengthen RBAC. The ultimate unexplored, and the current study aims to fill this gap by conducting a
strain of RBAC was increased up to 320 % of unconfined RBAC. Most comprehensive experimental program. Towards this, another salient
recently, researchers have also proposed mortar-based strengthening objective of this study was to investigate the confinement effect of
systems comprising a fiber-reinforced cementitious matrix (FRCM). hybrid Basalt/E-glass FRP composites for low, medium and high
FRCM consists of a fabric mesh that is attached to a concrete surface by strength square concrete columns. The third salient objective of this
an application of mortar. Tello et al. [34,35] enhanced the axial capacity study was to explore the effect of thickness of hybrid Basalt/E-glass FRP
of circular and square reinforced columns using FRCM. Notable en­ composites on the ultimate strength and strain of hybrid Basalt/E-glass
hancements in compressive strength and ductility were reported. FRP composites confined square concrete columns. Additionally, this
Moreover, work on Finite Element Analysis of concrete strengthened study seeks to develop analytical models that can predict the compres­
with FRCM composites has also been investigated [36]. In other studies, sive strength and strain of hybrid Basalt/E-glass FRP-confined concrete.
notable enhancements in the compressive strength of low-strength
concrete [37] and pre-damaged concrete [38] have also been reported
by the application of FRCM composites.

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2. Experimental program 2.2. Properties of materials

2.1. Details of specimens The B-CSM jacket included a combination of basalt and E-glass
jackets (Fig. 1). E-glass fibers were obtained from the Rungsvanich
The experimental program involved performing axial compression company limited, Thailand, whereas basalt fibers were obtained from
tests on a set of 24 square specimens. Each specimen measured 150 mm Beihai Composites Materials company limited, China. As discussed, a
× × 150 mm in cross section and 300 mm in height. To include the effect novel hybrid jacketing scheme was adopted to ameliorate the mechan­
of plain concrete strength, the specimens were divided into three distinct ical properties of concrete. The hybrid jacketing comprised a combina­
groups depending upon the strength of plain concrete, with each group tion of natural basalt fiber and E-glass fiber (chopped strand mat
containing four different types of specimens. It is to be noted that two fiberglass), as shown in Fig. 1. The woven fabric composed of natural
specimens were tested for each type, bringing about a total of eight basalt fibers demonstrates notable chemical and thermal resistance at­
specimens in each group. The Type-I specimens were subjected to testing tributes, which render it highly appropriate for deployment in diverse
in their original, as-built condition and served as the reference for the configurations to provide efficient shielding against fire, heat, and
remaining specimens. The remaining three specimens in each group sound. In contrast, a chopped strand mat (CSM) is a non-woven mat
were tested after being externally wrapped using a proposed hybrid produced using E-glass fibers.
jacketing technique. This technique involved applying one, two, or three The bond between E-glass fibers and the chopped strand mat (CSM)
layers of Basalt and Glass Chopped Fiber, collectively referred to as a B- was achieved through the application of a two-part polyester resin. .
CSM jacket. To facilitate identification, a three-part terminology was Polyester resin was obtained from the Rungsvanich company limited,
implemented for each specimen type. The first part represented the Thailand. The tensile strength for both the polyester resin and the
specimen shape as square, indicated by the letters "SR13", where the external strengthening jackets was determined by following the guide­
number “13” indicated the amount of the corner radius in mm. The lines set by ASTM standards. Fig. 2 illustrates typical failure modes
second part designated the concrete strength, categorized as LS (low- observed in coupons used for the strengthening jackets, whereas Table 2
strength), MS (medium-strength), or HS (high-strength). The final part provides the estimated properties of individual jackets and the polyester
represented the number of B-CSM layers. For instance, the designation S- resin. The ultimate failure modes were mainly due to the rupture of FRP
LS-1GC1BF represented a square specimen with low-strength concrete, composites. The observed failure modes were slightly towards the end
featuring one layer each of glass chopped fiber mats and basalt fiber grips. This phenomenon could be could be associated with the high
jacket. Table 1 provides a comprehensive overview of all the specimens, stress concentration at the grips. However, in this study the effect of
including their concrete strength type, the percentage replacement of stress concentration at the grips were ignored. It is vital to observe that
aggregates, and the number of external jacketing layers. The confine­ B-CSM sheets provided a 50 MPa extra tensile capacity over that of
ment ratios and stiffness ratios of external jackets were calculated as per Basalt FRP, thus exerting a significant additional confinement pressure.
the recommendations of previous studies [48,49]. The calculated ratios Plain concrete strength of three types was used, including 15 MPa, 20
are also presented in Table 1. MPa, and 25 MPa, represented by LS, MS, and HS, respectively. Type-I
Portland cement, along with locally sourced fine aggregates, was
employed in the experimental program. The slump values associated
Table 1 with low strength (LS), medium strength (MS), and high strength (HS)
Details of experimental program. concrete were measured at 9 cm, 7 cm, and 5 cm, respectively. The
Name of Strengthening Layer Confinement Stiffness
concrete mix proportions utilized to achieve the different strength levels
specimen ratio ratio are presented in Table 3.
SR13-LS- None None None None None
Con 2.3. Specimen preparation and strengthening methodology
SR13-LS- Glass Basalt 1 0.1306 0.0295
1GC1BF Chopped Fiber Specimen preparation was performed within the laboratory envi­
Fiber
ronment by following ASTM procedures, i.e., the casting was performed
SR13-LS- Glass Basalt 2 0.2611 0.0295
2GC2BF Chopped Fiber by pouring concrete in three equal layers, with each layer subjected to
Fiber compaction by a tamping rod. Specimens were kept within molds for a
SR13-LS- Glass Basalt 3 0.3917 0.0295 day after casting. Following that, specimens were taken out of the molds
3GC3BF Chopped Fiber and subjected to a curing period of 28 days.
Fiber
The traditional hand layout method was used to wrap B-CSM jackets
SR13-MS- None None None None None
Con around the specimens. The application of the hybrid B-CSM jacket
SR13- MS- Glass Basalt 1 0.0694 0.0136 involved a systematic four-step process. Firstly, a brush was used to
1GC1BF Chopped Fiber apply the resin onto the concrete surface. Secondly, E-glass fibers were
Fiber
wrapped around specimens, as depicted in Fig. 3a. To prevent air
SR13- MS- Glass Basalt 2 0.1389 0.0136
2GC2BF Chopped Fiber entrapment, resin-impregnated rollers were employed, as illustrated in
Fiber Fig. 3b. The cylindrical specimens, with E-glass wrapping, were then left
SR13- MS- Glass Basalt 3 0.2083 0.0136 to cure under controlled laboratory conditions. After 30 minutes of
3GC3BF Chopped Fiber curing, in the third step, the polyester resin was applied to the surface of
Fiber
the E-glass composite. Finally, in the last step, basalt fibers were
SR13-HS- None None None None None
Con wrapped onto the cylindrical specimens after the resin application using
SR13- HS- Glass Basalt 1 0.0557 0.0112 a brush, as shown in Fig. 3c. Once again, resin-impregnated rollers were
1GC1BF Chopped Fiber used to remove any trapped air.
Fiber
SR13- HS- Glass Basalt 2 0.1113 0.0112
2GC2BF Chopped Fiber 2.4. Instrumentation and test setup
Fiber
SR13- HS- Glass Basalt 3 0.1670 0.0112 All specimens were tested under a monotonic axial compression by
3GC3BF Chopped Fiber utilizing a Universal Testing Machine (UTM) with a capacity of 500 kN.
Fiber
The simultaneous axial shortening of the cylinders was monitored by

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P. Thansirichaisree et al. Composites Part C: Open Access 14 (2024) 100448

Fig. 1. Strengthening materials (a) E-glass and (b) Basalt.

Fig. 2. Tensile coupons and their ruptures (a) Basalt, (b) CSM, and (c) the hybrid B-CSM jacket.

Table 2 top and bottom surfaces of the cylindrical specimens were carefully
Thickness and tensile rupture strength of strengthening materials. cleaned and ground (Fig. 4a). Steel plates of suitable thickness were
Jacketing type Thickness (mm) Tensile rupture strength (MPa) placed on top of specimens to ensure that the load was solely applied to
the concrete surface.
Basalt 0.19 240
CSM 0.50 180
B-CSM 1.19 290 3. Experimental results
Polyester Resin N/A 17
3.1. Ultimate failure modes
Table 3
The ultimate failure of low-strength, medium-strength, and high-
Mix proportions of concrete.
strength specimens are shown in Figs. 5, 6, and 7, respectively. Exten­
3
Ingredient (kg/m ) Low-strength Medium strength High strength
sive splitting and concrete crushing were observed at the failure of
Cement 261 441 636 control specimens. It was found that the extent of concrete crushing was
Fine aggregates 783 794 818 related to the strength of the plain concrete. Specimens with higher
Coarse aggregates 1043 882 727
strength of plain concrete demonstrated more explosive failure than that
Water/cement ratio 1.20 0.64 0.34
observed for the lower strength of plain concrete. A better resistance to
the axial compression was developed in specimens strengthened with B-
using linear variable differential transducers (LVDTs). To guarantee CSM jackets. This was physically observed in their delayed failure and
precise and accurate measurements, pre-calibrated LVDTs were installed better resistance to the lateral bulging of concrete. The failure of
on a steel plate aligned with the UTM’s loading plate. In order to strengthened specimens was characterized by the rupture of B-CSM
guarantee the uniform application of the axial load during the tests, the jackets in the hoop direction along with delamination from the concrete

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P. Thansirichaisree et al. Composites Part C: Open Access 14 (2024) 100448

Fig. 3. The strengthening of specimens (a) application of E-glass jacket, (b) application of polyester resin on the surface of E- glass, and (c) wrapping the outer Basalt
fiber jacket.

Fig. 4. (a) Grinding to achieve uniform application of load and (b) typical test setup.

Fig. 5. Ultimate failure modes of low-strength specimens (a) SR13-LS-CON, (b) SR13-LS-1GC1BF, (c) SR13-LS-2GC2BF, and (d) SR13-LS-3GC3BF.

surface, whereas the location of rupture was mostly concentrated near concentration near the corners of a section, often in the absence of
the corners. This implies that the provision of a 13 mm corner radius was sufficient confinement on the flat sides. This lack of confinement limits
insufficient to completely mitigate the stress concentrations that occur the ability of the material to distribute stress uniformly, thus eliminating
near the sharp corners of the rectilinear sections [50]. Similar ultimate the beneficial effects of membrane action [53]. An important observa­
failures have been observed in previous studies as well [51,52]. Brittle tion to note is that the tensile rupture of multiple layers of B-CSM
fracture is characterized by the occurrence of failure under stress exhibited a progressive behavior. This was deduced from the audible

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P. Thansirichaisree et al. Composites Part C: Open Access 14 (2024) 100448

Fig. 6. Ultimate failure modes of medium-strength specimens (a) SR13-MS-CON, (b) SR13-MS -1GC1BF, (c) SR13-MS-2GC2BF, and (d) SR13-MS-3GC3BF.

Fig. 7. Ultimate failure modes of high-strength specimens (a) SR13-HS-CON, (b) SR13-HS-1GC1BF, (c) SR13-HS-2GC2BF, and (d) SR13-HS-3GC3BF.

snipping sounds that were heard prior to the rupture of the outermost properties, the external confinement does not modify the brittle
layer. These sounds indicated that the underlying layers of B-CSM had compressive failure of concrete.
already experienced rupture before the outermost layer failed. It is noted
that despite possessing a ductile nature by B-CSM confinement as
compared to basalt or GCSM confinement alone, the failure modes of 3.2. Ultimate compressive strength and strain
specimens were brittle. Similar observations have been reported by
previous study [54] where a substantially ductile polyethylene tere­ A summary of the peak compressive strength and ultimate
phthalate (PET) FRP was utilized to enhance the compressive stress and compressive strain is given in Table 4. The percentage improvements in
strain behavior of concrete. This infers that despite possessing ductile peak compressive strength and ultimate compressive strain over that of
control specimens are also presented in Table 4. The improvement in

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P. Thansirichaisree et al. Composites Part C: Open Access 14 (2024) 100448

Table 4 improvement was reduced to 18.5 %, 29.7 %, and 48.5 %, respectively,

Summary of ultimate compressive strength and corresponding strain. in high-strength specimens. This suggests that the stiffness ratio had a
Name of Peak Increase in peak Ultimate Increase in negative impact on the performance of the hybrid B-CSM confinement.
specimen strength strength(%) strain ultimate strain Similar observations were also made elsewhere [47,48].
(MPa) (%) It is noteworthy that the ultimate strain of control specimens
SR13-LS-Con 14.2 - 0.0075 - decreased slightly as the strength of plain concrete increased. For
SR13-LS- 18.5 30.2 0.0196 161.6 instance, the ultimate strain of Specimen SR13-LS-Con was 0.0075,
1GC1BF whereas this number was reduced to 0.0065 for Specimen SR13-MS-
SR13-LS- 23.1 62.7 0.0306 308.2
2GC2BF
Con. For strengthened specimens, the ultimate strain increased as the
SR13-LS- 27.1 90.9 0.0421 461.1 confinement ratio increased, indicating a positive influence on
3GC3BF compressive ductility. This behavior was again consistent for specimens
SR13-MS- 26.7 - 0.0065 - with different stiffness ratios. The observed augmentation in ultimate
Con
strain for a three-layer B-CSM confinement amounted to 461.1 %. This
SR13-MS- 32.8 22.8 0.0118 82.0
1GC1BF equates to a ratio of 5.61, signifying the ultimate strain of Specimen
SR13-MS- 37.8 41.4 0.0179 175.6 SR13-LS-3GC3BF in relation to the ultimate strain of the corresponding
2GC2BF control specimen. To underscore the effectiveness of B-CSM confine­
SR13-MS- 42.4 58.8 0.0204 214.1 ment, this outcome was juxtaposed against a similar finding presented
3GC3BF
SR13-HS- 33.3 - 0.0067 -
by Sakol et al [55]. Sakol et al. [55] employed three layers of basalt FRP
Con on square specimens with dimensions akin to those in the present study.
SR13 HS- 39.5 18.5 0.0096 43.0 However, the tensile rupture strength of basalt FRP was 450 MPa, as
1GC1BF opposed to 240 MPa in this investigation. Sakol et al. [55] reported a
SR13-HS- 43.2 29.7 0.0142 111.4
ratio of 5.95 for the ultimate strains of confined to unconfined speci­
2GC2BF
SR13-HS- 49.5 48.5 0.0163 142.5 mens. This implies that basalt FRP with a 240 MPa tensile rupture
3GC3BF strength would yield a ratio of approximately 3 for the ultimate strains
of confined to unconfined specimens. This translates to an 87 % higher
ultimate strain demonstrated by Specimen SR13-LS-3GC3BF in this
peak compressive strength increased as confinement ratio increased. study (Fig. 8).
This trend was consistent, irrespective of the strength of the plain con­
crete. One, two, and three layers of B-CSM jackets brought about im­
3.3. Compressive stress-strain curves
provements of 30.2 %, 62.7 %, and 90.9 % in peak compressive strength
of low-strength specimens. The same improvement in medium-strength
The measured compressive stress-strain curves are shown in Fig. 9a,
specimens was 22.8 %, 41.4 %, and 58.8 %, respectively, whereas this
b, and c for low, medium, and high-strength specimens, respectively.

Fig. 8. Compressive stress-strain curves for specimens with (a) low-strength, (b) medium-strength, and (c) high-strength.

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Fig. 9 reveals a number of important observations that can be drawn the strength of unconfined concrete). This suggests that the effectiveness
from the visual representation presented. The stress-strain curves of of B-CSM reinforcement is more significant for lower-strength concrete
specimens with low plain concrete strength were characterized by an compared to higher-strength concrete.
initial stiff branch, followed by another ascending branch, thus repre­
senting a bilinear relationship. On the contrary, the stress-strain curves 4. Analytical investigations
of specimens with medium and high plain concrete strength were gov­
erned by an initial parabolic branch, followed by a descending branch. This section aims to evaluate the performance of existing stress-strain
This suggests that a higher confinement ratio would be required to models for FRP-confined concrete and propose new analytical models
achieve a bilinear stress-strain relationship as the strength of plain specifically for B-CSM-confined concrete. Additionally, the subsequent
concrete is increased. It is worth highlighting that the initial stiffness or sections introduce an analytical approach for predicting the compressive
elastic moduli of specimens, characterized by different strengths of plain stress-strain curves of B-CSM confined concrete.
concrete, remained unaltered following the application of B-CSM
jackets.
4.1. Assessment of existing compressive strength-strain models
3.4. Effect of stiffness ratio
4.1.1. Prediction of confined peak compressive strength
In Fig. 9a, it is shown how the stiffness ratio affects the increase in There are multiple equations found in the literature that demonstrate
compressive strength. Particularly, the results signify that the how the use of externally wrapped FRPs can improve the axial strength
enhancement in compressive strength is more noticeable when the of concrete [56,57]. Several researchers have adopted the general form
stiffness ratio is higher. For instance, when a single layer of B-CSM was of Eq. (1) to relate the amount of external passive confinement with the
used for strengthening, the difference in compressive strength increase in ultimate compressive strength. The quantity of external
improvement between specimens with stiffness ratios of 0.0295 and confinement is related to the resulting confinement pressure generated fl
0.0136 was 7.4 %, while the difference between specimens with stiffness [58].
ratios of 0.0295 and 0.0112 was 11.7 %. However, when strengthened fcc fl
with three layers of B-CSM, these differences increased significantly. The = 1 + k1 (1)
fco fco
improvement in compressive strength of specimens with stiffness ratios
of 0.0295 and 0.0136 approached 32.1 %, while the difference between where fcc represents the peak compressive strength, fco represents un­
specimens with stiffness ratios of 0.0295 and 0.0112 increased to 42.4 confined compressive strength, k1 is a constant that varies across
%. different models, and fl is the passive pressure generated by external
A similar trend is observed when examining the increase in ultimate wraps. Since B-CSM jackets are unidirectional (i.e., they provide
compressive strain, as demonstrated in Fig. 9b. The difference in the confinement through their membrane action), it is assumed that their
increment of compressive strain between specimens with stiffness ratios confinement mechanism is analogous to that of a typical unidirectional
of 0.0295 and 0.0136 under 1-layer, 2-layer, and 3-layer B-CSM FRP. With this assumption, several existing FRP confinement models can
confinement was 79.6 %, 132.6 %, and 247.0 %, respectively. Similarly, be applied to B-CSM confinement. Fig. 11 presents the equilibrium
the corresponding difference between specimens with stiffness ratios of phenomenon between the outward bursting pressure and the membrane
0.0295 and 0.0112 was 118.6 %, 196.8 %, and 318.6 %, respectively. stiffness of B-CSM jackets. The resulting mathematical equation is given
Generally, it can be inferred that the effectiveness of B-CSM confinement in Eq. (2).
reduces as the stiffness ratio is decreased.
2ft t
fl = ρ (2)
D
3.5. Effect of confinement ratio
where D, ft, and t represent the diagonal length of the section, the tensile
Fig. 10(a) and (b) illustrate the influence of the confinement ratio on strength of hemp fiber ropes, and the thickness of a single hemp rope,
the increase in compressive strength and strain, respectively. It is re­ respectively. Terms D and ρ can be determined from Eq. (3) [59] and (4)
flected that the increase in both compressive strength and strain is [50], respectively.
directly proportional to the confinement ratio (apart from an outlier in
2bh
Fig. 10(b) at confinement ratio of 0.1670). Moreover, it is noted that the D= (3)
improvement in compressive strength and strain fades as the strength of b+h
the concrete increases (as the confinement ratio is inversely related to

Fig. 9. Effect of stiffness ratio on enhancement in (a) peak strength and (b) ultimate strain.

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P. Thansirichaisree et al. Composites Part C: Open Access 14 (2024) 100448

Fig. 10. Effect of confinement ratio on enhancement in (a) ultimate strength and (b) strain.

Fig. 11. Assumed equilibrium phenomenon.

(b − 2Rc )2 + (h − 2Rc )2
ρ=1− (4) Table 5
3A Various existing analytical models for ultimate stress and strain of FRP-confined
concrete.
where b and h are defined in Fig. 11, Rc is the corner radius, and A is
defined in Eq. (5). Model Peak Compressive Stress fcc Ultimate Strain εu
( ) ( )
Shehata et al. fcc fl ϵu fl
A = bh − (4 − π)R2c (5) [56] fco
= 1 + 0.85
fco ϵco
= 1 + 13.5
fco
ACI-440.2 R-02 fcc ϵu
= − 1.254 + = 1.50 +
4.1.2. Prediction of confined ultimate compressive strain [77] fco
′ ϵco
( )( )0.45
The form of Eq. (6) has conventionally been used to represent the √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
7.94fl fl 13.0
fl ϵfe
2.254 1 + ′ − 2 ′ fco
ultimate strain [33,58,60,61]. f co fco
ϵco
( )
Kumutha et al. fcc fl -
ϵcc fl = 1 + 0.93
= 1 + k2 (6) [65] fco f
ϵco fco ( co)( )
Al-Salloum [66] fcc b fl -
= 1 + 3.14
fco D f
where εco is the ultimate strain of unconfined concrete. Eq. (6) was ( )( co )
Mirmiran et al. fcc 2rc fl -
= 1 + 6.0
originally proposed for steel-confined concrete [58]. However, it has [67] fco D
( ) co
f
been demonstrated that Eq. (6) can be utilized for fiber-reinforced Lam and Teng fcc fl ϵu
= 1 + 3.30 = 1.75 +
[68] fco fco
polymer (FRP) confined concrete as well [56,62–64]. This study eval­ ϵco
( )( )0.45
uates the efficacy of various ultimate strain models by assuming that fl ϵfe
12.0
fco
B-CSM layers offer confinement in a comparable manner to other FRP
ϵco
( ) ( )
Pimanmas et al. fcc fl ϵu fl
confinement systems. Table 5 presents multiple ultimate stress and [57] fco
= 1 + 2.50
f ϵco
= 2 + 7.0
fco
(co )
strain models for externally confined square-shaped concrete specimens. Ilki and fcc fl ϵu
( )0.75
fl
= 1 + 2.227 = 1 + 15.0
A comparison of predicted vs. experimental peak strength is pre­ Kumbasar [69] fco fco ϵco fco
sented in Fig. 12. One such comparison for low-strength specimens is
Note: εco = ultimate strain of unconfined concrete, and εfe = effective strain of
shown in Fig. 12a. It is noted from Fig. 12a that peak strength was most external wrap (taken as 0.6 times the ultimate strain).
accurately predicted by the models of Ilki and Kumbasar and Pimanmas
et al. However, these models could not accurately predict the peak
compressive strength of specimens with medium and high strength of

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P. Thansirichaisree et al. Composites Part C: Open Access 14 (2024) 100448

Fig. 12. Comparison of predicted vs. experimental peak compressive strengths (a) low-strength, (b) medium-strength, and (c) high-strength specimens.

plain concrete. For medium and high-strength plain concrete, the strength exhibited descending branches. Recognizing this, the charac­
models by Al-Salloum and Lam & Teng resulted in close agreement with teristic shape of B-CSM-confined concrete was assumed to follow two
experimental results, as shown in Fig. 12b and c. Thus, it can be inferred branches, as shown in Fig. 14. In the following sections, a design-
that existing models of FRP-confined concrete cannot be used to predict oriented model is proposed based on equations obtained by nonlinear
the peak compressive strength of B-CSM-confined concrete, especially regression. This approach is based on the earlier models proposed by Wu
when the strength of plain concrete is altered. Similarly, none of the et al. [70] and Lam and Teng [71] who utilized general expressions
studied existing models could predict the ultimate compressive strain of available in the literature to trace the compressive stress vs. strain curves
B-CSM-confined concrete, as shown in Fig. 13. Interestingly, all the of FRP-confined concrete. Then, regression-based expressions were used
models studied in the present study underestimated the ultimate strain for the key points on compressive stress vs. strain curves. More recently,
values. Therefore, the need for new models for predicting the peak design-oriented approach was utilized by other researchers [71–74]. It is
compressive strength and ultimate strain of B-CSM-confined concrete is noteworthy that those studies utilized the available database in the
emphasized. literature to propose regression-based equations. In this study, a novel
hybrid BCSM confinement is proposed. Therefore, authors are relying on
5. Proposed analytical models experimental results of the present study. However, it is recommended
to enhance the database related to the BCSM confinement and validate
In this section, an effort was made to predict the complete the results and models proposed in the present study.
compressive stress-strain curve of B-CSM confined concrete for a range In Fig. 14, several key characteristic points are identified for the
of plain concrete strengths used in the present study. Characteristically, comprehensive tracing of the stress-strain curve. The termination of the
it was recognized in Section 3 that the shape of the compressive stress- initial parabolic branch is denoted by the coordinates (f1,ε1), signifying
strain curve of B-CSM confined concrete comprised two branches. the point where the curve transitions to a different behavior. Similarly,
Initially, a parabolic branch was observed, followed by either ascending the conclusion of the subsequent linear branch is indicated by the co­
or descending branches. The nature of the second branch was found to ordinates (fcc, εcc), representing the point where the failure of B-CSM
be dependent on the strength of the plain concrete. Particularly, confined concrete under axial compression is encountered. Additionally,
strengthened specimens with low plain concrete strength exhibited an the determination of the initial modulus Ec1 becomes imperative in order
ascending second branch, whereas medium and high plain concrete to provide essential information regarding the material’s stiffness at the

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P. Thansirichaisree et al. Composites Part C: Open Access 14 (2024) 100448

Fig. 13. Comparison of predicted vs. experimental ultimate compressive strains (a) low-strength, (b) medium-strength, and (c) high-strength specimens.

Fig. 14. Idealized compressive stress-strain curve for B-CSM confined concrete.

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P. Thansirichaisree et al. Composites Part C: Open Access 14 (2024) 100448

onset of loading. For this purpose, the initial formulations of Popovics experimental ultimate compressive strength is shown in Fig. 15(a).
[75] later modified by Mander et al. [76] were adopted. The stress fc at
any arbitrary strain, ε is given as: 5.2. Expression for compressive strain ε1
x×r
fc = f1 (7) Like the ultimate compressive strength, an equation for the ultimate
r − 1 + xr
strain was also proposed by using nonlinear regression analysis:
ϵ
x= (8) [ ( )d ]
ϵ1 fl
ϵcc = ϵco × 1 + c × (11)
fco
Ec
r=( ) (9)
f1 The regression constants, denoted as c and d, were estimated to be
Ec − ϵ1 4.510 and 0.713, respectively. It should be emphasized that the coeffi­
cient of determination (R2) obtained was 0.91, indicating a relatively
where separate equations for the initial slope Ec1, Ec2, f1, and ε1 will be high degree of correlation. Fig. 15(b) illustrates a comparison between
proposed in the following sections. the predicted and experimental ultimate compressive strain.

5.1. Expression for compressive strength f1 5.3. Expression for modulus of second branch Ec2

An expression like Eq. (1) was used in the nonlinear regression The expression for the modulus of the second branch was proposed
analysis. The nonlinear regression analysis was performed by using the by examining the experimental stress-strain curves. It was observed that
classical Gauss-Newton method. the value of Ec2 varied with the strength of the plain concrete, whereas
[ ( )b ] the effect of the number of B-CSM layers was insignificant. Therefore,
fl the following equation was proposed to predict the slope of the second
f1 = fco × 1 + a × (10)
fco branch with a single explanatory variable fco.
Ec2 = 426.396 − 22.817fco (12)
where a and b are constants of regression and were estimated at 1.344
and 0.634, respectively. It is important to note that the resulting coef­ The proposed Eq. (9) resulted in the coefficient of determination (R2)
ficient of determination R2 was 0.98. A comparison of predicted vs. of 0.99. Fig. 15(c) presents the comparison of experimental vs. predicted

Fig. 15. Comparison of experimental vs. predicted characteristic points (a) fcc, (b) εcc, (c) Ec2, and (d) Ec1.

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P. Thansirichaisree et al. Composites Part C: Open Access 14 (2024) 100448

compressive strength Ec2. affect the efficiency of external confinement, as observed in previous
studies [78,79]. Further, more studies are recommended to investigate
5.4. Expression for elastic modulus Ec1 the performance of the proposed B-CSM confinement for a range of
specimen sizes, as found elsewhere [78,79].
The expression for the elastic modulus of B-CSM-confined concrete is
provided in Eq. (10). It is to be noted that the elastic modulus has been 6. Conclusions
linked directly to the strength of the plain concrete, i.e., fco [77]. A
similar observation was made in the present study, and the proposed To investigate the behavior of concrete confined with hybrid natural
expression for the elastic modulus of B-CSM-confined concrete is given fibers, specifically Basalt and E-glass fibers, an experimental framework
as: was developed. This study focused on examining the influence of two
key parameters: the strength of the plain concrete and the number of B-
Ec1 = 433.868 × fco0.748 (13) CSM layers utilized for confinement. Additionally, the performance of
existing stress-strain models for FRP-confinement was evaluated to
Eq. (1) resulted in a coefficient of determination of 0.94, and the
determine their effectiveness in predicting the behavior of B-CSM-
efficacy of the resulting expression is shown in Fig. 15(d).
confined concrete. It is noteworthy that the results of this study need
further validation. This study utilized a single cross-section for square
5.5. Comparison of predicted vs. experimental stress-strain curves specimens. It is well established that the cross-section size influences the
mechanical properties of concrete. Therefore, the performance of the
The comparison of predicted stress-strain curves of B-CSM confined hybrid B-CSM confinement needs to be assessed for a range of cross-
concrete with experimental curves is shown in Fig. 16. In general, it is section sizes. Moreover, the design-oriented model proposed in this
evident that the proposed methodology predicted the compressive study was based on a limited number of specimens from this study. It is
stress-strain curves of B-CSM confined concrete with close agreement. In recommended to validate the performance of the proposed model and
particular, the ultimate strain, strength, and initial modulus were well- modify by extending the range of parameters studied in this study. Based
matched with experimental results. The initial stiffness of Specimen on the experimental results and analytical findings, the following sig­
SR13-HS-3GC3BF was slightly overestimated; however, this can be nificant conclusions can be drawn:
attributed to the regression error encountered.
The regression-based models under consideration have the capability 1. The introduction of the newly proposed hybrid B-CSM confinement
to forecast stress vs. strain curves for B-CSM confined concrete, provided technique resulted in a notable enhancement in the brittle
that the parameters fall within the tested range established in this study. compressive stress-strain behavior of the concrete. This improve­
It is crucial to emphasize that regression models should not be employed ment was evident through a significant increase in both the peak
for extrapolating results beyond the bounds of the tested parameter strength and strain values. Notably, the ultimate strength exhibited
range. Moreover, in practice, members that need strengthening are an improvement of approximately 90 %, while the ultimate strain
subjected to service loads and the presence of service loads has proved to

Fig. 16. Comparison of experimental vs. predicted stress-strain curves for specimens with (a) low-strength, (b) medium-strength, and (c) high-strength.

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P. Thansirichaisree et al. Composites Part C: Open Access 14 (2024) 100448

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