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Surveying
Surveying is defined as “taking a general
view of, by observation and measurement
determining the boundaries, size, position,
quantity, condition, value etc. of land, estates,
building, farms, mines etc. and finally
presenting the survey data in a suitable
form”.

Another school of thought define surveying

“as the act of making measurement of the
relative position of natural and man made
features on earth’s surface and the
presentation of this information either
graphically or numerically.

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Examples:
Determine the location of points on the earth’s
surface.
Determine the elevation of a point.
Collect data for a surface plot.
Mapping the location of utilities.
Calculate the distance between two points.
Determine the position of boundary lines.
Determine areas of tracts of land.

The process of surveying is therefore in following

phases namely:

(i) Planning and Decision making

This part of the definition is important as it indicates the
need to obtain an overall picture of what is required
before any type of survey work is undertaken.

It involves the following:

Reconnaissance
Selection of an appropriate method of surveying
Selection of instruments and other equipment
Selection of method of fixing survey stations

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(iii) Observation and Measurement

(Field Work)

It is the process of collecting the field data by

making necessary measurements both linear
and angular and recording the results in a
systematic manner.

This part of the definition denotes the next

stage of any survey, which in land surveying
constitutes the measurement to determine
the relative position and sizes of natural and
artificial features on the land.

(iii) Presentation of Data (Office Work)

The data collected in any survey must be

presented in a form which allows the
information to be clearly interpreted and
understood by others.

This presentation may take the form of

written report, bills of quantities, datasheets,
drawings and in land surveying maps and
plan showing the features on the land.

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The office work involves:

Computations of coordinates i.e. transformation of

the field measurements into a suitable form for
plotting
Data processing
Preparing plans or maps to suitable scales
Inking-in and finishing of the drawings
Computations of quantities to be shown on the
drawing for special purposes such as areas of land
and volumes of earthworks, etc.

(v) Setting Out Work

• It involves pegging out the structure on the ground

before construction starts

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Types of land surveying

Based on the considerations and true shape of the
earth, surveying is broadly classified into two types.
"Plane surveying
• This is survey in which the earth surface is
assumed to be plane and the curvature of the earth
is ignored. The plane surveys extend only over small areas
and the lines connecting any two points on the surface of the
earth are treated as straight lines and the angles between
such lines are taken as plane angles. In dealing with plane
surveys, knowledge of plane geometry and trigonometry is
required. Surveys covering an area up to 260 km²
may be treated as plane surveys.

Scope and Use of Plane Surveying:

• Plane surveys are carried out for engineering
projects on sufficiently large scale to determine
relative positions of individual features of the
earth surface. Plane surveys are used for the
layout of highways, railways, canals, fixing
boundary pillars, construction of
bridges, factories etc.

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• The scope and use of plane surveys is very

wide. For majority of engineering project, plane
surveying is the first step to execute
them. Plane surveys are basically needed
for proper, economical and accurate
planning of all engineering projects and
their practical significance cannot
be overestimated."

• Geodetic Surveying
In geodetic surveying the curvature of the earth
is taken into account while calculating reduced
levels, angles, bearings and distances. This type
of surveying is usually employed for large survey
works. Survey works up to 100 square
miles (260 sq kilometers) are treated as
plane and beyond that are treated as
geodetic. In geodetic surveying necessary
corrections are applied to reduced levels,
bearings and other observations.

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BRANCHES OF LAND SURVEYING

1. Cadastral Surveying
2. Aerial Surveying
3. Engineering Surveying
4. Topographic Surveying
5. Control Surveying
6. Hydrographic Surveying

Cadastral Surveying
• These are surveys undertaken to define and record
the boundary of properties, legislative area and
even countries.

• In the other hand, accurately surveyed beacons or

markers define boundaries

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Aerial Surveying
Aerial surveys are undertaken by using
photographs taken with special cameras
mounted in an aircraft viewed in pairs.
The photographs produce three-
dimensional images of ground features
from which maps or numerical data can be
produced usually with the aid of stereo
plotting machines and computers.

Hydrographic Surveying
(Hydro-Survey)
Hydro survey is undertaken to gather
information in the marine environment such
as mapping out the coast lines and sea bed
in order to produce navigational charts.
It is also used for off shore oil exploration
and production, design, construction and
maintenance of harbors, inland water routes,
river and sea defense, pollution control and
ocean studies.

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Topographical Survey
These are surveys where the physical
features on the earth are measured and
maps/plans prepared to show their
relative positions both horizontally and
vertically.
The relative positions and shape of natural
and man–made features over an area are
established usually for the purpose of
producing a map of the area

Engineering Survey
• These are surveys undertaken to provide special
information for construction of Civil Engineering
and building projects.

• The survey supply details for a particular

engineering schemes and could include setting out
of the work on the ground and dimensional control
on such schemes

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Clinometer:

• A clinometer, or inclinometer, is an instrument used

to measure angles of inclination or slope.
• It is crucial in civil engineering for assessing
slopes, terrain angles, and structural inclinations.
• Clinometers are available in analog or digital
forms.
• Analog clinometers consist of a graduated arc or
circle with a leveling mechanism and a sighting
system.
• Digital clinometers have a digital display that
provides accurate angle readings.
• Both types typically measure angles within a range
of ±90 degrees.

Mistakes In Linear Measurement In

Surveying

• In surveying, mistakes in linear

measurement can occur due to various
factors, such as human error, instrument
calibration issues, environmental conditions,
and incorrect surveying techniques. Here are
some common mistakes that can affect linear
measurements in surveying:

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1. Incorrect Instrument Calibration:

Surveying instruments, such as total stations or

theodolites, need to be properly calibrated
before use. If the instrument is not calibrated
correctly or regularly, it can introduce errors in
linear measurements. This can result in
inaccurate distance readings or angle
measurements, leading to overall measurement
errors.

2.Poor Instrument Handling:

• Improper handling of surveying instruments
can introduce errors in linear measurements.
For example, not holding the instrument steady
or maintaining proper alignment with the target
can lead to parallax errors or angular
misalignments, affecting the accuracy of linear
measurements.

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3. Incorrect Reading or
Recording:
• Mistakes can occur during the reading or
recording of measurement data. Misreading
the scales or recording incorrect values can
introduce errors in linear measurements. It is
crucial to be attentive and double-check
measurements before recording them.

4. Environmental Conditions
• Environmental factors, such as temperature,
humidity, atmospheric pressure, and wind, can
impact linear measurements. These conditions
can cause the expansion or contraction of
surveying equipment or affect the stability of
the instrument setup, leading to measurement
errors. It is important to account for
environmental conditions and apply
appropriate corrections if necessary.

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Requirement for proper caring and

handling of Survey Equipment

• In construction, survey equipment is used to

cover a wide range of applications right from
surveys, construction supervision, to heavy
engineering precision manufacturing
applications. The majority of its functions are
utilized at job sites, exposing it to different
environmental and external elements. Besides,
the cost of equipment and devices is
considerably high. Therefore, contractors and
construction firms should give proper heed to
maintain these instruments.

5. Inadequate Targeting:
• Accurate targeting is crucial for precise linear
measurements. If the target is not properly
aligned with the instrument, it can result in
errors. For example, using reflective targets
that are not perpendicular to the line of sight
can introduce angular errors, affecting linear
measurements.

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6. Inappropriate Surveying
Techniques:
• Using incorrect surveying techniques or
methods can lead to measurement errors. For
instance, not properly leveling the instrument
or not accounting for slope corrections in
inclined measurements can result in
inaccuracies in linear measurements.

7. Human Errors:
• Surveying involves human involvement, and
mistakes can occur due to human errors.
Inconsistent pacing during tape
measurements, misalignment of ranging rods
or arrows, or misinterpretation of instrument
readings can lead to errors in linear
measurements

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• To minimize mistakes in linear measurement,

surveyors should follow best practices,
including regular instrument calibration, proper
instrument handling, careful reading and
recording of measurements, considering
environmental corrections, accurate targeting,
employing appropriate surveying techniques,
and maintaining attention to detail throughout
the surveying process. Additionally, using
redundant measurements and conducting
quality checks can help identify and correct any
errors that may have occurred

Need for Proper Care of Survey

Equipment
• Proper maintenance and care of survey
instruments should be taken for the following
reasons
1.Most of the survey equipment is expensive.
2.Replacement of survey equipment from time to
time is not an economical solution.
3.Properly maintained survey equipment gives
precise and accurate results.
4.A well-maintained survey equipment saves
time and money

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Maintenance of Survey
Equipment
• Survey equipment must be checked and
maintained at different stages of its use. Some
maintenance tips have been enlisted below:

1.Carry out routine care of survey equipment

2.Undertake smooth and safe transportation of
survey equipment
3.Perform regular calibration checks and repair
4.Take precautions against job conditions

1. Conduct Routine Care for

Survey Equipment
• Survey equipment comes with manufacturer's
details and product manuals that instruct on
maintaining and taking care of it in the right
way. Some of the essential points to remember
for routine care of instruments are:
i. Always inspect the instrument for lumps, dents,
or cracks. Check whether the polished and the
machine faces of the lenses and mirrors of the
instrument are in proper conditions. Check
whether the clamps and screws involved have
smooth motions and operates without any
binding or gritty sound.

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ii. Always keep the survey instrument in clean

and dry conditions as possible. Regular cleaning
of the instrument helps to know any issues with
the instrument. Dirt and dust present in the
instrument for a longer period results in
scratches, friction, or stick motions.
ii. When the instrument is kept idol for a long
period, it is necessary to cover the equipment.
iii. Always clean the non-optical parts of the
instruments with a soft clean cloth

iv. Use a fine lens brush to clean the surfaces of

the lenses. Avoid the use of silicon treated
tissue, which lead the lens to get scratch. Do not
use water, oil, or benzene to clean the lens.
Never attempt to clean the internal surface of
any lens of the instrument
v. Always cover the instrument when it is
uncased for a longer period, especially in an
environment that is harsh and dusty. An
instrument used in a damp environment must be
taken care of to avoid condensing moisture
inside the instrument

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vi. A surveying instrument used in a cold-

weather must be left in the case overnight.
Always keep the instrument uncased when
planning to store in a heated room overnight. An
instrument covered with wet or frost must be
moved to room temperature and left to dry.

2. Perform Safe Storage and

Transportation of Survey Equipment

Improper storage and transportation- both can

damage the survey instrument severely. Tips to
follow while storing and transporting the survey
equipment are:
• Use of an efficient storage case for the
instrument.
• The compartment has to be provided within the
survey vehicle to keep the equipment and the
related tool supplies separated. This helps to
avoid damage and easy sorting of items.

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• Carry heavy instruments in the lower parts of the

vehicles, without contact with other tools or
equipment.
• The entire survey crew must follow good care and
general housekeeping of the vehicle. Do not mix
up the passenger compartment and the equipment
compartment together.
• Most of the instruments'-carrying case takes the
shape at which it must be placed and handled.
Follow the same position while storing and
handling. This is applicable for optical targets,
staff, and prisms used.

• Jolting and excessive vibration of the

instruments while transporting can be avoided
by providing cushioned compartments.
• Before removing the instrument, make a plan
to remove it and the way it must be placed. It
must be kept back in the case in the same way
it was taken out.
• Always take the equipment out with proper grip
in both the hands. Do not exert pressure on the
vertical circle, circular levels, or the tubular
levels.

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Transit Theodolite Safely Stored Inside Its case

3. Perform Regular Calibration checks and

Repair

• A calibration test should be performed every

two weeks to ensure the accuracy of the
measurement.
• The position accuracy must be checked by
placing the instrument over a known point in
the ground

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4. Take Precautions Against Job

Conditions

• All survey equipment is designed and modeled

for the harsh construction conditions. For
example, during heavy rains, the instrument
must be used by using a rain shield over it.
This helps to prevent the moisture from
entering the mechanical joints of the machine

Total Station Surveying - Instrument Covered due to Rain

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