ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS.

Table of Contents
Organizer
Acids................................................................................................................. - 2 - 📌
Bases................................................................................................................. - 2 -
Salts.................................................................................................................. - 5 -
Precipitation Reactions..............................................................................................................................- 5 -
Test for sulphates, sulphites and
chlorides (anions)........................................................................................................................................... - 5 -
Test for cations: using aqueous
ammonia and sodium hydroxide..............................................................................................................- 6 -
Applications of Complex Ions................................................................................................................. - 7 -
Solubility and Solubility Curves...........................................................................- 7 -
Importance of solubility curves.................................................................................................................. - 9 -
Hardness of Water............................................................................................ - 12 -
Temporary and permanent hardness
of water............................................................................................................................................................. - 12 -
Disadvantages of Hard Water.............................................................................................................. - 12 -
Advantages of Hard Water.................................................................................................................... - 12 -
Methods of Removing Hardness of Water...........................................................................................- 13 -
Review Questions........................................................................................................................................... - 14 -
Objectives
By the end of the topic, the learner should be
able to:
(a) Define acids, bases and salts.
(b) Explain the difference between a
strong and weak acid and a strong and
a weak base.
(c) Explain the role of a solvent in acid
base character.
(d) Compare the strength of acids and bases in terms of pH and electrical conductivity.
(e) Write formula and ionic equations for acid-base and precipitation reactions.
(f) Identify the complex ions formed in specified cation-anion reactions.
(g) Define solubility and explain the use of solubility curves in salt extraction.
(h) State the types and causes of hardness of water and explain the methods of removing
hardness.
(i) State some effects of hard water.
2 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS.

Acids
An acid can be defined as a substance that dissociates in water to give hydrogen
ions as the only positively charged ions.

Equations

HCl(aq) H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

H2SO4(aq) 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

CH3COOH(aq) H+(aq) + CH3COO-(aq)

Strength of Acids
The pH value of a solution is related to the number of hydrogen ions present. The
higher the number of the hydrogen ions the lower the pH value.
Acids whose aqueous solutions contain a high number of hydrogen ions hence lower
pH values are called strong acids while those whose solutions have few hydrogen
ions hence higher pH values are weak acids.
A strong acid dissociates completely and yields many hydrogen ions in aqueous
solution.
A weak acid dissociates partially and yields few hydrogen ions in aqueous solution.

Examples of strong acids include hydrochloric acid, sulphuric(VI) acid (H 2SO4)

and nitric(V) acid (HNO3).

HCl(aq) H+(aq) + Cl–(aq)

H2SO4(aq) 2H+(aq) + SO42– (aq)

HNO3(aq) H+(aq) + NO3- (aq)

The strong acids have lower pH values and are also better conductors of
electricity since conductivity is dependent on the number of ions present in
the electrolyte.
Weak acids have higher pH values and are poor conductors of electricity in their
electrolytic state. They include ethanoic acid, ethanedioic acid (H2C2O4) and
methanoic acid (HCOOH).

CH3COOH(aq) H+(aq) + CH3COO– (aq)

Bases
A base is defined as a substance that dissociates in water to produce hydroxide (OH-)
as the only negatively charged ions.

Strength of Bases.
A strong base is one that ionises completely in water to produce hydroxide ions.
Strong bases have high pH values and are good electrolytes, eg sodium
hydroxide.
 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS3

When sodium hydroxide is dissolved in water, it completely ionises to form sodium

and hydroxide ions.
NaOH (s) H2 O Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
→

Sodium hydroxide solution therefore contains many hydroxide ions.

Weak bases partially ionises to form hydroxide ions. They therefore have lower
pH values and are poor electrolytes, eg Ammonia solution.
When ammonia gas dissolves in water, some of the ammonia molecules react with the
water molecules to produce ammonium hydroxide.

NH3(g) + H2O(l) NH4OH (aq)

The ammonium hydroxide partially ionises to form ammonium and hydroxide ions.

NH4OH(aq) NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

Ammonia solution therefore contains fewer hydroxide ions compared to sodium

hydroxide solution.
Hydroxide ions are responsible for the alkaline properties. The higher the number
of hydroxide ions, the higher the pH value and the greater the conductivity.
Therefore, sodium hydroxide is a stronger alkali than ammonia solution.

Acid-base Reactions
Acids react with bases to form a salt and water.
(i) NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l)
(ii) CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
CuO (s) + 2H+(aq) Cu2+(aq) + H2O(l)
(iii) Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2HNO3 (aq) Ca(NO3)2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
2OH-(aq) + 2H+(aq) 2H2O(l)

During the reactions, the hydrogen ions from the acid react with the hydroxide ions
from the base to form water.
Effect of a Solvent on a Solute
A molecule which behaves as if it is negatively charged in one end and positively
charged in the opposite end is said to be polar. Water is therefore a
polar solvent.
A water molecule consists of one oxygen atom and two
hydrogen atoms. Since the oxygen has a higher ability to attract
bond electrons compared to hydrogen, the bond pairs of electrons
are closer to the oxygen atom in the water molecule leading to the
oxygen atom developing a partial negative charge (δ-) while the hydrogen atoms
develop a partial positive charge (δ+).

The hydrogen chloride molecule is also polar. This is because chlorine has a higher
ability to attract bond electrons compared to hydrogen. The chlorine end of the
4 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

molecule develops a partial negative charge while the hydrogen end develops a
partial positive charge.
δ+
H – Clδ–

When hydrogen chloride is dissolved in water, different water molecules attract both
ends of the hydrogen chloride molecule and cause it to dissociate. This implies that
the covalent bond is broken in such a way that the shared pair of electrons are left
with the chlorine atom, thus creating a negatively charged chloride ion and a
positively charged hydrogen ion.
Hydrogen chloride dissociates in water as follows;
HCl (s) water H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
→

The presence of the hydrogen ions in an aqueous solution of hydrogen chloride

explains why it is acidic, i.e., turns blue litmus paper red and reacts with magnesium
to liberate carbon(IV)oxide gas.

2H+(aq) + Mg(s) Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)

2H+(aq) + CaCO3(s) Ca2+(aq) + CO2(g) + HO(l)

Methylbenzene is a non-polar solvent. When hydrogen chloride gas dissolves in

methylbenzene, its molecules do not dissociate and therefore no hydrogen ions are
present. Hence a solution of hydrogen chloride in methylbenzene does not exhibit acid
properties. It has no effect on litmus paper and does not react with magnesium or
calcium carbonate.

Effect of Polar and non-polar solvents: ammonia in water and in

methylbenzene
Dry ammonia has no effect on dry litmus paper. A solution of ammonia in water turns
red litmus paper blue while a solution of ammonia gas in methylbenzene has no effect
on dry litmus paper.
When ammonia is dissolved in water, some of the ammonia molecules react with
the polar water molecules to form ammonium hydroxide.

NH3(g) + H2O(l) NH4OH(aq)

The ammonium hydroxide ionises to form ammonium and hydroxide ions.

NH4OH(aq) NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq)

Thus, the hydroxide ions are the ones that are responsible for the basic nature of
the gas. A solution of dry ammonia gas in methylbenzene has no effect on dry litmus
paper since no hydroxide ions are produced.
Ammonia gas dissolves in methylbenzene without undergoing any change because
methylbenzene is non-polar. Hence there are no hydroxide ions in a solution of
ammonia gas in methylbenzene. The solution therefore has no effect on litmus paper.
Amphoteric Oxides and Hydroxides
The metal oxides or hydroxides which react both as bases and acids are said to be
amphoteric.
The oxides and hydroxides of aluminium, zinc and lead react with nitric(V) and sodium
hydroxide to form colourless solutions.
 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS5

Acids react with metal oxides and hydroxides to form salts and water ( neutralization
reactions) .
Aluminium oxide, zinc oxide, and lead(II) oxide react with the acid to form colourless
solutions.

Al2O3 (s) + 6HNO3(aq) 2Al(NO3)3(aq) + 3H2O(l)

ZnO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Zn(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)

PbO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Pb(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)

In these reactions, metal oxides are reacting as bases.

Aluminium oxide, zinc oxide, and lead(II) oxide also react as acids with sodium
hydroxide to form colourless solutions.

Al2O3(s) + 2NaOH(aq) 2NaAlO2(aq) + H2O(l)

PbO(s) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2PbO2(aq) + H2O(l)

ZnO(s) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2ZnO2(aq) + H2O(l)

Lead hydroxide, zinc hydroxide and aluminium hydroxide are also amphoteric.

Pb(OH)2(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Zn(OH)2(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Zn(NO3)2(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Al(OH)3(s) + 3HNO3(aq) Al(NO3)3(aq) + 3H2O(l)

In this reactions the hydroxides are reacting as bases.

Salts.
A salt is defined as an ionic compound formed when a cation derived from a base
combines with an anion derived from an acid.

Precipitation Reactions
A precipitate is an insoluble solid that separates out from a solution during a
chemical reaction.
Sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate and ammonium carbonate are soluble in
water. Their solutions may be used to precipitate insoluble metal carbonates. The
ionic equations showing the formation of calcium carbonate, zinc carbonate,
Copper(II) carbonate, lead carbonate and barium carbonate are:

Ca2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) CaCO3(s)

Zn2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) ZnCO3(s)

Cu2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) CuCO3(s)

Pb2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) PbCO3(s)

Ba2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) BaCO3(s)

6 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

Iron(III) and aluminium salts hydrolyse in water to give acidic solutions which react
with carbonates to liberate carbon(IV) oxide gas. This explains the effervescence
observed when sodium carbonate is added to salt solutions containing these ions.
Iron(III) and aluminium carbonates do not therefore exist. The precipitates formed in
this case are hydroxides.

Test for sulphates, sulphites and chlorides (anions)

Most metal cations form soluble chlorides except lead(II) ions.

Pb2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) PbCl2(s)

However, lead(II) chloride is soluble in warm water. All sulphates of the cations listed
are soluble except barium sulphate and lead sulphate.

Pb2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) PbSO4(s)

Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) BaSO4(s)

The sulphites of all the listed cations are insoluble. However, the sulphites react with
dilute hydrochloric acid or nitric acid to produce sulphur(IV) oxide gas.

PbSO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Pb(NO3)2(aq) + SO2(g) + H2O(l)

BaSO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) BaCl2(aq) + SO2(g) + H2O(l)

The reaction between a sulphite and hydrochloric or nitric(V) acid is used as a test to
distinguish between sulphite and sulphate ions. The sulphite dissolves in the acid with
the evolution of sulphur(IV) oxide, while the sulphate does not dissolve in the acid.

BaSO3(s) + 2H+(aq) Ba2+(aq) + SO2(g) + H2O(l)

Test for cations: using aqueous ammonia and sodium hydroxide.

Sodium hydroxide forms insoluble hydroxides with the ions of magnesium, zinc,
aluminium, iron(II), iron(III), copper(II) and lead(II). These hydroxides have
characteristic appearance which forms the basis of their identification. The ionic
equations for the reactions are:

Mg2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Mg((OH)2(s) white precipitate

Zn2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Zn(OH)2(s) white precipitate

Al3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq) Al(OH)3(s) white precipitate

Fe2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Fe(OH)2(s) green precipitate

Fe3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq) Fe(OH)3(s) brown precipitate

Cu2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Cu (OH)2(s) blue precipitate

Pb2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Pb (OH)2(s) white precipitate

Complex Ions
The hydroxides of zinc, aluminium, and lead react with excess sodium hydroxide to
form soluble complex ions. Thus:

Zn(OH)2(s) + 2OH-(aq) [Zn(OH)4]2– colourless

Al(OH)3(s) + OH-(aq) [Al(OH)4]–(aq) colourless

 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS7

Pb(OH)2(s) + 2OH-(aq) [Pb (OH)4] 2–(aq) colourless

Potassium hydroxide may be used in place of sodium hydroxide. Similar results are
obtained when potassium hydroxide is used.
When ammonia solution is used in place of sodium hydroxide, insoluble metal
hydroxides are formed in the same way. However, the hydroxides of zinc and copper
dissolve in excess ammonia solution because of the formation of complex ions.
Thus:
2+
Zn ( OH )2 ( s ) + 4N H3 (aq)
→
[ Zn ( NH3 ) 4 ] ( aq ) + 2 OH- (aq)
white colourless
2+
Cu ( OH )2 ( s ) + 4N H3 (aq)
→
[ Cu ( NH3 ) 4 ] ( aq ) + 2 OH- (aq)
blue deep blue
It is observed that only zinc hydroxide dissolves in excess of both sodium hydroxide
and ammonia solution.
In complex ions the ammonium molecule and the hydroxide groups form dative
bonds with the metal ions.

Applications of Complex Ions

Complex ions are important in biology and industry. Chlorophyll and haemoglobin are
complex ions.
In industry, complex ions play an important role in softening of hard water as used in
ion exchangers and also in the extraction of some metals such as aluminium from
their ores.

Solubility and Solubility Curves.

The solubility of a solute in a solvent is the maximum mass of solute required to
saturate 100 g of the solvent at a particular temperature.
Solubility can also be expressed in moles per litre of solution at a given
temperature.

Example
24 cm3 of water dissolves 6 g of a solute at 15°C. Determine the solubility of the
solute in g/100g of water.

Since density of water is 1g/cm3, 24 cm3 of water =24g.

24 g of water dissolves 6g of the solute at 15°C.
This means that 100 g of solvent will dissolve:

Thus the solubility of the salt is 25 g per 100 g of water at 15°C.

Therefore, in one litre (1000 cm3) of water, the mass that will dissolve is:
8 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

Therefore moles per litre will be:

Examples
1.The solubility of KClO3 at 100oC is 60g/100g water. What mass of KClO3
will be deposited at:
(i)75 oC if the solubility is now 39g/100g water.
At 100oC = 60.0g
o
Less at 75 C = - 39.0g
Mass of crystallized out 21.0g

(i)35 oC if the solubility is now 28 g/100g water.

At 100oC = 60.0g
o
Less at 35 C = - 28.0.0g
Mass of crystallized out 32.0g

2. KNO3 has a solubility of 42 g/100g water at 20oC.The salt was heated and
added 38g more of the solute which dissolved at100oC. Calculate the
solubility of KNO3 at 100oC.

Solubility of KNO3 at 100oC = solubility at 20oC + mass of KNO3 added

=> 42g + 38g = 80g KNO3 /100g H2O

3. A salt solution has a mass of 65g containing 5g of solute. The solubility of

this salt is 25g per 100g water at 20oC. 60g of the salt are added to the
solution at 20oC.Calculate the mass of the solute that remain undissolved.
Mass of solvent at 20oC = mass of solution – mass of solute
=> 65 - 5 = 60g

Solubility before adding salt = mass of solute x 100

Volume of solvent

=> 5 x 100 = 8.3333g/100g water

60

Mass of solute to equalize with solubility = 25 – 8.3333g = 16.6667g

Mass of solute undissolved = 60.0 - 16.6667g = 43.3333 g

Effect of temperature on the solubility of salts.

The solubility of a solute in a particular solvent depends on temperature.
For most salts, solubility increases as the temperature rises.
 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS9

However, the solubility of salts such as sodium chloride and calcium sulphate
remain almost constant with temperature change.
The solubility of some salts such as calcium ethanoate (Ca(CH3COO)2) decreases
with increase in temperature.
The figure below shows how the solubilities of some familiar salts vary with
temperature.

The following results were obtained from an experiment to determine the solubility of
potassium chlorate.

When solubility is plotted against temperature, the following graph is obtained.

10 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

From the graph it is clear that an increase in temperature results in an increase in

solubility.
A graph of solubility against temperature for a salt solution is known as a solubility
curve.
Importance of solubility curves
Crystallisation
Solubility curves are useful since they give information that can be used to show how
crystals are obtained from saturated solutions.

If a saturated solution of potassium chlorate at 70°C is cooled to 30°C, crystallisation

occurs. The mass of crystals is determined using the steps below:
(i) Mass of salt at 70°C = 124 g
(ii) Mass of salt at 30°C = 37 g
(iii) Mass of crystals deposited = 124 – 37
= 87 g

Fractional Crystallisation
The knowledge of solubility curves is also useful in the separation of a mixture of salts
with different solubilites. The separation of different salts by making use of the
differences in solubility in the same solvent is known as fractional crystallisation.
For example, if a mixture of salts contains 20 g of potassium nitrate and 18 g of
potassium chlorate in 100 g of water at 50°C, one of the salts can be separated using
the information in the table below
Salt Solubility at various temperatures
50 °C 20°C
Potassium nitrate 86 g 31 g

Potassium chlorate 18 g 8g

If the mixture is cooled from 50°C to 20°C mass of potassium chlorate that crystallises
= 18 – 8 = 10 g
But no potassium nitrate will crystallise.
The solubility of one salt has no effect on the solubility of the other.
The curves obtained when the solubility of various salts is against temperature is
plotted can be used to determine the amount of salt obtained at a given temperature.
 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS11

Effect of temperature on the solubility of KNO3 and Pb(NO)3

For example, when 100 cm3 of a saturated solution of potassium nitrate and lead
nitrate is cooled from 70°C to 40 °C, the amount of salt that crystallises out is
calculated from the graph as follows:
At 70°C the mass of:
(i) Potassium nitrate = 138 g
(ii) Lead nitrate = 100 g
At 40°C, the mass of:
(i) Potassium nitrate = 64 g
(ii) Lead nitrate = 70 g

Therefore, the mass of potassium nitrate crystals deposited is 138 – 64 = 74 g The

mass of lead nitrate crystals deposited is (100 – 70) = 30 g
12 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

Applications of fractional crystallization: Extraction of salt from sea

water.
Lake Magadi contains trona, Na2CO3NaHCO3.2H2O and common salt NaCl.
During the day when temperatures are high, sodium carbonate crystallises out
because its solubility is low at high temperatures while common salt remains in
solution.
At night when the temperatures are low, sodium chloride crystallises out while
sodium carbonate remains in solution.
At Ngomeni salt works, sea water is pumped into shallow ponds and evaporation is
allowed to take place naturally. As the amount of water reduces, sodium chloride
crystallises out because of the increase in its concentration.

Hardness of Water
Hard water is water that does not readily lather with soap.
Soft water readily lathers with soap.
Calcium hydrogen carbonate, calcium and magnesium sulphate are the substances
that are responsible for hardness of water.
Water containing Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions does not lather readily with soap. The ions of
calcium and magnesium react with soap to form an insoluble substance called scum.

Temporary and permanent hardness of water.

Water hardness that is removed by boiling is temporary hardness. Temporary
hardness of water is caused by the presence of the hydrogen carbonates of calcium
and magnesium.
When an aqueous solution of calcium hydrogen carbonate is boiled, it decomposes
into calcium carbonate which precipitates out. Similarly, when a solution containing
magnesium hydrogen carbonate is boiled, it decomposes to magnesium carbonate.
The resulting solutions form lather readily with soap.

Ca(HCO3)2(aq) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Mg(HCO3)2(aq) MgCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

The above carbonates, magnesium and calcium hydrogen carbonate exist only in
solution.
Hardness that cannot be removed by boiling is called permanent hardness.
Permanent hardness of water is caused by the presence of the sulphates of
magnesium and calcium in water. Calcium sulphate and magnesium sulphate
do not decompose on heating thus boiling cannot be used to remove
permanent hardness of water.

Disadvantages of Hard Water

(a) Wastes soap.
(b) Stains white clothes. The soap precipitates out Ca 2+ and Mg2+ as scum which
form stains on the clothes.
 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS13

(c) Deposition of fur (calcium carbonate) in kettles, pipes and boilers. This
reduces efficiency in boilers, and may make hot water pipes to burst.

Advantages of Hard Water

(a) It provides calcium which is essential for strengthening bones.
(b) Hard water does not dissolve lead from lead pipes because a layer of
carbonate is formed as a lining therefore there is no contact between the water
flowing in the pipes and lead.
(c) It is used in beer brewing.
Methods of Removing Hardness of Water
Hardness can be removed by various methods, which include:
(a) Boiling: This method removes temporary hardness only. It cannot be used to
remove permanent hardness since heating has no effect on the sulphates of
calcium and magnesium.
During boiling, calcium hydrogen carbonate and magnesium hydrogen carbonate
in the water are decomposed to produce the insoluble carbonates.

Ca(HCO3)2(aq) CaCO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Mg(HCO3)2(aq) MgCO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

(b) Distillation: This method removes both types of hardness but it is expensive.
During distillation, the water is allowed to evaporate, then condensed and
collected as the distillate. The salt is left behind as the residue.
(c) Addition of sodium carbonate: The Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions are precipitated out.
This method removes both types of harness.

Ca2+(aq) + CO2-(aq) CaCO3(s)

Mg2+(aq) + CO32–(aq) CaCO3(s)

(d) Ion exchange: In this process hard water is passed through a column filled
with some complex sodium compounds which can be represented by the
formula Na2X where X is a complex.

Na2X(s) + Ca2+(aq) CaX(s) + 2Na+(aq)

The Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions are precipitated as CaX and MgX which remain in the column
as shown below.
14 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

The column gradually becomes converted to calcium and magnesium complex, and
loses the ability to remove calcium and magnesium ions. It can be recovered by
flushing it with a concentrated solution of sodium chloride (brine) to form
calcium chloride and magnesium chloride which are washed away. This way,
the column is recharged or regenerated. The ion exchange method removes both
types of hardness.

CaX(s) + 2NaCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + Na2X(s)

MgX(s) + 2NaCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + Na2X(s)

(e) Addition of calcium hydroxide: In this process, a known amount of calcium

hydroxide is added to water containing calcium hydrogen carbonate, calcium
carbonate is precipitated.

Ca(HCO3)2(s) + Ca(OH)2(aq) 2CaCO3(s) + 2H2O(I)

(f) Addition of ammonia solution. Aqueous ammonia is added to water

containing calcium hydrogen carbonate which precipitates out as calcium ions.

Ca(HCO3)2(aq) + 2NH4OH(aq) CaCO3(s) + 2H2O(l) + (NH4)2CO3(aq)

This method removes temporary hardness only.

Review Questions
1. 2006 Q 11 P1
(a) Water from a town in Kenya is suspected to contain chloride ions but not sulphate ions.
Describe how the presence of the chloride ions in the water can be shown. (1 mark)

(b) State one advantage of drinking hard water rather than soft water. (1 mark)

2. 2006Q 14 P1
Below is a list of oxides.
MgO, N2O, K2O, CaO, and Al2O3.
Select:
(a) A neutral oxide (1 mark)
(b) A highly water-soluble basic oxide (1 mark)
(c) An oxide which can react with both sodium hydroxide solution and dilute hydrochloric
acid.
(1 mark)

3. 2006 Q 24P1
(a) Complete the table below to show the colour of the given indicator in acidic and basic
solutions. (1 mark)

Indicator Colour in
Acid solution
Basic solution
Methyl orange Yellow
Phenolphthalein Colourless
(b) How does the PH value of 0.1M potassium hydroxide solution compare with that of
0.1M aqueous ammonia? Explain. (2
marks)
 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS15

4. 2007 Q 15 P1
(a) Explain why permanent hardness in water cannot be removed by boiling.

(2marks)
(b) Name two methods that can be used to remove permanent hardness from water.

(1mark)

5. 2007 Q 16 P1
The table below shows the tests that were carried out on solid N and the observations
made.
Test Observations
I Solid N was heated Solid N turned from white to yellow.
II Dilute hydrochloric acid was added
to solid N. A colourless solution was formed.
III To the colourless solution obtained
in test I, excess sodium hydroxide A white precipitate was formed which
solution was added. dissolved to form a colourless solution.
Write the formula of the anion in;
(a) Solid N (1mark)
(b) The colourless solution formed in test II (1mark)

6. 2007 Q 6 P2
(a) The elements nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium are essential for plant growth.
Potassium in fertilizers may be in the form of potassium nitrate.

(i) Describe how a sample of a fertilizer may be tested to find out if it contained nitrate
ions. (2marks)
(ii) Calculate the mass of nitrogen present if a 25kg bag contained pure ammonium
phosphate, (NH4)2HPO4. (N = 14.0, H=1.0, P = 31.0, O = 16.0)
(2
marks)

(b) The table below shows the solubility of ammonium phosphate in water at different
temperatures.
Temperature (°C) Solubility of ammonium phosphate in
g/100g water
10 63.0
20 69.0
30 75.0
40 82.0
50 89.0
60 97.0

(i) On the grid provided, draw the solubility curve of ammonium phosphate
(Temperature on x - axis) (3
marks)
(ii) Using the graph, determine the solubility of ammonium phosphate at 25 °C.
(1
mark)
(iii) 100g of a saturated solution of ammonium phosphate was prepared at 25 °C
I. What is meant by a saturated solution? (1 mark)
II. Calculate the mass of ammonium phosphate which was used to prepare the
saturated solution. (2 marks)
16 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

7. 2008 Q 15 P1
The table below gives the solubilities of substances J, K and L at different temperatures
Substance Solubility in grams per 100 g water at
0 °C 20°C 40°C 60°C
J 0.334 0.16 0.097 0.0058
K 27.60 34.0 40.0 45.5
L 35.70 36.0 40.0 37.3
Select the substance which, when dissolved in water, heat is given out. Give a reason.
(2
marks)

8. 2008 Q 17 P1, 2015 Q17 P1

A compound whose general formula is M(OH)3 reacts as shown by the equation below.
M(OH)3(s) + OH- (aq) →
M(OH)4-(aq)
M(OH)3(s) + 3H+ (aq) →
M3+ (aq) + 3H2O (l)
(a) What name is given to compounds which behave like M(OH)3 in the two reactions
(1
mark)

(b) Name two elements whose hydroxides behave like that of M. (2 marks)

9. 2009 Q 2 P1
Hardness of water may be removed by either boiling or addition of chemicals.
(a) Write an equation to show how boiling removes hardness of water.
(1
mark)
(b) Name two chemicals that are used to remove hardness of water.
(2
marks)

10. 2009 Q 16 P1
The solubility curve of potassium nitrate is shown below.
 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS17

(a) Determine the solubility of potassium nitrate at 50°C. (1 mark)

(b) Determine the molar concentration of saturated potassium nitrate at 50°C. (K = 39.0, O
= 16.0, N = 14.0 and density of water = 1 g/cm3). (2
marks)

11. 2009 Q 23 P1
Use the flow chart below to answer the questions that follow.

(a) What observation would be made in step 1? (1 mark)

(b) Name another substance that could be used in step 2 (1 mark)
(c) Give the name of substance H. (1 mark)

12. 2009 Q 25 P1
For each of the following reactions, state the observation and write
the formula of the compound responsible for the observation.
(a) Bromide water is added to aqueous potassium iodine (1½
mark)

(b) Excess aqueous ammonia is added to copper (II) hydroxide (precipitate)

18 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

(1½ mark)

13. 2010 Q 16 P1
A sample of fertilizer is suspected to be calcium ammonium nitrate. Describe chemical tests
for each of the following ions in the sample:
(a) Calcium ions; (2 marks)

(b) Ammonium ions. (1 mark)

14. 2010 Q 23 P1
The curves below shows how the electronic conductivity of hydrochloric and ethanoic acids
vary with concentration.

Explain why the electrical conductivity of 0.01M hydrochloric acids is higher

than that of 0.01M ethanoic acid. (2 marks)

15. 2010 Q 25 P1
A sample of river water was divided into three portions. The table below shows the test
carried out on the portions and the observations made.
Test Observation Inference
No lather formed.
To the first portion, 1 cm3 of soap solution
was added
The second portion was boiled, cooled and No lather formed.
1 cm3 of soap solution was added.
 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS19

To the third portion, 3 cm3 of aqueous Lather formed

sodium carbonate was added, the mixture immediately.
filtered and 1 cm3 of soap solution added to
filtrate

Complete the table by filling in the inferences (3 marks)

16. 2011 Q 8 P1
(a) What is meant by a strong acid? (1 mark)

(b) In an experiment, 40 cm3 of 0.5 M hydrochloric acid was reacted with excess sodium
carbonate and the volume of carbon (IV) oxide produced recorded with time. In another
experiment, the same volume and concentration of ethanoic acid was also reacted with
excess sodium carbonate and the volume of carbon (IV) oxide produced recorded with
time.

On the grid below, sketch and label the curves if the volumes of carbon (IV) oxide were
plotted against time. (2
marks)

17. 2011 Q 15 P1
Soap dissolves in water according to the equation below
NaSt(aq) →Na+(aq) + St- where St- is the stearate ion.
(a) Write the formula of the scum formed when soap is used in hard water.
(1
mark)
(b) Write the ionic equation for the reaction that occurs when sodium
carbonate is used to remove hardness in water. (3 marks)

18. 2011 Q 30 P1
A sample of river water is suspected to contain zinc ions. Describe how the presence of zinc
ions and sulphate ions can be established. (3 marks)
19. 2012 Q6 P1
Study the information in the table below and answer the questions that follow:
Salt Solubility (g/100g water)
At 40°C At 60°C
CuSO4 28 38
Pb(NO3)2 79 98
A mixture containing 35g of CuSO4 and 78g of Pb(NO3)2 in 100g of water at 60°C was
cooled to 40°C.
(a) Which salt crystallised out? Give a reason. (2 marks)
(b) Calculate the mass of the salt that crystallised out. (1 mark)
20 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

20. 2012 Q10 P1

(a) Name two cations that are present in hard water. (1 mark)
(b) Explain how the ion exchange resin softens hard water. (2 marks)

21. 2013 Q9 P1
Aqueous hydrogen chloride reacts with potassium manganate (VII) to produce chlorine gas,
while a solution of hydrogen chloride in methylbenzene has no effect on potassium
manganate (VII). Explain this observation.
(2 marks)

22. 2013 Q10 P1

The table below gives the solubilities of substances T and U at 10°C and 40°C.
Substance Solubility g/100g water
10 °C 40 °C
T 40 65
U 15 17
When an aqueous mixture containing 55g of T and 12g of U at 80 °C was cooled to 10 °C,
crystals formed.
(a) Identify the crystals formed . (1 mark)
(b) Determined the mass of the crystals formed. (1 mark)
(c) Name the method used to obtain the crystals. (1 mark)

23. 2014 Q12 P1

The table below shows the pH values of solutions A, B, C and D
Solution A B C D
pH 2 7 11 14
Select solutions in which a sample of lead (II) hydroxide is likely to dissolve.
Give reasons for each solution selected. (3 marks)

24. 2014 Q7 P2
(a) Dissolving of potassium nitrate in water is an endothermic process. Explain the effect of
increase in temperature on the solubility of potassium nitrate.

(2 marks)

(b) The table below shows the solubilities of potassium sulphate and potassium chlorate (V) at
different temperatures.
Temperature (°C) 0 20 40 60 80 100
Solubility of K2SO4 g/100 g water 8.0 10.0 14.0 17.5 20.0 22.0
Solubility of KClO3 g/100g water 3.0 5.0 15.5 24.0 38.0 53.0
(i) Draw the solubility curves for both salts on the same axis. (Temperature on the X-
axis
(3 marks)
(ii) A solution of potassium sulphate contains 20g of the salt dissolved in 100 g of water
at 100 °C. This solution is allowed to cool to 25 °C
I) At what temperature will crystals first appear?
 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS21

II) What mass of crystals will be present at 25 °C? (1mark)

(iii) Which of the two salts is more soluble at 30 °C? (1mark)

(iv) Determine the concentration of potassium sulphate in moles per litre when the
solubility of the two salts are the same (K= 39.0, O=16.0; S=32.0)
(3 marks)

(v) 100 g of water at 100 °C contains 19g of potassium sulphate and 19 g of potassium
chlorate (V). Describe how a solid sample of potassium sulphate at 60 °C can be
obtained.
(2 marks)

25. 2015 Q6 P1
Describe how sodium carbonate is used to remove water hardness (2 marks)

26. 2015 Q6c P1

Two different samples of water (I and II) were tested with soap solution. Sample II was
further subjected to two other processes before adding soap. 20 cm3 of each sample of
water was shaken with soap solution in a boiling tube until a permanent lather was obtained.
The results are shown in the table below
Water sample Volume of soap solution needed (cm3)
before boiling after boiling
I 10 5
II 6 6
II after filtering 6 6
II after distilling 2 2
(i) Identify the water sample that had temporary hardness. Explain your answer.
(2
marks)
(ii) Explain why the results for sample II are different after distilling but remain
unchanged after filtering. (2
marks)
(iii) State two disadvantages of using both water samples for domestic purposes.
(2
marks)

27. 2017 P1 Q9.

Copper(II) ions react with excess aqueous ammonia to form a complex ion.

(a) (i) Write an equation for the reaction that forms the complex ion.
(1
mark)
(ii) Name the complex ion. (1 mark)
(b) Explain why CH4 is not acidic while HCl is acidic yet both compounds contain hydrogen.
(1
mark)

28. 2017 P1 Q14.

Using the elements chlorine, calcium and phosphorus:
(a) Select elements that will form an oxide whose aqueous solution has a pH less
than 7. (1
22 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

mark)
(b) Write an equation for the reaction between calcium oxide and dilute hydrochloric
acid. (1
mark)
(c) Give one use of calcium oxide. (1 mark)

29. 2018 P1 Q1.

(a) Define a soluble base. (1 mark)
(b) Aqueous solutions of 2M ethanoic acid and 2M nitric(V) acid were tested for
electrical conductivity. Which solution is a better conductor of electricity?
Explain.
(2 marks)

30. 2018 P2 Q4
(a) An experiment was carried out to prepare crystals of magnesium sulphate. Excess
magnesium powder was added to 100 cm3 of dilute sulphuric(VI) acid in a beaker and
warmed until no further reaction took place.
The mixture was filtered and the filtrate evaporated to saturation, then left to cool for
crystals to form.

(i) Write an equation for the reaction. (1 mark)

(ii) Explain why excess magnesium powder was used. (1 mark)
(iii) State how completion of the reaction was determined. (1 mark)
(iv) What is meant by a saturated solution? (1 mark)
(v) Explain why the filtrate was not evaporated to dryness. (2 mark)

31. 2019 P1 Q6.

A farmer intended to plant cabbages in his farm. He first tested the pH of the soil and found
it to be 3.0.If cabbages do well in alkaline soils, explain the advice that would be given to the
farmer in order to realise a high yield. (2
marks)

32. 2019 P1 Q16.

(a) Complete the following table. (2 mark)
Solution pH Nature of solution
H 1.0
I Neutral
J Weak acid
K 13.0
(b) Explain why a solution of ammonia in methylbenzene has no effects on red
litmus paper while in aqueous ammonia red litmus paper turns blue. (1
mark)

33. 2019 P1 Q25.

Chemical tests were carried out on separate samples of water drawn from the same source.
The observations made were recorded as shown in Table 4.
Test Observation
(i) Addition of aqueous calcium chloride No white precipitate
 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS23

(ii) Addition of dilute sulphuric (VI) acid No effervescence, colourless

solution
(iii) Addition of a few drops of acidified
barium nitrate No white precipitate
(iv) Addition of aqueous ammonia White precipitate dissolves

State the inferences made in reactions:

(i)........................... (1 mark)
(ii)............................. (1 mark)
(iii).............................. (1 mark)

34. 2019 P2 Q4.

(a) Explain the following observations:
(i) The colour of aqueous copper (II) sulphate fades when a piece of magnesium
metal is dropped into the solution.
(2 marks)
(ii) A piece of iron bar is coated with a brown substance when left in the open on a
rainy day. (2 marks)

(b) A sample of water is suspected to contain aluminium ions (AI3+).

Describe a laboratory experiment that can be carried out to show that AI3+ ions are
present in the water sample.
(3 marks)

(c) In an experiment to determine the number of moles of water of crystallisation of a

hydrated compound Na2SO4.XH2O, 5g of the compound were heated strongly to a
constant mass.

(i) Explain how a constant mass was obtained. (2 marks)

(ii) During the experiment, the mass of the residue was found to be 2.205 determine the
number of moles of water of crystallisation in the compound.
(Na = 23.0; O = 16.0; S = 32.0; H = 1.0) (3 marks)