Table of Contents

Sr. No. Content Pg. No.

1. Definition of Governance & Society 1-2
2. How Governance and Society are linked 3-4
3. Key Components of Governance 5-7
4. Different Governance Models 8 - 17
5. The Hierarchical Model 18 - 19
6. Open Systems Model 20 - 22
7. Self-Governance Model 23 - 25
8. Good Governance vs. Bad Governance 26
9. Society 27 - 31
10. Sociological Models and Theories 32 - 34
11. Key Terms – Governance 35 - 37
12. Key Terms – Society 38 - 41
 Overview of Governance and Society

1. Definition of Governance & Society

1.1 What is Governance?

One word: Management

One line: Decision-making and management of
resources and processes within an
organization or society.
Definition: Governance refers to the mechanisms and
processes through which decisions are
made and implemented within
organizations, institutions, or societies. It
involves the establishment of rules,
structures, and practices that guide the
behavior of individuals and groups in
achieving common goals and managing
resources effectively. Good governance is
characterized by transparency,
accountability, participation, and
adherence to ethical principles.

1
1.2 What is Society?

One word: Community

One line: Society is a network of individuals living
together in organized communities,
sharing customs, laws, and institutions.
Definition: Society is a complex network of individuals
who share common norms, values, and
institutions, and interact within a specific
geographical area or social group. It
encompasses the collective behaviors,
relationships, and structures that shape
human interaction and organization.
Societies may vary in size, complexity, and
cultural diversity, but they typically involve
cooperation, social roles, and shared
systems of governance.

2
2. How Governance and Society are linked
1. Social Contract: Governance is often based on a
social contract between rulers and the ruled,
wherein individuals consent to be governed in
exchange for protection of their rights and
provision of essential services. This contract
reflects the shared values and expectations of
society regarding the role of government and the
distribution of power and resources.
2. Public Participation: Effective governance
encourages active participation and engagement
of citizens in decision-making processes, ensuring
that policies and decisions reflect the needs and
preferences of the broader society. In turn, an
engaged and informed citizenry contributes to the
legitimacy and accountability of governance
institutions.
3. Social Equity: Governance plays a crucial role in
promoting social equity and justice by ensuring fair
and equitable distribution of resources,
opportunities, and benefits within society. Policies
and programs aimed at reducing disparities,
addressing systemic inequalities, and protecting

3
 vulnerable populations are essential components
of good governance.
4. Civic Engagement: Governance structures provide
avenues for civic engagement and collective
action, enabling individuals and communities to
voice their concerns, advocate for their rights, and
hold government officials accountable for their
actions. Civil society organizations, grassroots
movements, and community initiatives play a vital
role in shaping governance outcomes and
promoting social change.
5. Institutional Framework: The effectiveness of
governance is contingent upon the strength and
integrity of institutional frameworks that govern
interactions between state and society.
Transparent, accountable, and responsive
governance institutions foster trust, confidence,
and social cohesion, contributing to the stability
and resilience of society as a whole.
Overall, the relationship between governance and society is symbiotic,
with governance systems shaping social dynamics and outcomes, while
society influences the norms, values, and priorities that underpin
governance structures and processes. By understanding and
strengthening this link, communities can work towards building more
inclusive, equitable, and resilient societies.

4
3. Key Components of Governance
Governance refers to the processes, structures, and
organizational traditions that determine how power and
responsibilities are exercised, how decisions are made,
and how citizens or stakeholders have their say. It
encompasses the mechanisms by which societies or
organizations are managed and regulated.
3.1 Government and Institutions:
 Political Structures: Includes different branches of
government (executive, legislative, and judiciary)
and their functions.
 Public Administration: The implementation and
management of public policies through
governmental agencies.
3.2 Rule of Law:
Ensuring that laws are fairly applied and enforced,
protecting the rights of individuals and maintaining
order.
 Transparency: Openness in the decision-making
process, making information accessible to the
public to promote accountability and trust.

5
 Accountability: Holding public officials and
institutions responsible for their actions and
decisions, ensuring they act in the public's best
interest.
 Participation: Involving citizens in the decision-
making process, ensuring their voices are heard
and considered in governance.
 Efficiency and Effectiveness: Implementing
policies and delivering public services in a way that
makes optimal use of resources and achieves
desired outcomes.
 Equity and Inclusiveness: Ensuring all members of
society, including marginalized groups, have
opportunities to improve their well-being and
participate in governance.
 Sustainability: Promoting policies and practices
that ensure long-term ecological, economic, and
social health.

6
3.3 Types of Governance:
 Democratic Governance: Characterized by free and
fair elections, protection of human rights, and the
rule of law.
 Corporate Governance: Refers to the system of
rules, practices, and processes by which a
company is directed and controlled, focusing on
stakeholder interests.
 Global Governance: The collaboration of
international organizations, states, and other
actors to address global issues that transcend
national borders, such as climate change and trade
regulation.
3.4 Challenges in Governance:
 Corruption: Misuse of public power for private
benefit, undermining trust and efficiency.
 Inequality: Disparities in wealth, power, and access
to resources can hinder fair governance.
 Political Instability: Frequent changes in
government or policy can disrupt governance and
development.

7
4. Different Governance Models

Governance Description Examples

Model
Democratic Power is with the people, United States,
Governance who vote in elections. Canada, United
Decision-making is based Kingdom, India
on rule of law, separation of
powers, and individual
rights.
Authoritarian Power is concentrated in China, Russia,
Governance one person or a small North Korea,
group, without much input Saudi Arabia
from citizens. Decision-
making is centralized, often
with repression of dissent.
Parliamentary The executive branch is United
Governance derived from the legislature, Kingdom,
with the head of Canada,
government chosen from Australia,
the majority party. Decision- Germany
making involves interaction
between executive and
legislative branches.

8
Presidential Executive power is vested United States,
Governance in an elected president, who Brazil, Mexico,
is both head of state and Indonesia
government. Decision-
making may involve a
separate legislative branch.
Federal Power is divided between a United States,
Governance central government and Germany,
local political units, each Canada,
with its own authority. Australia
Decision-making may
require coordination
between different levels of
government.
Unitary Power is centralized at the France, Japan,
Governance national level, with limited Sweden, Italy
autonomy for local
governments. Decision-
making is controlled by the
central government.

9
4.1 Democratic Governance:
It is a system of government where power is vested in
the hands of the people, who exercise their authority
through free and fair elections. In democratic
governance:
1. Power of the People: Citizens have the right to
participate in decision-making processes through
voting and other forms of political engagement.
2. Rule of Law: The government operates within a
framework of laws that apply equally to all citizens,
including those in positions of authority.
3. Separation of Powers: The government is divided
into separate branches (such as the executive,
legislative, and judicial branches) to prevent the
concentration of power in any one institution.
4. Protection of Rights and Freedom: Democratic
governments prioritize the protection of individual
rights and freedoms, such as freedom of speech,
assembly, and religion.

10
 5. Accountability and Transparency: Elected officials
are accountable to the people and are expected to
govern transparently, with public access to
government information.
4.2 Authoritarian Governance:
Authoritarian governance is a system of government
characterized by a concentration of power in the hands
of a single individual or a small group, often without
meaningful checks and balances or opportunities for
political participation. In authoritarian governance
1. Concentration of Power: Power is centralized in the
hands of a single leader, such as a dictator, or a
small group, such as a ruling elite or party.
2. Limited Political Participation: Citizens have
limited or no opportunities to participate in political
decision-making processes, and dissent is often
suppressed.
3. Lack of Checks and Balances: There is typically
little to no separation of powers, with the
government controlling all branches of
government, including the judiciary and media.

11
 4. Restrictions on Civil Liberties: Individual rights and
freedoms may be restricted, including freedom of
speech, assembly, and association, to maintain
control and suppress opposition.
5. State Control: The state exercises extensive
control over society, including the economy, media,
and education, to maintain authority and ensure
compliance.
4.3 Parliamentary Governance:
Parliamentary governance is a system of government
where the executive branch derives its authority from the
legislature (parliament) and is accountable to it. In
parliamentary governance:
1. Executive Derived from Legislature: The head of
government, such as the Prime Minister, is
typically a member of the parliament and is
appointed based on their support within the
legislative body.
2. Interdependence of Executive and Legislature: The
executive branch is dependent on the support of
the legislative branch to remain in power. If the
government loses the confidence of the

12
 parliament, it may be removed from office through
a vote of no confidence.
3. Role of the Prime Minister: The Prime Minister
leads the executive branch and is responsible for
implementing laws, formulating policies, and
representing the country internationally.
4. Collective Responsibility: Cabinet ministers are
accountable to the parliament as a whole, and
decisions are made collectively by the cabinet,
which is composed of members of parliament
chosen by the Prime Minister.
5. Role of Parliament: Parliament plays a central role
in the legislative process, scrutinizing government
actions, passing laws, and approving the budget.
4.4 Presidential Governance:
Presidential governance is a system of government
where the executive branch, headed by a president,
operates separately from the legislative branch. In
presidential governance
1. Separation of Powers: The president, elected
separately from the legislature, serves as both the
head of state and head of government. The

13
 president's powers are distinct from those of the
legislature, providing a system of checks and
balances.
2. Executive Authority: The president holds
significant executive authority, including the power
to enforce laws, veto legislation, appoint
government officials, and serve as commander-in-
chief of the military.
3. Independence of Executive: Unlike in parliamentary
systems, where the executive is derived from the
legislature, the president in a presidential system is
independent of the legislature and is not subject to
its direct control.
4. Fixed Term: The president serves a fixed term in
office, typically ranging from four to six years, and
is not dependent on the confidence of the
legislature for continuation in office.
5. Separate Elections: The president is elected
separately from members of the legislature, often
through a direct popular vote or an electoral
college system.

14
4.5 Federal governance:
Federal governance is a system of government where
power is divided between a central authority and
constituent political units, such as states, provinces, or
regions. In federal governance:
1. Division of Powers: The constitution delineates
specific powers and responsibilities between the
central government and the subnational units.
Certain powers, such as defense and foreign
affairs, typically belong to the central government,
while others, like education and healthcare, may be
the domain of the subnational units.
2. Autonomy of Subnational Units: Subnational units,
often referred to as states, provinces, or territories,
have a degree of autonomy in managing their
internal affairs. They may have their own
legislatures, executives, and judiciaries to govern
within their designated jurisdictions.
3. Constitutional Structure: The division of powers
and the relationship between the central
government and subnational units are enshrined in
the constitution, which serves as the supreme law
of the land.

15
 4. Cooperative Governance: Federal governance often
involves cooperation and coordination between the
central government and sub-national units to
address common challenges and pursue shared
objectives. This may include joint decision-making
processes and mechanisms for resolving disputes
between different levels of government.
5. Unity with Diversity: Federal governance allows for
diversity within a unified political framework,
accommodating the distinct needs, preferences,
and identities of various regions or states within
the country.
4.6 Unitary Governance:
Unitary governance is a system of government where
power is centralized at the national or central level, with
subordinate local governments having limited autonomy
and authority. In unitary governance
1. Centralization of Power: The central government
retains ultimate authority over the entire territory of
the state. It exercises control over key functions
such as legislation, administration, and finance.

16
2. Limited Local Autonomy: Local governments, such
as municipalities or counties, derive their powers
and authority from the central government. They
operate within the framework established by
national laws and regulations and have limited
autonomy to make decisions independently.
3. Administrative Structure: The administrative
structure is typically hierarchical, with officials
appointed by the central government responsible
for overseeing local governance. Local
governments may serve as administrative
extensions of the central government rather than
autonomous entities.
4. Uniform Laws and Policies: Laws and policies are
uniformly applied across the entire territory,
ensuring consistency and uniformity in governance
practices. Decisions made at the central level are
binding on all subordinate units.
5. Centralized Decision-Making: Decision-making
authority rests primarily with the central
government, which formulates policies,
implements laws, and exercises control over public
resources and services.

17
5. The Hierarchical Model
The hierarchical model, often referred to as hierarchical
governance or hierarchical structure, is a system of
organizing and managing entities based on levels of
authority and responsibility. In this model, power and
decision-making authority flow from the top down, with
higher-level entities having more authority and control
over lower-level entities.
Key features of the hierarchical model include:
1. Clear Chain of Command
2. Centralized Decision-Making
3. Division of Labor
4. Formal Communication Channel
5. Control and Coordination
5.1 Examples of Hierarchical Models:
 Corporate Organizations: Large corporations often
have hierarchical structures, with executives at the
top, followed by middle management, and then
frontline employees.

18
 Military Organizations: Military units typically
operate under a hierarchical command structure,
where orders flow from officers to enlisted
personnel based on rank.
 Government Agencies: Government departments
and agencies may have hierarchical structures,
with appointed or elected officials at the top
overseeing various levels of administration and
staff.
 Educational Institutions: Schools and universities
may have hierarchical structures, with
administrators, faculty, and staff organized into
levels of authority and responsibility.

19
6. Open Systems Model
The open system model is a conceptual framework used
to understand organizations and their interactions with
the external environment. In this model, organizations
are viewed as dynamic entities that exchange resources,
information, and feedback with their surroundings. Unlike
closed systems, which operate in isolation, open
systems are characterized by their ability to adapt and
respond to changes in their environment.
6.1 Key features:
1. Inputs: Organizations receive inputs from the
external environment, such as raw materials,
information, and financial resources. These inputs
are necessary for the organization to function
effectively.
2. Transformation Processes: Organizations
transform inputs into outputs through various
processes, such as production, distribution, and
service delivery. These processes involve the
allocation of resources and the creation of value-
added products or services.

20
3. Outputs: Organizations produce outputs, which are
goods or services that are delivered to customers
or stakeholders. These outputs may include
tangible products, such as manufactured goods, or
intangible services, such as education or
healthcare.
4. Feedback Mechanisms: Open systems receive
feedback from the external environment, which
helps them assess their performance and make
necessary adjustments. Feedback may come in the
form of customer reviews, market trends, or
regulatory changes.
5. Interaction with the Environment: Open systems
interact with their environment in various ways,
including competition with other organizations,
collaboration with stakeholders, and compliance
with regulatory requirements. These interactions
shape the organization's behavior and strategic
decisions.

21
6.2 Examples:
 Business Organizations: Companies operate as
open systems by acquiring inputs such as raw
materials, labor, and capital from suppliers,
transforming them into products or services, and
delivering them to customers in exchange for
revenue.
 Government Agencies: Government departments
and agencies interact with citizens, businesses,
and other stakeholders to provide public services,
enforce regulations, and respond to social,
economic, and political changes.
 Educational Institutions: Schools, colleges, and
universities interact with students, parents,
teachers, and the community to provide education
and training, conduct research, and contribute to
societal development.

22
7. Self-Governance Model
The self-governance model refers to a system in which
individuals or groups autonomously manage their own
affairs and make decisions without external interference
or control. This model emphasizes self-determination,
empowerment, and responsibility among its participants.
Self-governance can take various forms, ranging from
community-based initiatives to organizational structures
within larger entities.
7.1 Key characteristics:
1. Autonomy: Participants have the freedom to
govern themselves and make decisions based on
their own values, priorities, and needs. They are not
subject to external authority or direction.
2. Participation: Self-governance relies on active
participation and engagement from all members of
the community or organization. Decision-making
processes are inclusive, transparent, and
democratic, allowing for input from all
stakeholders.

23
 3. Accountability: While participants have autonomy,
they are also accountable for their actions and
decisions. Accountability mechanisms ensure that
individuals or groups are held responsible for the
consequences of their choices.
4. Flexibility: Self-governance structures are often
flexible and adaptable to changing circumstances
and challenges. They can evolve over time to better
meet the needs of participants and address
emerging issues.
5. Collaboration: Self-governance fosters
collaboration and cooperation among its members,
encouraging shared decision-making and collective
problem-solving. It promotes a sense of
community and mutual support.
7.2 Examples of self-governance models:
 Cooperatives: Cooperatives are organizations
owned and democratically controlled by their
members, who work together to achieve common
economic, social, or cultural objectives. Members
have a say in the governance of the cooperative
and share in its benefits and responsibilities.

24
 Communal Living Communities: Communal living
communities, such as intentional communities or
eco-villages, are based on principles of self-
governance, cooperation, and shared resources.
Residents collaboratively manage their living
environment and make decisions about community
life.
 Online Communities: Online communities, such as
social media groups or forums, often operate on
principles of self-governance, where members
collectively establish rules, norms, and guidelines
for interaction. Moderators or administrators may
facilitate discussions, but the community largely
governs itself.

25
8. Good Governance vs. Bad Governance
Good governance refers to the effective and transparent
exercise of authority and management of resources by
government institutions to promote the well-being of
citizens and achieve positive development outcomes. It
includes
1. Democratic Accountability
2. Transparency and Accountability
3. Efficiency and Effectiveness
4. Rule of Law
5. Citizen Participation
On the other hand, bad governance refers to the
inefficient, corrupt, and oppressive exercise of authority
by government institutions, leading to negative
outcomes for citizens and hindering development. It
includes
1. Corruption and Nepotism
2. Lack of Transparency and Accountability
3. Authoritarianism and Repression
4. Inefficiency and Waste
5. Exclusion and Discrimination

26
9. Society
Understanding the basics of society involves grasping
fundamental concepts that explain how humans interact,
organize themselves, and create cultural norms and
institutions. Here are the essential areas to consider:
9.1 Definition of Society:
 Society: A group of individuals involved in
persistent social interaction, or a large social
grouping sharing the same geographical or social
territory, typically subject to the same political
authority and dominant cultural expectations.
9.2. Components of Society:
 Individuals: The basic units of society, each with
unique roles, identities, and relationships.
 Groups: Collections of individuals who interact and
share some common identity or goal (e.g., families,
communities, peer groups).
 Institutions: Established structures and
mechanisms of social order that govern the
behavior of individuals within a society (e.g., family,
education, religion, government, economy).

27
9.3 Culture:
 Culture: The sum of the social behavior, norms,
knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs,
capabilities, and habits of the individuals in these
groups.
 Material Culture: Physical objects, resources, and
spaces that people use to define their culture (e.g.,
technology, architecture, clothing).
 Non-material Culture: The ideas, attitudes, and
beliefs of a society (e.g., language, values, norms,
rituals).
9.4 Social Structure:
 Social Structure: The organized pattern of social
relationships and social institutions that together
compose society.
 Status: The social positions we occupy relative to
others (e.g., student, teacher, parent).
 Roles: The expectations, behaviors, and
responsibilities associated with a particular status.

28
9.5 Socialization:
 Socialization: The process by which individuals
internalize the values, beliefs, and norms of a
society and learn to function as its members.
 Primary Socialization: Occurs in childhood within
the family.
 Secondary Socialization: Occurs later in life
through schools, peers, media, and other
institutions.
9.6 Social Norms and Values:
 Norms: Rules and expectations by which a society
guides the behavior of its members.
 Folkways: Informal norms or everyday customs
that may be violated without serious
consequences.
 Mores: Norms that are widely observed and have
great moral significance.
 Laws: Formal norms enforced by the state.
 Values: Shared beliefs about what is good, right,
and desirable in a society.

29
9.7 Social Institutions:
 Family: The primary unit for socializing children
and providing emotional and material support.
 Education: Institutions responsible for teaching
knowledge, skills, and cultural norms.
 Religion: Systems of faith and worship that
influence moral and ethical behavior.
 Economy: Systems of production, distribution, and
consumption of goods and services.
 Government: Structures and processes that create
and enforce laws and policies.
9.8 Social Stratification:
 Social Stratification: The hierarchical arrangement
of individuals into divisions of power and wealth
within a society.
 Class: Economic status.
 Caste: Hereditary social status.
 Race and Ethnicity: Socially significant physical
differences and cultural heritage.
 Gender: Socially constructed roles, behaviors, and
attributes.

30
9.9 Social Change:
 Social Change: The alteration of social structure
and cultural patterns over time.
 Factors of Social Change: Technology, social
movements, environmental shifts, economic
transformations, and political revolutions.
9.10 Contemporary Social Issues:
 Globalization: The process by which businesses or
other organizations develop international influence
or start operating on an international scale.
 Urbanization: The increase in the proportion of
people living in urban areas.

31
10. Sociological Models and Theories
 Functionalism: Society is a system of
interconnected parts that work together to
maintain stability and order.
Example: The education system teaches students
essential skills and knowledge, preparing them to
contribute productively to society.
 Conflict Theory: Society consists of groups
competing for power and resources, highlighting
inherent.
Example: The wealth gap between the rich and the poor
reflects ongoing class struggles, with the wealthy using
their power to maintain their status inequalities.
 Symbolic Interactionism: Society is constructed
through human interactions and the meanings
individuals attach to them.
Example: The concept of a "thumbs up" as a positive
gesture varies across cultures, illustrating how meanings
are created through social interactions.
 Structural Functionalism: Social institutions serve
functions that contribute to societal stability, with
both intended and unintended consequences.

32
Example: The manifest function of a hospital is to provide
healthcare, while a latent function might be creating job
opportunities in the community.
 Social Constructivism: Reality is shaped through
collective agreement and shared meanings within
society.
Example: The notion of "race" is socially constructed, with
meanings and categories varying across different
societies and historical periods.
 Rational Choice Theory: Individuals make decisions
based on rational calculations to maximize
benefits and minimize costs.
Example: A student choosing a particular college based
on a cost-benefit analysis of tuition fees, career
prospects, and campus facilities.
 Feminist Theory: Focuses on gender inequalities
and advocates for gender equity by examining
women's experiences and intersecting social
categories.
Example: The gender pay gap exemplifies systemic
gender inequality, where women, on average, earn less
than men for the same work.

33
  Systems Theory: Society is a complex system of
interrelated parts, where changes in one part affect
the whole.
Example: A change in economic policy (e.g., tax reform)
can affect various social institutions, such as education,
healthcare, and family life.
 Postmodernism: Challenges objective reality,
emphasizing the role of power, discourse, and
cultural narratives in shaping social phenomena.
Example: The diverse interpretations of a historical event,
such as the fall of the Berlin Wall, highlight the
fragmented and subjective nature of truth.
 Human Ecology Theory: Examines the relationship
between humans and their environments, and how
these interactions affect social behavior.
Example: Urbanization leading to the creation of green
spaces in cities to balance environmental sustainability
with human development needs.

34
11. Key Terms – Governance
Terms Meaning
Governance The process of decision-making and
implementation of policies within
organizations or societies.
Government The governing body or authority responsible
for administering and regulating a country,
state, or organization.
Authority The power or right to give orders, make
decisions, and enforce obedience.
Accountability The obligation of individuals or institutions to
take responsibility for their actions and
decisions.
Transparency The openness and accessibility of
information and decision-making processes
to stakeholders and the public.
Participation The involvement of stakeholders, citizens, or
members in decision-making processes and
governance activities.
Rule of Law The principle that all individuals and
institutions are subject to and accountable
under the law, ensuring fairness and justice.

35
Terms Meaning
Democracy A system of government in which power is
vested in the people, who exercise their
authority through free and fair elections.
Autonomy The ability or right to self-govern and make
independent decisions within a defined
scope or domain.
Policy A set of principles, guidelines, or rules
established by governments or organizations
to guide decision-making and action.
Regulation The process of monitoring and controlling
behavior, activities, or processes to ensure
compliance with laws, standards, or
guidelines.
Governance The structure, processes, and mechanisms
Framework established to facilitate effective governance
within an organization or society.
Stakeholder Any individual, group, or organization that
has an interest or concern in the activities,
decisions, or outcomes of governance
processes.
Ethics Principles of moral conduct and behavior
that guide individuals and organizations in
their actions and decision-making.

36
Terms Meaning
Oversight The process of monitoring and supervising
the implementation of policies and activities
to ensure compliance with established
standards and objectives.
Decision- The process of selecting a course of action
making or solution from among various alternatives
based on analysis, evaluation, and judgment.
Public The implementation and management of
Administration public policies, programs, and services by
government agencies or departments.
Corporate The system of rules, practices, and
Governance processes by which corporations are
directed, controlled, and managed to achieve
organizational goals and protect
stakeholders' interests.
Regulatory Adherence to laws, regulations, standards,
Compliance and guidelines relevant to an organization's
operations, products, or services.
Institutional The structures, processes, and mechanisms
Governance established within institutions to facilitate
effective decision-making, accountability,
and oversight.

37
12. Key Terms – Society
Terms Meaning
Social Structure The patterned arrangement of social
institutions, organizations, and
relationships within a society.
Socialization The process by which individuals learn and
internalize the norms, values, and
behaviors of their society or culture.
Social The hierarchical ranking of individuals or
Stratification groups within a society based on factors
such as wealth, power, and social status.
Social Capital The networks, relationships, and resources
that individuals or groups can access
through social connections & interactions.
Social Norms Informal rules or expectations that guide
behavior and interactions within a society.
Social Stable and organized systems or
Institutions structures within a society that fulfill
essential functions, such as family,
education, government, and religion.
Social The process by which individuals engage
Interaction with one another in social situations,
shaping and influencing each other's
behavior and perceptions.

38
Terms Meaning
Social Identity The sense of self derived from
membership in social groups or
categories, such as race, ethnicity, gender,
or nationality.
Social The perspective that reality is socially
Constructionism constructed through shared meanings,
beliefs, and interpretations within a
society.
Social Mobility The ability of individuals or groups to
move up or down the social hierarchy
within a society, often measured in terms
of economic or occupational status.
Social Control The mechanisms and processes by which
societies maintain order and conformity,
including laws, norms, and sanctions.
Social Change The process by which societies evolve and
transform over time, often driven by
factors such as technological
advancements, cultural shifts, and social
movements.
Social Deviance Behavior that violates social norms or
expectations within a society, often
leading to stigmatization or punishment.

39
Terms Meaning
Social Cohesion The degree of connectedness and
solidarity among members of a society,
characterized by mutual trust, cooperation,
and support.
Social Theory A systematic framework or perspective
used to analyze and interpret social
phenomena, such as functionalism,
conflict theory & symbolic interactionism.
Socialization Individuals, groups, or institutions
Agents responsible for socializing individuals into
their respective cultures or societies, such
as parents, peers, schools, and media.
Social Problems Issues or challenges that affect the well-
being and functioning of individuals or
communities within a society, such as
poverty, inequality, and discrimination.
Social A breakdown or disruption of social order
Disorganization and cohesion within a community or
society, often associated with crime,
poverty, and other social problems.
Social Capital The idea that social networks,
Theory relationships, and trust contribute to the
economic and social well-being of
individuals and communities.

40
Terms Meaning
Social Collective efforts by individuals or groups
Movements to bring about social, political, or cultural
change through organized action,
advocacy, or protest.

41