Cell:

 Unicellular organisms are capable of (i) independent existence and (ii)

performing the essential functions of life. Anything less than a complete
structure of a cell does not ensure independent living. Hence, cell is the
fundamental structural and functional unit of all living organisms
 Schleiden and Schwann together formulated the cell theory. This theory
however, did not explain as to how new cells were formed. Rudolf
Virchow (1855) first explained that cells divided and new cells are
formed from pre-existing cells (Omnis cellula-e cellula). He modified the
hypothesis of Schleiden and Schwann to give the cell theory a final
shape. Cell theory as understood today is: (i) all living organisms are
composed of cells and products of cells. (ii) all cells arise from pre-
existing cells.
 Mycoplasmas, the smallest cells, are only 0.3 µm in length while bacteria
could be 3 to 5 µm. The largest isolated single cell is the egg of an
ostrich. Among multicellular organisms, human red blood cells are about
7.0 µm in diameter. Nerve cells are some of the longest cells. Cells also
vary greatly in their shape. They may be disc-like, polygonal, columnar,
cuboid, thread like, or even irregular. The shape of the cell may vary
with the function they perform.
Prokaryotic cell:
 The prokaryotic cells are represented by bacteria, blue-green algae,
mycoplasma and PPLO(PLeuro Pneumonia Like Organisms)
 The four basic shapes of bacteria are bacillus (rod like), coccus
(spherical), vibrio (comma shaped) and spirillum (spiral).
 prokaryotes have a cell wall surrounding the cell membrane except in
mycoplasma. The fluid matrix filling the cell is the cytoplasm. There is no
well-defined nucleus.
 many bacteria have small circular DNA outside the genomic DNA. These
smaller DNA are called plasmids. The plasmid DNA confers certain
unique phenotypic characters to such bacteria this incl resistance to
antibiotics.
Cell Envelope and its Modifications:
 . The cell envelope consists of a tightly bound three layered structure
i.e., the outermost glycocalyx followed by the cell wall and then the
plasma membrane
 Glycocalyx differs in composition and thickness among different
bacteria. It could be a loose sheath called the slime layer in some, while
in others it may be thick and tough, called the capsule. The cell wall
determines the shape of the cell and provides a strong structural
support to prevent the bacterium from bursting or collapsing.
 A special membranous structure is the mesosome which is formed by
the extensions of plasma membrane into the cell. These extensions are
in the form of vesicles, tubules and lamellae.
 They help in cell wall formation, DNA replication and distribution to
daughter cells. They also help in respiration, secretion processes, to
increase the surface area of the plasma membrane and enzymatic
content. In some prokaryotes like cyanobacteria, there are other
membranous extensions into the cytoplasm called chromatophores
which contain pigments
 e pili are elongated tubular structures made of a special protein. The
fimbriae are small bristle like fibres sprouting out of the cell
 In prokaryotes, ribosomes are associated with the plasma membrane of
the cell. They are about 15 nm by 20 nm in size and are made of two
subunits - 50S and 30S units which when present together form 70S
prokaryotic ribosomes. Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis.
 . Several ribosomes may attach to a single mRNA and form a chain called
polyribosomes or polysome. The ribosomes of a polysome translate the
mRNA into proteins.
 inclusion bodies: Reserve material in prokaryotic cells are stored in the
cytoplasm in the form of inclusion bodies.eg: phosphate granules,
cyanophycean granules and glycogen granules. Gas vacuoles are found
in blue green and purple and green photosynthetic bacteria
Eukaryotic cell:
 eukaryotes include all the protists, plants, animals and fungi.
 Plant and animal cells are different as the former possess cell walls,
plastids and a large central vacuole which are absent in animal cells. On
the other hand, animal cells have centrioles which are absent in almost
all plant cells.
1. Cell Membrane:
 the cell membrane is mainly composed of lipids and
proteins. The major lipids are phospholipids that are
arranged in a bilayer
  the lipids are arranged within the membrane with the polar
head towards the outer sides and the hydrophobic tails
towards the inner part.This ensures that the nonpolar tail of
saturated hydrocarbons is protected from the aqueous
environment
 The ratio of protein and lipid varies considerably in different
cell types. In human beings, the membrane of the
erythrocyte(RBC) has approximately 52 per cent protein and
40 per cent lipids.
 Depending on the ease of extraction, membrane proteins
can be classified as integral and peripheral. Peripheral
proteins lie on the surface of membrane while the integral
proteins are partially or totally buried in the membrane
Fluid Mosaic Model:
 An improved model of the structure of cell membrane was
proposed by Singer and Nicolson.
 According to this, the quasi-fluid nature of lipid enables
lateral movement of proteins within the overall bilayer. This
ability to move within the membrane is measured as its
fluidity.
Transport:
 Such a transport is an energy dependent process, in which
ATP is utilised and is called active transport, e.g., Na+/K+
Pump
2. Cell Wall:
 Algae have cell wall, made of cellulose, galactans, mannans
and minerals like calcium carbonate, while in other plants it
consists of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins and proteins.
 The middle lamella is a layer mainly of calcium pectate
which holds or glues the different neighbouring cells
together.
 The cell wall and middle lamellae may be traversed by
plasmodesmata which connect the cytoplasm of
neighbouring cells(connects living component of cells)
3. Endomembrane system:
 Incl:endoplasmic reticulum , lysososme,golgi apparatus,
vacuoles.
Endoplasmic Reticulum:
 e, ER divides the intracellular space into two distinct
compartments, i.e., luminal (inside ER) and extra luminal
(cytoplasm) compartments.
 The endoplasmic reticulun bearing ribosomes on their
surface is called rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
 In the absence of ribosomes they appear smooth and are
called smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
 RER is frequently observed in the cells actively involved in
protein synthesis and secretion.
 The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is the major site for
synthesis of lipid. In animal cells lipid-like steroidal
hormones are synthesised in SER
Golgi Apparatus:
 Camillo Golgi (1898) first observed densely stained reticular
structures near the nucleus.
 The Golgi cisternae are concentrically arranged near the
nucleus with distinct convex cis or the forming face and
concave trans or the maturing face. The cis and the trans
faces of the organelle are entirely different, but
interconnected.
 the golgi apparatus principally performs the function of
packaging materials, to be delivered either to the intra-
cellular targets or secreted outside the cell.
 A number of proteins synthesised by ribosomes on the
endoplasmic reticulum are modified in the cisternae of the
golgi apparatus before they are released from its trans face.
Golgi apparatus is the important site of formation of
glycoproteins and glycolipids.
Lysosome:
 lysosomal vesicles have been found to be very rich in
almost all types of hydrolytic enzymes (hydrolases –
lipases, proteases, carbohydrases) optimally active at the
acidic pH
Vacuoles:
  In Amoeba the contractile vacuole is important for
osmoregulation and excretion. In many cells, as in protists,
food vacuoles are formed by engulfing the food particles
 It contains water, sap, excretory product and other
materials not useful for the cell
 n plant cells the vacuoles can occupy up to 90 per cent of
the volume of the cell.
4. Mitchondria:
 Typically it is sausage-shaped or cylindrical having a
diameter of 0.2-1.0µm (average 0.5µm) and length 1.0-
4.1µm
 Each mitochondrion is a doublemembrane-bound structure
with the outer membrane and the inner membrane dividing
its lumen distinctly into two aqueous compartments, i.e.,
the outer compartment and the inner compartment.
 The inner compartment is filled with a dense homogeneous
substance called the matrix
 The inner membrane forms a number of infoldings called
the cristae (sing.: crista) towards the matrix (Figure 8.7). The
cristae increase the surface area
 Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic respiration. They
produce cellular energy in the form of ATP, hence they are
called ‘power houses’ of the cell. The matrix also possesses
single circular DNA molecule, a few RNA molecules,
ribosomes (70S) and the components required for the
synthesis of proteins. The mitochondria divide by fission.
5. Chloroplast:
 Based on the type of pigments plastids can be classified
into chloroplasts, chromoplasts and leucoplasts
 The chloroplasts contain chlorophyll and carotenoid
pigments. In the chromoplasts fat soluble carotenoid
pigments like carotene, xanthophylls and others are
present.
 Amyloplasts store carbohydrates (starch), e.g., potato;
elaioplasts store oils and fats aleuroplasts store proteins
 chloroplasts are also double membrane bound. Of the two,
the inner chloroplast membrane is relatively less permeable
  A number of organised flattened membranous sacs called
the thylakoids, are present in the stroma (Figure 8.8).
Thylakoids are arranged in stacks like the piles of coins
called grana (singular: granum) or the intergranal
thylakoids. In addition, there are flat membranous tubules
called the stroma lamellae connecting the thylakoids of the
different grana.
 It also contains small, doublestranded circular DNA
molecules and ribosomes. Chlorophyll pigments are
present in the thylakoids. The ribosomes of the chloroplasts
are smaller (70S) than the cytoplasmic ribosomes (80S)
6. Ribosomes:
 Eukaryotic ribosome is of 80 s type which is a combo of 60s
and 40 s subunits.
7. Cytoskeleton:
 Incl microfilaments, microtubules and intermediate
filaments.
 The cytoskeleton in a cell are involved in many functions
such as mechanical support, motility, maintenance of the
shape of the cell.
8. Cilia And Flagella:
 heir core called the axoneme, possesses a number of
microtubules running parallel to the long axis. The axoneme
usually has nine doublets of radially arranged peripheral
microtubules, and a pair of centrally located microtubules.
Such an arrangement of axonemal microtubules is referred
to as the 9+2 array
9. Centrosome:
 Centrosome is an organelle usually containing two
cylindrical structures called centrioles. They are surrounded
by amorphous pericentriolar materials. Both the centrioles
in a centrosome lie perpendicular to each other in which
each has an organisation like the cartwheel.
 made up of nine evenly spaced peripheral fibrils of tubulin
protein. Each of the peripheral fibril is a triplet.The adjacent
triplets are also linked.
  central part of the proximal region of the centriole is also
proteinaceous and called the hub, which is connected with
tubules of the peripheral triplets by radial spokes made of
protein. The centrioles form the basal body of cilia or
flagella, and spindle fibres that give rise to spindle
apparatus during cell division in animal cells
10.Nucleus:
 Nucleus as a cell organelle was first described by Robert
Brown as early as 1831. Later the material of the nucleus
stained by the basic dyes was given the name chromatin by
Flemming
 he interphase nucleus (nucleus of a cell when it is not
dividing) has highly extended and elaborate nucleoprotein
fibres called chromatin, nuclear matrix and one or more
spherical bodies called nucleoli
 The outer membrane usually remains continuous with the
endoplasmic reticulum and also bears ribosomes on it.
 The nuclear matrix or the nucleoplasm contains nucleolus
and chromatin.
 The nucleoli are spherical structures present in the
nucleoplasm. The content of nucleolus is continuous with
the rest of the nucleoplasm as it is not a membrane bound
structure. It is a site for active ribosomal RNA
synthesis(nucleolus thus called Ribosomal factory)
Chromosomes:
 Every chromosome (visible only in dividing cells) essentially
has a primary constriction or the centromere on the sides of
which disc shaped structures called kinetochores are
present (Figure 8.12). Centromere holds two chromatids of
a chromosome
 Based on the position of the centromere, the chromosomes
can be classified into four types (Figure 8.13). The
metacentric chromosome has middle centromere forming
two equal arms of the chromosome. The sub-metacentric
chromosome has centromere slightly away from the middle
of the chromosome resulting into one shorter arm and one
longer arm. In case of acrocentric chromosome the
centromere is situated close to its end forming one
extremely short and one very long arm, whereas the
telocentric chromosome has a terminal centromere.