water

Article
The Effects of a Fishery Complementary Photovoltaic Power
Plant on the Near-Surface Meteorology and Water Quality of
Coastal Aquaculture Ponds
Fawen Song 1 , Zhiqiang Lu 2,3, *, Zhouhua Guo 1 , Yi Wang 2,3 and Li Ma 1, *

1 Third Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Xiamen 361005, China;

[email protected] (F.S.); [email protected] (Z.G.)
2 College of Fisheries, Jimei University, Xiamen 361021, China; [email protected]
3 Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Fishery Resources and Eco-Environment, Xiamen 361021, China
* Correspondence: [email protected] (Z.L.); [email protected] (L.M.)

Abstract: To date, most studies focus on the ecological and environmental effects of land-based
photovoltaic (PV) power plants, while there is a dearth of studies examining the impacts of water-
based PV power plants. The effects of a fishery complementary PV power plant, a kind of water-
based PV technology, on the near-surface meteorology and aquaculture water environment were
investigated in coastal aquaculture ponds in southeast China. The results showed that PV prevented
89~93% of the solar radiation on the surface of the pond, resulting in an average reduction in
water temperature of 1.5 ◦ C and a substantial decrease in light intensity of 94%. Furthermore, it
weakened the wind speed by 41~50% and elevated the surface air temperature by an average of
0.6 ◦ C. In addition, PV power results in an impressive decrease in chlorophyll-α of 72~94% and a
notable increase in dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations of 8~24%. PV power also reduced the
concentration of labile phosphate, active silicate, total nitrogen, total phosphorus, and total organic
carbon. However, the PV power did not have a substantial influence on the concentrations of nitrate
and ammonium. Our results highlight that fishery complementary PV power plants may be able to
Citation: Song, F.; Lu, Z.; Guo, Z.;
improve water quality and benefit shade-loving species.
Wang, Y.; Ma, L. The Effects of a
Fishery Complementary Photovoltaic
Keywords: fishery complementary photovoltaic power plant; near-surface meteorology; water
Power Plant on the Near-Surface
quality; aquaculture ponds
Meteorology and Water Quality of
Coastal Aquaculture Ponds. Water
2024, 16, 526. https://doi.org/
10.3390/w16040526
1. Introduction
Academic Editors: Michael
To manage the global energy crisis and climate change, vigorously developing renew-
Zhengmeng Hou, Yachen Xie and
able energy has become the leading direction of low-carbon energy transformation [1]. As
Faisal Mehmood
an important part of renewable energy, photovoltaic (PV) power generation is developing
Received: 3 January 2024 rapidly. According to the Renewables 2023 Global Status Report [2], the newly installed
Revised: 30 January 2024 capacity of global PV power generation in 2022 was 243 GW, and the total installed capacity
Accepted: 5 February 2024 reached 1185 GW, accounting for 6.2% of global power generation. Since 2012, China and
Published: 7 February 2024 other Asian countries have gradually become the main contributors to the growth of the
global capacity of PV installations. For instance, the average annual growth rate of the
cumulative installed capacity of PV power generation from 2013 to 2021 in China reached
61.08%. In 2022, the cumulative installed capacity of PV power generation was predicted to
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
reach 414.5 GW, ranking first in the world [2,3]. To achieve the dual carbon strategic goal
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
of carbon peak and carbon neutrality, China’s 14th Five-Year Plan for renewable energy
distributed under the terms and
development clearly states the following measures: during the period from 2021 to 2025,
conditions of the Creative Commons
while increasing the construction of PV bases and promoting the centralized development
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// of PV power, China should actively promote the comprehensive utilization of PV plus
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ plants and encourage PV composite development models, such as fishery complementary
4.0/). PV power plants; by 2025, China aims to double its capacity for both PV and wind power

Water 2024, 16, 526. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16040526 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/water

Water 2024, 16, 526 2 of 14

generation; by 2030, the cumulative installed capacity for wind power and PV generation
is projected to reach an impressive scale of 1.2 × 109 kW [4].
To date, the Chinese PV industry is in a stage of leapfrog development. Due to the
lack of large flat land resources suitable for building concentrated PV power plants in
central and eastern China, particularly in the eastern coastal areas, investors have begun
to actively deploy PV power on water surfaces to improve land utilization [5]. Compared
to land-based PV power, water-based PV power offers several advantages including land
conservation, the prevention of module shading, enhanced power generation efficiency,
simplified module cleaning procedures, and reduced risk of module damage. These benefits
present a novel approach for the sustainable development of China’s PV industry [6,7].
Water-based PV power plants mainly adopt the PV plus surface mode, with freshwater
bodies such as ponds, small lakes, reservoirs, and canals [8]. In recent years, to improve
the utilization efficiency of marine resources and increase the economic benefits of coastal
aquaculture areas, the Chinese government has encouraged enterprises to use coastal
aquaculture areas to build water-based PV power plants. This initiative has promoted the
rapid development of fishery complementary PV power plants in coastal aquaculture areas.
The integration of water-based PV technology into marine areas and its combination with
fishery production systems in coastal aquaculture regions represents a novel approach
known as fishery complementary PV technology. The purpose of this technology is to
reduce the energy cost and corresponding carbon emissions of aquaculture activities in
coastal aquaculture areas, thereby enhancing production efficiency per unit of marine
area [9,10].
Some studies have shown that the synergistic effect of a water-based PV power plant,
coupled with the dual utilization of water areas for aquaculture, can be realized on the
premise of improved environmental and aquacultural benefits [11–13]. The same is true for
fishery complementary PV power plants in coastal aquaculture areas.
To date, the use of overhead support to deploy PV modules on the water surfaces of
aquaculture ponds is the mainstream method for fishery complementary PV power plants
in China [14,15]. Due to the shading effect of the PV panels (mainly on solar radiation and
wind speed), alterations in light penetration into aquaculture water bodies have a series
of effects on the various physical and chemical properties of aquaculture ponds including
water temperature, dissolved oxygen (DO), nutrients, primary productivity, chlorophyll-α
(Chl-α), and plankton [8], as well as the growth of different aquaculture organisms [16].
Water-based PV power plants in China are currently in the early stage of development,
and they still face the challenge of achieving an equilibrium between economic and en-
vironmental benefits [11]. However, our understanding of the environmental impact of
PV systems remains constrained. In this paper, the effects of a fishery complementary
PV power plant on near-surface meteorology and water quality were investigated in a
coastal aquaculture area, and the possible pathways for producing these effects were dis-
cussed and analyzed. By comparing the PV area and the control area, this study explored
the effects of a fishery complementary PV power plant on near-surface meteorology and
coastal aquaculture water bodies. The results of this study could provide a reference for
the development of fishery complementary PV power plants in the coastal aquaculture
areas of China. Furthermore, it is crucial to acknowledge that aquaculture plays a pivotal
role as a significant food source. A comprehensive and profound comprehension of the
impact of PV power on the aquaculture environment can effectively foster collaborative
and sustainable development.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area
The study area is in the aquaculture ponds of Guoqiaoshan, Fuqing city, Fujian
province, China (25◦ 310 4800 N, 119◦ 170 2400 E) (Figure 1). The installed PV capacity is
20 MW. The breeding species is mud crab (Scylla serrata), with a breeding density of about
15,000 per hectare. The PV area has an 80% PV coverage rate, while the control area has
 breeding species is mud crab (Scylla serrata), with a breeding density of about 15,000 per
hectare. The PV area has an 80% PV coverage rate, while the control area has no PV cov-
erage (Figure 1). The water depth in both areas ranges from 0.4 to 1.4 m. The combined
land area encompasses 12 hectares. The row spacing of the PV array is 7.8 m, and the pile
Water 2024, 16, 526
foundation spacing is 5.0 m. The distance between the surface and the central point of3 the of 14

PV panel is 2.35~3.02 m.
Clams (Mactra veneriformis and Potamocorbula laevis) were only used for feeding mud
no PV
crabs coverage
both (Figure
in the PV area 1).
andThethewater depth
control area.inInboth areas other
addition, ranges from 0.4like
methods to 1.4
the m. The
water
combined
level land area
and feeding encompasses
frequency 12 hectares.
and amount The row
are the same spacing
in the of theUnless
two areas. PV array is 7.8by
affected m,
and the
wind, thepile foundation
ponds remain aspacing
closed is 5.0 m.
water Theoutside
body distancethebetween the surface and the central
intake period.
point of the PV panel is 2.35~3.02 m.

Figure 1. (a) Guoqiaoshan, Fuqing city, Fujian province, China (25◦ 310 4800 N, 119◦ 170 2400 E); the black
Figure 1. (a) Guoqiaoshan, Fuqing city, Fujian province, China (25°31′48″ N, 119°17′24″ E); the
dot is the location of this study; (b) distribution of sampling stations (S1–S6); (c) overview of the PV
black dot is the location of this study; (b) distribution of sampling stations (S1–S6); (c) overview of
area;
the PV(d) overview
area; of the of
(d) overview control area. area.
the control

Clams (Mactra veneriformis and Potamocorbula laevis) were only used for feeding mud
2.2. Sampling and Analysis Methods
crabs both in the PV area and the control area. In addition, other methods like the water
levelAand
totalfeeding
of 6 stations are arranged
frequency and amount in this sampling
are the same in area
the(Figure 1). The
two areas. arrangement
Unless affected by
iswind,
as follows: 4 stations are arranged in the PV area, of which
the ponds remain a closed water body outside the intake period. 3 are under PV systems (S1,
S2 and S3) and 1 is outside a PV system (S4). Two stations (S5 and S6) are arranged in the
control area. In
2.2. Sampling andaddition,
Analysisnear-surface
Methods meteorological parameters without PV coverage
near S1, S2, and S3 were measured to guarantee
A total of 6 stations are arranged in this sampling comparability. In this1).
area (Figure paper, the PV area
The arrangement
isisrepresented by S1, S2 and S3, while the control area is represented
as follows: 4 stations are arranged in the PV area, of which 3 are under PV systems by S5 and S6. (S1,
Near-surface meteorological parameters are measured for about
S2 and S3) and 1 is outside a PV system (S4). Two stations (S5 and S6) are arranged 20 min at eachinsta-
the
tion and the
control area.sensor is 1.5~1.7near-surface
In addition, m above themeteorological
water surface. Water samples
parameters are collected
without twice
PV coverage
atnear
a depth of and
S1, S2, 0.1 mS3atwere
the same time.toSince
measured the control
guarantee area is open
comparability. andpaper,
In this unobserved, near-is
the PV area
surface meteorological
represented by S1, S2 andparameters
S3, whileare themeasured
control areaonceis at S5 and S6. by
represented Near-surface
S5 and S6. meteor-
ological parametersmeteorological
Near-surface are measured parameters
once every minute using afor
are measured micrometeorological
about 20 min at eachstation
station
(TRM-ZS1, Jinzhou Sunshine Meteorological Science and Technology Co.,
and the sensor is 1.5~1.7 m above the water surface. Water samples are collected twice at a Ltd., Jinzhou,
China)
depth ofand0.1amnet totalsame
at the radiometer (TBB-2,
time. Since Jinzhou
the control Sunshine
area is open andMeteorological
unobserved,Science and
near-surface
Technology
meteorological Co., parameters
Ltd., Jinzhou, areChina).
measured Wateroncesamples are collected
at S5 and and determined
S6. Near-surface in ac-
meteorological
cordance
parameters witharethe specifications
measured for oceanographic
once every minute using asurvey (GB/T 12763-2007)
micrometeorological [17]
station and the
(TRM-ZS1,
Jinzhou Sunshine Meteorological Science and Technology Co., Ltd., Jinzhou, China) and a
net total radiometer (TBB-2, Jinzhou Sunshine Meteorological Science and Technology Co.,
Ltd., Jinzhou, China). Water samples are collected and determined in accordance with the
specifications for oceanographic survey (GB/T 12763-2007) [17] and the specification for
marine monitoring (GB 17378.4-2007) [18]. All measurements and sample collection were
completed on 2 March 2023.
 Water 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4

specification for marine monitoring (GB 17378.4-2007) [18]. All measurements and sa
Water 2024, 16, 526 4 of 14
collection were completed on 2 March 2023.

2.3. Statistical Analysis

2.3. Statistical Analysis
R4.0.3 was used to analyze the data, including a two-sample t-test and Pearso
R4.0.3 wasrelation
used to coefficient
analyze thecalculations.
data, including a two-sample
MATLAB (R2022a)t-test
wasand Pearson
used to drawcorrela-
the position d
tion coefficient bution
calculations.
of the MATLAB
parameters.(R2022a)
To testwas used there
whether to draw
is athe position difference
significant distribution
between th
of the parameters. To testinwhether
rameters thereand
the PV area is athe
significant difference
control area, between the
the two-sample parameters
t-test method was used
in the PV area and
the the control
p-value wasarea, the two-sample
marked t-test
in the station method was
distribution mapused, the p-valuePearson
andparameters.
of the
was marked in lation
the station distribution
analysis mapout
was carried of for
the water
parameters. Pearson
temperature correlation
and analysis to explo
other parameters
was carried outinfluencing
for water temperature
mechanism ofand PV other
powerparameters to explore
on temperature the influencing
and other parameters.
mechanism of PV power on temperature and other parameters.
3. Results
3. Results
3.1. Near-Surface Meteorology
3.1. Near-Surface Meteorology
The distributions of surface air temperature (SAT), wind speed, net total rad
The distributions of surface air temperature (SAT), wind speed, net total radiation (Q),
(Q), and light intensity (E) at different stations are shown in Figure 2. The figure s
and light intensity (E) at different stations are shown in Figure 2. The figure shows that the
that the SAT in the PV area is higher compared to the control area, while the wind s
SAT in the PV area is higher compared to the control area, while the wind speed, Q and E
Q and E are lower in the PV area compared to the control area.
are lower in the PV area compared to the control area.
18.5
(a) under the PV panels 12 (b) under the PV panels
18 open water open water
10
***

Wind speed (m/s)

17.5
NS
&&& **
&
8 ###
17.0

16.5 6

16.0 4

15.5 2

15.0 0
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5,6 S1 S2 S3 S4 S5,6
Station Station

104
1500 14
(c) under the PV panels 13 (d) above surface
open water 12 surface
11 subsurface
***
NS 10
1000 ### 9 **
NS
NS
E (Lux)

8
7
6
500 5
4
3
2
1
0 0
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5,6 S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6
Station Station

Figure 2. Distribution
Figure of2. (a) surface air
Distribution of temperature,
(a) surface air(b) wind speed,
temperature, (b)(c)
wind netspeed,
total radiation, and
(c) net total radiation, a
(d) light intensitylight
in the Guoqiaoshan
intensity in the aquaculture
Guoqiaoshan ponds. In (a–c),ponds.
aquaculture the asterisks
In (a–c), represent differences
the asterisks represent diffe
between the PV areabetween
(S1~3the PV area
blue) (S1~3
and the blue) area
control and (S5,
the control area
6) (** p ≤ (S5,***6)p(**
0.01; p ≤ 0.01;
≤ 0.001); *** p ≤ 0.001); diffe
differences
between the PV between
area (S1~3theblue)
PV area
and(S1~3 blue)water
the open and the
in open
the PV water
areain(S1~3
the PV area(###
pink) (S1~3p pink) (### p ≤ 0.00
≤ 0.001);
ferences between the open water in the PV area (S1~3 pink) and the
differences between the open water in the PV area (S1~3 pink) and the control area (S5, 6) (& p ≤ 0.05;control area (S5, 6) (& p
&&& p ≤ 0.001). In (d), the asterisks represent differences in the above surface between the P
&&& p ≤ 0.001). In (d), the asterisks represent differences in the above surface between the PV area
(S1~3 blue) and the control area (S5~6 blue) (** p ≤ 0.01). S5,6 indicates that a group of samp
(S1~3 blue) and the control area (S5~6 blue) (** p ≤ 0.01). S5,6 indicates that a group of samples are
collected on S5 and S6. “NS” represent no significance (p > 0.05).
collected on S5 and S6. “NS” represent no significance (p > 0.05).
The average SAT of the PV area is higher compared to the control area. The av
The average SAT of the PV area is higher compared to the control area. The average
SAT in the PV area is 15.9 °C, while the average SAT in the control area is 15.3
SAT in the PV area is 15.9 ◦ C, while the average SAT in the control area is 15.3 ◦ C. In
addition, the SATs of open water beside S1 and S2 are 0.3 and 0.8 °C higher compa
addition, the SATs of open water beside S1 and S2 are 0.3 and 0.8 ◦ C higher compared to
S1 and S2, respectively, while the SAT of open water beside S3 is 0.2 °C lower com
S1 and S2, respectively, while the SAT of open water beside S3 is 0.2 ◦ C lower compared
to S3. In the PV area, the average SAT of the open water is 0.2 ◦ C higher compared to
the PV area. Wind speed shows an obvious downward trend under the influence of PV
power. The wind speeds at S1, S2, and S3 decrease by 20%, 45%, and 21%, respectively,
relative to the wind speed in the open water. Overall, the average wind speed in the PV
Water 2024, 16, 526 5 of 14

area decreases by 41% and by 50% in the control area relative to open water. The Q value
decreases significantly under the PV panel, and the average Q value under the PV panel
decreases by 89% compared with that under open water. The field measurement data show
that the longwave and shortwave radiation changed significantly, but the difference in Q
is mainly from the change in shortwave radiation. Due to the existence of PV panels, the
shortwave radiation under PV is greatly reduced (incoming: 95%; outgoing: 92%), resulting
in net shortwave radiation from an average of 717 W/m2 to 26 W/m2 . There is a certain
increase in longwave radiation under the PV panel, with a 32% increase in incidence and a
6% decrease in outgoing radiation, changing the net longwave radiation from a negative
value in the control area (−102 W/m2 ) to a positive value in the PV area (44 W/m2 ). The
E value decreases significantly under the influence of PV power. The surface E value of
the PV area decreases by an average of 93% compared with that of the control area. In
addition, the E value of each station decreases with increasing water depth. At the same
water depth position, the average surface E of the PV area is still 71% lower compared
to the control area. However, the subsurface E value of the PV area increases by 30% on
average compared with that of the control area.

3.2. Water Quality

3.2.1. Water Temperature, DO, pH, Salinity, Turbidity, and Chl-α
The distributions of water temperature, DO, pH, salinity, turbidity, and Chl-α at the
different stations are shown in Figure 3. The water temperature, pH, turbidity, and Chl-α
values in the PV area are lower compared to the control area, while the DO and salinity are
higher compared to the control area.
The water temperature is lower than the SAT in the range of 13.3~15.1 ◦ C. The average
water temperature in the PV area (13.5 ◦ C) is 1.5 ◦ C lower compared to the control area
(15.0 ◦ C). In addition, the water temperature of S4 (14.6 ◦ C), which is in the PV area in
open water, is 0.4 ◦ C lower compared to the average water temperature of the control area
(15.0 ◦ C) and 1.1 ◦ C higher compared to the PV area (13.5 ◦ C). The DO is in the range of
8.5~10.5 mg/L. The average DO in the PV area is 17% higher compared to the control area
In addition, the DO at S4 is 0.2 mg/L higher compared to that at S2 in the same pond. The
mean pH of the PV area is 0.28 lower compared to the control area, but the pH values of S2
and S4 are 8.83 and 8.89 higher compared to the control area, respectively. The salinity of
the PV area is generally higher compared to the control area. The average salinity of the PV
area is 23.87, which is 22% higher compared to the control area. The turbidity of the PV
area is generally lower compared to the control area, and the average turbidity is reduced
by 70% compared to the control area. Compared with the control area, the average Chl-α
concentration in the PV area is decreased by 83%. The average Chl-α concentration in the
control area is 15.68 µg/L, and for the PV area, it is 2.62 µg/L.

3.2.2. Nutrients
The distributions of nitrate, nitrite, ammonium, labile phosphate, and active silicate at
the different stations are shown in Figure 4. The nitrites, labile phosphate, and active silicate
in the PV area are lower compared to the control area, while the nitrate and ammonium are
not significantly different from those in the control area.
The average concentrations of nitrate and ammonium in the whole study area are 0.016
and 0.01 mg/L, respectively. The minimum nitrate concentration of 0.008 mg/L appears at
S4, and the maximum nitrate concentration of 0.027 mg/L appears at S1. The minimum
ammonium concentration of 0.006 mg/L occurs at S6, and the maximum concentration
of 0.014 mg/L occurs at S2 and S4. The concentration of nitrite is low and undetected in
half of the stations, with the highest value of 0.0025 mg/L in the control area. The average
concentrations of labile phosphate in the PV area and control area are 0.005 mg/L and
0.023 mg/L, respectively, compared with a 77% decrease in the PV area. The average con-
centrations of active silicate in the PV area and control area are 0.456 mg/L and 2.269 mg/L,
respectively, which are reduced by 80% in the PV area.
Water 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 15
Water 2024, 16, 526 6 of 14

16 15
(a) (b)
15.5 *** ***
Water temperature (°C)

15 10

DO (mg/L)
14.5

14 5

13.5

13 0
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6
Station Station
9.2
(c) 30 (d)
9.0 *** ***
28
8.8
Salinity 26
pH

8.6
24
8.4 22

8.2 20

8.0 18
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6
Station Station
50 30
(e) (f)
*** 25 **
40
20
30
15
20
10
10 5

0 0
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6
Station Station

Figure
Figure Distributions of
3. 3.Distributions of (a)
(a)water
watertemperature,
temperature,(b) DO, (c) pH,
(b) DO, (c)(d)
pH,salinity, (e) turbidity,
(d) salinity, and (f) Chl-and (f)
(e) turbidity,
α in in
Chl-α thetheGuoqiaoshan
Guoqiaoshanaquaculture ponds.ponds.
aquaculture Asterisks representrepresent
Asterisks differences between thebetween
differences PV area (S1~3)
the PV area
and the
(S1~3) andcontrol area (S5~6)
the control (** p ≤ (**
area (S5~6) 0.01,
p *** p ≤ 0.001).
≤ 0.01, *** p ≤ 0.001).

3.2.2. Nutrients
The distributions of nitrate, nitrite, ammonium, labile phosphate, and active silicate
at the different stations are shown in Figure 4. The nitrites, labile phosphate, and active
silicate in the PV area are lower compared to the control area, while the nitrate and am-
monium are not significantly different from those in the control area.
Water 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 15
Water 2024, 16, 526 7 of 14

×10 3
0.05 4
(a) NS
(b) *
0.04
3
Nitrate (mg/L)

Nitrite (mg/L)
0.03
2
0.02

1
0.01

0.00 0
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6
Station Station
0.03 0.04
(c) (d)
NS
***
Labile phosphate (mg/L)
Ammonium (mg/L)

0.03
0.02

0.02

0.01
0.01

0.00 0.00
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6
Station Station
3.5
(e) ***
3.0
Active silicate (mg/L)

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6
Station
Figure
Figure4. 4.Distributions
Distributionsof
of (a) nitrate,(b)
(a) nitrate, (b)nitrite,
nitrite,(c)(c) ammonium,
ammonium, (d) labile
(d) labile phosphate,
phosphate, and
and (e) (e) active
active
silicate in the Guoqiaoshan aquaculture ponds. Asterisks represent differences between
silicate in the Guoqiaoshan aquaculture ponds. Asterisks represent differences between the PV area the PV area
(S1~3) and the control area (S5~6) (* p ≤ 0.05; *** p ≤ 0.001; NS no significance).
(S1~3) and the control area (S5~6) (* p ≤ 0.05; *** p ≤ 0.001; NS no significance).

3.2.3.
TheTN, TP, andconcentrations
average TOC of nitrate and ammonium in the whole study area are
0.016 andThe0.01
distributions of total nitrogen
mg/L, respectively. (TN), total nitrate
The minimum phosphorus (TP), and of
concentration total organic
0.008 mg/L ap-
carbon (TOC) at the different stations are shown in Figure 5. The TN, TP,
pears at S4, and the maximum nitrate concentration of 0.027 mg/L appears at S1. The min-and TOC values
in the PV area are lower than those in the control area.
imum ammonium concentration of 0.006 mg/L occurs at S6, and the maximum concentra-
The concentrations of TN and TP range from 0.483 to 3.375 mg/L and 0.050 to
tion of 0.014 mg/L occurs at S2 and S4. The concentration of nitrite is low and undetected
0.494 mg/L, respectively. The average concentrations of TN and TP in the PV area are
in 0.759
half of the stations,
mg/L and 0.081with therespectively,
mg/L, highest value of 0.0025bymg/L
decreasing 77% inandthe control
84% area.with
compared The aver-
agethe
concentrations of labile phosphate
average concentrations of 3.253 mg/L in the
andPV0.493area andin
mg/L control area area.
the control are 0.005 mg/L and
The TOC
0.023 mg/L, respectively,
concentration is high, andcompared
the overallwith a 77% decrease
concentration rangesinfrom
the PV area.
8.6 to 69.8The average
mg/L. The con-
centrations of active silicate
average concentration of TOCininthe
thePV
PVarea
areaand control
is 11.174 area
mg/L, are 0.456
which is 83%mg/L
lowerand 2.269 mg/L,
compared
to the average
respectively, concentration
which are reducedof 67.228 mg/L
by 80% in the
in the PVcontrol
area. area.

3.2.3. TN, TP, and TOC

The distributions of total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP), and total organic car-
bon (TOC) at the different stations are shown in Figure 5. The TN, TP, and TOC values in
Water 2024, 16, 526 Water 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 14 8 o

0.7
(a) *** (b)
4 0.6 ***
0.5
3

TN (mg/L)

TP (mg/L)
0.4
2 0.3

0.2
1
0.1

0 0.0
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6
Station Station

(c)
80 ***

60
TOC (mg/L)

40

20

0
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6
Station
Figure 5.
Figure 5. Distributions ofDistributions of (a)
(a) TN, (b) TP, TN,(c)
and (b)TOC
TP, and (c) TOC
in the in the Guoqiaoshan
Guoqiaoshan aquacultureaquaculture
ponds. ponds.
Asterisks representterisks represent
differences differences
between the PVbetween the PV
area (S1~3) andarea
the(S1~3) and
control the(S5~6)
area control area
(*** p ≤(S5~6) (*** p ≤ 0.00
0.001).

3.3. Correlation between

The Water Temperatureofand
concentrations TNNear-Surface
and TP rangeMeteorological
from 0.483 toParameters
3.375 mg/L and 0.050 to 0.
mg/L, respectively. The average concentrations of TN and
The Pearson correlation analysis results of water temperature and near-surface TP in themeteo-
PV area are 0.
Water 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW mg/L and 0.081 mg/L, respectively, decreasing by 77% and 84% compared
rological parameters are shown in Figure 6. As seen from the figure, water temperature is with9the av
of 15
age concentrations of 3.253 mg/L and 0.493 mg/L in the control area.
positively correlated with E and Q (p ≤ 0.01). There is no correlation with SAT or wind speedThe TOC concen
tion isthere
(p > 0.05). In addition, high,isand the overallpositive
a significant concentration ranges
correlation from 8.6
between to 69.8
E and Q (pmg/L. The average c
≤ 0.001).
centration of TOC in the PV area is 11.174 mg/L, which is 83% lower compared to
average concentration of 67.228 mg/L in the control area.

3.3. Correlation between Water Temperature and Near-Surface Meteorological Parameters

The Pearson correlation analysis results of water temperature and near-surface meteo
logical parameters are shown in Figure 6. As seen from the figure, water temperature is p
tively correlated with E and Q (p ≤ 0.01). There is no correlation with SAT or wind speed
0.05). In addition, there is a significant positive correlation between E and Q (p ≤ 0.001).

Figure 6. Pearson correlation analysis of water temperature and near-surface meteorological param-
Figure 6. Pearson correlation analysis of water temperature and near-surface meteorological param-
eters. WS: wind speed,
eters. WS:WT:
windwater
speed,temperature. The value inThe
WT: water temperature. thevalue
figureinisthe
thefigure
Pearson correlation
is the Pearson correlation
coefficient. (. p coefficient.
≤ 0.1, * p ≤( .0.05, ** p ≤ 0.01, and *** p ≤ 0.001).
p ≤ 0.1, * p ≤ 0.05, ** p ≤ 0.01, and *** p ≤ 0.001).

3.4. Correlations between Water Temperature and Water Quality Parameters

The Pearson correlation analysis results of water temperature and water quality pa-
rameters are shown in Figure 7. As seen from the figure, there are significant positive cor-
Water 2024, 16, 526 9 of 14

3.4. Correlations between Water Temperature and Water Quality Parameters

The Pearson correlation analysis results of water temperature and water quality
Water 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 15
parameters are shown in Figure 7. As seen from the figure, there are significant positive
correlations between water temperature and Chl-α, active silicate, TN, and TP (p ≤ 0.05).
There are no correlations with the other water quality parameters (p > 0.05).

Figure 7. Pearson correlation analysis of water temperature and water quality parameters. S: salinity,
Figure 7. Pearson correlation analysis of water temperature and water quality parameters. S: salin-
N: nitrate, AN: ammonium, P: labile phosphate, SI: active silicate, TN: total nitrogen, TP: total
ity, N: nitrate, AN: ammonium, P: labile phosphate, SI: active silicate, TN: total nitrogen, TP: total
phosphorus, TOC: total organic carbon, Chl: Chl-α. (. p ≤ 0.1, * p ≤ 0.05, ** p ≤ 0.01, and *** p ≤ 0.001).
phosphorus, TOC: total organic carbon, Chl: Chl-α. (. p ≤ 0.1, * p ≤ 0.05, ** p ≤ 0.01, and *** p ≤ 0.001).
4. Discussion
4. Discussion
4.1. Effects of PV on Temperature
4.1. Effects of PV onSAT
The average Temperature
in the PV area is 0.6 ◦ C higher compared to the control area of the
case The average
study, while SAT in the PV
the average area temperature
water is 0.6 °C higher ◦ C lower to
is 1.5compared the control
compared areacontrol
to the of the
case
area.study, whileinthe
The results ouraverage water
case study aretemperature
consistent withis 1.5 °C of
those lower
Li etcompared to the
al. [19]. They control
monitored
area. The resultsand
air temperature in our casetemperature
water study are consistent with those
simultaneously of Li et al.
and showed [19].
that theThey
averagemoni- air
tored air temperature
temperature at the PV and water
site is 0.16 ◦ C highersimultaneously
temperature compared to that andoutside
showedthe thatPVthesite,
average
and
thetemperature
air water temperature
at the PV is almost lower
site is 0.16 °Ccompared to that outside
higher compared the PV site.
to that outside the PVWhatsite,isand
the
underlying
the cause for this
water temperature phenomenon?
is almost lower compared to that outside the PV site. What is the
The coverage
underlying cause for ofthis
PV phenomenon?
power decreases the shortwave radiation within the PV area,
which is conducive
The coverage of to PV
a decrease in water and
power decreases theair temperature
shortwave [20]. On
radiation the other
within the PV hand, it
area,
shouldisbeconducive
which noted thattothe PV panels
a decrease in emit
waterlong-wave radiation, thereby
and air temperature [20]. Oncontributing
the other hand, to the it
heatingbe
should of noted
the surrounding
that the PVatmosphere
panels emit[19,21]. The average
long-wave radiation, netthereby
shortwave radiation to
contributing in the
PV area (26 W/m 2 ) decreased by 96% compared with that in the control area (717 W/m2 ) of
heating of the surrounding atmosphere [19,21]. The average net shortwave radiation in
the PV
casearea
study, −102 2 in the control
the (26 while
W/m2)the net longwave
decreased by 96%radiation
compared increased
with thatfrom
in the W/m
control area (717 W/m2)
area 2
of thetocase
44 W/m
study,. while
Because thethe
netreduction
longwavein shortwave
radiation radiation
increased fromis much
−102 W/mgreater
2 in than
the con-the
increase
trol area in
to longwave radiation,
44 W/m2. Because thethe Q in the in
reduction PVshortwave
area dropsradiation
by 91%. is There
much is greater
a significant
than
the increase in longwave radiation, the Q in the PV area drops by 91%. There is a signifi-
cant positive correlation between water temperature and Q (p ≤ 0.01) (Figure 6). In this
regard, the decrease in water temperature in the PV area may be mainly caused by the
reduction in shortwave radiation, which is consistent with the results of the reservoir PV
Water 2024, 16, 526 10 of 14

positive correlation between water temperature and Q (p ≤ 0.01) (Figure 6). In this regard,
the decrease in water temperature in the PV area may be mainly caused by the reduction in
shortwave radiation, which is consistent with the results of the reservoir PV simulation
experiment by Ji et al. [22]. In addition, the increase in SAT mainly comes from the heating
of PV panels.
However, the results by Yang et al. are not exactly consistent with our study. Yang et al.
demonstrated that both air and water temperatures under PV panels are always higher
than those in open water under the heating effect of PV panels with a peak temperature of
50 ◦ C [21]. This phenomenon may be caused by different types of PV installations. The PV
installation is fixed on a pile foundation of our case study, while it is floating in the their
study [21]. The main difference between the two installations is the distance from the PV
panels to the surface, which is connected to the wind speed below the PV panel. In our
case study, the distances from the PV panel to the surface are 3.02 m, 2.35 m, and 2.50 m at
S1, S2, and S3 corresponding to measured wind speeds of 4.0 m/s, 3.3 m/s, and 2.4 m/s,
respectively. However, the distance from the floating PV installation to the surface is very
small (0.15 m [21]), corresponding to a low wind speed (approximately 0 m/s) below it [22].
Evaporation is an important method of heat flux transfer at the air–water interface, and the
change in wind speed affects the water temperature by influencing evaporation [21]. The
water temperature probably increases when the drop in wind speed is much greater than
the drop in solar radiation [23]. From the perspective of energy analysis, PV changes the
energy balance of the water surface. In the study of Yang et al., the shortwave radiation
energy in open water is balanced by sensible heat flux, latent heat flux, and longwave
radiation. Since the wind speed under PV is 0 m/s and longwave radiation changes from
negative to positive, longwave radiation is balanced by sensible heat flux [21]. Although
the wind speed in this study is reduced by PV, the decrease does not exceed that of solar
radiation, and the sensible heat flux and longwave radiation in the PV area are balanced by
the latent heat flux.
In recent years, global climate change has had an impact on aquaculture, posing
a threat to the security of fishery resources. For instance, the rising water temperature
caused by global warming may exacerbate the incidence of red tides and severely affect
fish production [24]. Therefore, it is necessary to take measures to mitigate the effects of
climate change. In our research, we found that PV significantly reduces water temperature.
Thus, adopting fishery complementary PV can alleviate water warming, which would be
beneficial for aquaculture.

4.2. Effects of PV on Water Quality

The DO and salinity in the PV area are higher compared to the control area of the case
study, while the pH, Chl-α, and some nutrients in the PV area are lower. In addition, the
concentrations of nitrate and ammonium in the PV area are not significantly different from
those in the control area.
Li et al. conducted a PV simulation experiment in a pond with a sunshade net
and found that when there is PV coverage, DO increases, which is consistent with our
results [25]. It is worth noting that when PV coverage is in the range of 0~50%, the DO
increases with increasing PV coverage; when PV coverage is greater than 50%, the DO
decreases with increasing PV coverage [25]. It is well known that DO is mainly related to the
photosynthesis of phytoplankton, the respiration of organisms, and the temperature of the
water. In our study, the respiration of organisms is weak at low temperatures (13.3~15.1 ◦ C).
In addition, the intensity of phytoplankton photosynthesis is weak due to the low E value
below PV. Therefore, it is likely that the high DO concentration in the PV area of the case
study is mainly caused by low water temperatures.
For shallow aquatic ecosystems, nutrient and light competition between phytoplank-
ton and benthic algae can affect turbidity. Mei et al. found that elevated temperature
promotes the growth of phytoplankton but inhibits that of benthic algae, resulting in an
increase in the number of total suspended solids and a significant decrease in the light in-
Water 2024, 16, 526 11 of 14

tensity of the sediment surface [26]. PV coverage is conducive to the increase in subsurface
E of the case study, but PV coverage reduces the light incident on the water body; thus,
the final E of the water body depends on the relative effect of the above two factors. The
turbidity of the PV area is 70% lower compared to the control area of the case study. The E
of the above surface and surface in the PV area is lower compared to the control area of the
case study by 51,050 and 3745 lux, respectively, while the E of the subsurface in the PV area
is 140 lux higher compared to the control area. This finding shows that close to the bottom,
the influence of turbidity on E is relatively great. Therefore, the low turbidity in the PV area
is conducive to the acquisition and utilization of light by organisms in the water body and,
to a certain extent, the adverse impact of reduced E on primary production [27], further
reducing the impact of phytoplankton photosynthesis on DO.
The concentration of Chl-α in the PV area is significantly lower compared to the control
area of the case study, which is consistent with the conclusions of existing studies. For
example, in the modelling study of Yang et al., under 30% PV coverage, the concentration
of Chl-α decreased by 30% [28]. Hass et al. conducted a detailed modelling experiment
on Chl-α with 0–100% PV coverage (increasing by 10%) and found that the concentration
of Chl-α decreases with increasing coverage. When the coverage reaches 20~30%, the
concentration of Chl-α decreases significantly, and when the coverage exceeds 70%, the
concentration of Chl-α decreases significantly. The concentration of Chl-α is below the
threshold of 0.4 µg/L in oligotrophic lakes [29]. Although PV coverage reaches 80%, the
lowest Chl-α concentration is still greater than 1 µg/L of the case study. This phenomenon
may occur because our study area is a closed water body with low flow rates. However,
turbines are deployed in the research area of Hass et al., which can maintain a relatively
high flow rate and strong mixing of water bodies [29]. Exley et al. conducted PV simulation
experiments under three flow rate scenarios at high, middle, and low levels and found
that the concentration of Chl-α decreases exponentially with increasing PV coverage at
high and middle flow rates, and the concentration of Chl-α with only 60% coverage drops
below 1 µg/L at high flow rates. However, reducing the low flow rate to the same Chl-α
concentration requires at least 90% coverage [30]. This finding further indicates that a high
flow rate can enhance the effect of PV on Chl-α concentration reduction.
In the study of Li et al., pH decreases with increasing PV coverage, but the decrease is
very small. Compared with the control area, the pH decreases by only 0.2 units under 100%
coverage [25]. The average pH of the PV area is reduced by only 0.28 units compared to
the control area. The pH of the water body is affected by the difference in photosynthesis
and respiration intensity. Both photosynthesis and respiration in the PV area are weakened
due to the decrease in E and water temperature, and the decrease in pH indicates that the
effects of PV on respiration may be higher than those on photosynthesis. Experiments
on the effects of evaporation are popular topics in recent water-based PV research. PV
reduces solar radiation and wind speed, reducing evaporation in water bodies to varying
degrees [31–33]. From the perspective of evaporation, the salinity of the PV area should
be lower compared to the control area, but the salinity of the PV area of the case study
is significantly higher compared to the control area, and the specific reasons remain to
be studied.
In the modelling analysis of the impact of the floating PV installation on water quality,
compared with the control area, nitrate in the PV area decreases and ammonium increases,
but the magnitude is small (0.16% and 0.4% in summer; 0.05% and 0.24% in winter) [34].
In the PV simulation experiment of the sunshade grid, the concentrations of ammonium
and active phosphorus in water with a 75% coverage rate decrease by 43.1% and 24.9%,
respectively, and the concentration of nitrite increases by 45.5% [25]. This finding shows
that inorganic nutrients vary greatly in different types of PV power or under different
scenarios. According to the results of the t-test, there are no significant differences between
the concentrations of nitrate and ammonium in the PV area and the control area in our
study. The nitrite concentration is extremely low in the PV area, and the highest value in the
control area is only 0.0025 mg/L, which may be influenced by the high DO concentration
Water 2024, 16, 526 12 of 14

in the water body in the study area; a high DO concentration can promote the production
of nitrate. The concentrations of labile phosphate, active silicate, TN, and TP in the PV area
are lower compared to the control area of the case study. This finding is consistent with the
research results of Li et al. [25]. Labile phosphate is more easily adsorbed under aerobic
conditions [35]. The DO in the PV area is significantly higher compared to the control area
of the case study, which may be one of the reasons for the concentration of labile phosphate
in the PV area being lower compared to the control area. Temperature affects the labile
phosphate concentration. The rising water temperature accelerates the degradation of
sediment humus by microorganisms, and organic matter is released into the water layer
in the form of phosphate [36]. The temperature of the PV area is reduced, and the labile
phosphate concentration is reduced. In addition, rainwater erosion enhances phosphorus
release from sediments [37]. PV power may reduce the concentration of labile phosphate in
the PV area by attenuating the scouring effect. Some studies have shown that the species
composition of phytoplankton in the water in PV areas changes. For example, Exley et al.
found through modelling that under the scenario of a low flow rate and high coverage rate
(90%), diatoms occupy a dominant position in the phytoplankton community most of the
time, while under the scenario of a low coverage rate (30%), green algae are dominant [30].
This study area exhibits a low flow rate and high PV coverage. The decline in active silicate
concentration within the PV area can potentially be attributed to the rise in diatoms and
other groups. Despite a significant decrease in Chl-α concentration within the PV area, the
increased proportion of diatoms may still be the primary factor contributing to the decline
in active silicate concentration. Furthermore, the Pearson correlation analysis revealed
a noteworthy positive correlation between water temperature and active silicate. The
potential influence of water temperature on active silicate through its impact on diatoms
necessitates further investigation to elucidate the specific underlying mechanism.
The overall concentrations of TN, TP, and TOC area are high in the case study, espe-
cially TOC. This finding indicates that the inorganic process of the water body is relatively
slow, which is consistent with the characteristics of slow biological activity in winter. In
addition, the TN, TP, and TOC in the PV area are significantly lower compared to the
control area. In the modelling study of Yang et al., when the PV coverage rate is 30%, the
TOC concentration of the reservoir decreases by 15% compared with the control area [28].
The relatively low TN, TP, and TOC values in the PV area may be related to the relatively
low primary production and slow accumulation of organic matter. According to Pearson
correlation analysis, there is a significant positive correlation between water temperature
and TP, indicating that a decrease in water temperature can lead to a decrease in TP.
Previous studies have demonstrated that the coverage of PV panels could influence
the production of fish and crabs. The installation of PV panels may have a negative impact
on milkfish (Chanos chanos) production and a positive impact on Chinese Mitten Crab
(Eriocheir sinensis) production [13,38]. Further investigations will be focused on the yield
and size of mud crab in the study area.

5. Conclusions
Based on the measurement and sampling analyses of near-surface meteorology and
water quality parameters in PV areas and control areas, we studied the influence of a
fishery complementary PV power plant on the water quality of coastal aquaculture ponds.
The conclusion that can be drawn from this study is that PV power inhibits most of the
solar radiation received by the surface and weakens the wind speed to a certain extent.
As a result, water quality is significantly affected, whereby the water temperature, pH,
Chl-α, turbidity, nitrite, labile phosphate, active silicate, TN, TP, and TOC in the PV area
are lower and DO and salinity are higher compared to the control area. In conclusion, the
coverage of PV power could influence the water quality and subsequently have an impact
on the aquaculture. In particular, shading and cooling provide advantageous conditions
for shade-loving species. In the future, long-term monitoring should be conducted to
Water 2024, 16, 526 13 of 14

further clarify the relationship between the change in the water quality parameters and
aquaculture production.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, L.M.; methodology, F.S., L.M. and Z.L.; software, F.S.;
validation, Z.G. and Z.L.; formal analysis, L.M. and Y.W.; investigation, F.S., Z.G. and Y.W.; resources,
Z.L.; data curation, L.M.; writing—original draft preparation, F.S.; writing—review and editing, F.S.,
L.M. and Z.L.; visualization, F.S. and Z.G.; supervision, L.M.; project administration, L.M.; funding
acquisition, Z.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Natural Science Foundation of Fujian Province, China,
grant number 2020J01667.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Acknowledgments: We would like to thank the reviewers for their time spent on reviewing our
manuscript and their comments which helped us to improve the article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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