ISSN 1848-9257

Journal of Sustainable Development of Energy, Water Journal of Sustainable Development

of Energy, Water and Environment
Systems

and Environment Systems

http://www.sdewes.org/jsdewes
http://www.sdewes.org/jsdewes

Year 2019, Volume 7, Issue 1, pp 139-154

Energy Transition from Diesel-based to Solar

Photovoltaics-Battery-Diesel Hybrid System-based Island Grids in the
Philippines – Techno-Economic Potential and Policy Implication on
Missionary Electrification

Joey D. Ocon*1, Paul Bertheau2

1
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of the Philippines Diliman, C.P. Garcia Ave, Diliman,
Quezon City, Philippines
e-mail: [email protected]
2
Reiner Lemoine Institut gGmbH, Rudower Chaussee 12, Berlin, Germany
Europa-Universität Flensburg, Auf dem Campus 1, Flensburg, Germany
e-mail: [email protected]

Cite as: Ocon, J. D., Bertheau, P., Energy Transition from Diesel-based to Solar Photovoltaics-Battery-Diesel Hybrid
System-based Island Grids in the Philippines – Techno-Economic Potential and Policy Implication on Missionary
Electrification, J. sustain. dev. energy water environ. syst., 7(1), pp 139-154, 2019,
DOI: https://doi.org/10.13044/j.sdewes.d6.0230

ABSTRACT
The cost of unsubsidized electricity in off-grid areas, particularly in the islands
dependent on fossil fuels, is expensive. Previous studies and recent installations have
proven that renewable energy-based hybrid systems could be suitable alternative to diesel
power plants in island grids. In this comprehensive analysis of small island grids in the
Philippines, results show that there is a huge economic potential to shift the diesel
generation to solar photovoltaics-battery-diesel hybrid systems, with an average cost
reduction of around 20% of the levelized cost of electricity. By encouraging private
sector participation, hybridization could help provide electrification for twenty-four
hours, stabilize the true cost of generation rate with less dependence on imported diesel
prices, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Further, the declining cost of solar modules
and batteries will significantly improve the economics of energy transition in the island
grids.

KEYWORDS
Island energy supply, Techno-economic potential, Solar photovoltaic, Levelized cost of
electricity, Philippines, Renewable energy.

INTRODUCTION
Small island energy systems have an enormous potential to transition from using
Diesel Power Plants (DPPs) to hybrid energy systems. Diesel-powered island grids are
generally operated at low efficiencies and suffer from fluctuating fuel prices, which result
in high power generation costs and eventually blackouts due to shortages. Additionally,
energy generation in fossil fuel-based island grids leads to environmental pollution
through the emission of greenhouse gases and frequent oil spills [1, 2]. These external
costs (i.e. adverse health and environmental impacts) increase the costs of fossil fuels and
*
Corresponding author

139
 Ocon, J. D., Bertheau, P. Year 2019
Energy Transition from Diesel-based to Solar ... Volume 7, Issue 1, pp 139-154

are not incorporated [2]. Renewable Energy (RE)-based distributed energy generation on
small islands is an attractive option because of its cleaner energy production, the
abundance of solar resources in areas where these islands are located, and the technical
and economic difficulty encountered when connecting these islands to the main grid
[3, 4].
The described energy transition is especially important in an archipelagic country like
the Philippines with more than 7,600 islands. A long-standing challenge is how to supply
small remote islands with power to improve local living conditions. Supply of electricity
in such remote areas is primarily done based on diesel power plants, with the
unsubsidized off-grid electricity cost up to six times higher than the on-grid electricity
cost. Additionally, the quality of supply is low and in fact more than eighty percent of
areas served by the public supplier for small power generation are provided with power
for less than 8 hours a day [5]. While the Philippine economy is growing well in the past
decade, this unsustainable scheme is still a large burden for a country like the Philippines,
where poverty is still prevalent and majority of the population in these islands have
limited income. Due to the insufficient power supply in remote areas, however, the rapid
economic growth is limited to few highly urbanized regions while the remaining parts of
the country lag far behind in terms of living standards, human development and
economic opportunities. Additionally, the country faces major challenges such as climate
change, globalization, inequality and rapid urbanization [6, 7], which could be mitigated
by developing sustainable energy supply schemes in remote areas.
At the same time, a high potential for RE exists in the Philippines, which would allow
large-scale transformation from fossil fuel systems to renewable systems [8, 9]. Doing so
would specifically contribute to the Sustainable Development Goal 7: “Ensure access to
affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all” [10] as electrification rates in
remote areas remain low. Outside the Philippines, hybrid energy systems have already
been tested in several environments and have allowed for stable power supply – e.g. the
Pacific island nation of Tokelau implemented a hybrid energy system allowing for 100%
renewable energy supply [11]. Additionally, the costs of components like solar
Photovoltaic (PV), inverters, batteries and energy management systems are decreasing at
a rapid pace [12, 13]. The combination of abundant renewable energy resources,
available renewable energy technologies, and an expensive conventional power supply
system suggests that a rapid change in the island energy supply systems is forthcoming
[8]. With regard to the Philippines, the high potential for supplying remote areas with
renewable energies was highlighted already two decades ago by Heruela [14], as well as
by Morris [15] and Barley et al. [16], with the latter two specifically investigating the
potential for renewable energy injection in diesel-based energy systems. Several studies
highlighted the feasibility of hybrid energy systems in particular locations (San Vicente,
Palawan) [17] and islands (Pangan-an) [18].
Nevertheless, the implementation of renewable energy technologies on the Philippine
islands is happening rather slowly [19]. Generally, a lot of research work has been
performed to resolve such slow implementations and four main categories of barriers are
typically identified: technological, economic, political, and social barriers [20, 21]. Here,
the technological and economic barriers are studied by simulating power generation costs
of hybrid systems based on solar PV and battery energy storage under the constraint of
24/7 hours power supply. The special focus is set on the Universal Charge for Missionary
Electrification (UCME) in the Philippines. To cover the difference between the True Cost
of Generation Rate (TCGR) and the Subsidized Approved Generation Rate (SAGR), all
grid-connected electricity consumers in the Philippines are levied the UCME. However,
the financial requirement for UCME is expected to increase further with additional
generation and extended coverage resulting to a possible increase in the missionary

Journal of Sustainable Development of Energy, Water and Environment Systems 140

 Ocon, J. D., Bertheau, P. Year 2019
Energy Transition from Diesel-based to Solar ... Volume 7, Issue 1, pp 139-154

charge collected from all electricity consumers [5]. As the overseer and main
implementer of the missionary electrification development program, it is in the interest of
the National Power Corporation-Small Power Utilities Group (NPC-SPUG) to pursue
investments in renewable energy in NPC-SPUG areas having technically sound
hybridization scheme to replace the diesel power plants and commercial viable and
replicable business models. According to NPC-SPUG projections, the difference
between TCGR and SAGR is expected to dramatically rise in the years to come [5].
In this work, an overview of the economic and technical requirements of transitioning
these islands grids to renewable-energy based grids are demonstrated. While solar PV is
often regarded as too expensive and not competitive enough with conventional fuels –
especially in a developing country like the Philippines, this study shows that on the
average the Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE) could decrease by 20% when using
solar PV-battery-diesel hybrid systems. This particular work is, however, limited only to
majority of the current NPC-SPUG locations and does not cover the off-grid areas
covered by private DPPs.

MATERIAL & METHODS

A modified methodology following our recent publication estimating the global
potential of renewable energies on small islands and island states was used [8]. This is
based on an energy system simulation tool considering solar irradiation data and
additional input parameters [e.g. capital and operating requirements and technical data
for solar PV plants, DPPs, and Lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery energy storage systems] for
the LCOE minimization. With the availability of rated capacities of the DPPs from
NPC-SPUG, only the solar potential data is sourced from the DPP-location based on
Geographic Information System (GIS) studies.

Small island inventory

For this study, isolated grids operated by the National Operator NPC-SPUG, where
data are available, were considered. Due to the archipelagic structure of the Philippines, it
is costly and in many cases even not technically feasible to connect all demand clusters to
the national grid. These isolated grids are mainly relying on diesel power generation,
which implies high generation and operational costs due to varying fuel costs and high
transport costs. As a paradigm shift, it is attractive to implement renewable energies in
these island grids first and to gain experiences and learnings, which could be transferred
to the larger Philippine grids later.
A government agency, NPC-SPUG is the largest operator of off-grid systems in the
Philippines. In particular 215 NPC-SPUG off-grid systems, located in Luzon (139),
Visayas (55), and Mindanao (21), are studied for their potential of implementing
renewable energies. These off-grid systems vary in sizes. The peak demand of the three
largest grids exceeds 10 MWp, followed by 20 grids in a range between 1-10 MWp, and
the remaining grids have peak capacities of several 100 kWp down to 4 kWp.

Energy systems model

A Python-based energy systems simulation tool was utilized to optimize the least cost
hybrid combination of PV, battery, and diesel capacity for each of the 215
micro-grid/mini-grids operated by NPC-SPUG. The tool has been successfully used in
several studies and is validated using Homer Energy [8, 22]. It simulates the energy flow
in hourly time steps for one reference year, looking at the energy generated from solar PV
and DPP, energy stored to/discharged from the battery, and energy demand of the grid, as
derived from the solar insolation data and techno-economic input parameters
(see Figure 1).

141 Journal of Sustainable Development of Energy, Water and Environment Systems

 Ocon, J. D., Bertheau, P. Year 2019
Energy Transition from Diesel-based to Solar ... Volume 7, Issue 1, pp 139-154

Figure 1. Scheme of the island energy supply model indicating the energy flows within the system

The energy flows were calculated using the dispatch strategy displayed in Figure 2,
with the grid load requirement to be supplied from solar power, battery charge, and/or
diesel power. At each hour for the entire reference year, the energy systems model
applies the dispatch strategy of maximizing the amount of energy coming from the solar
power plant. First, the model checks if the load in the island can be supplied entirely by
solar power. If it is, it then verifies if the stability requirement (rotating mass), which is
set at 40% of the island’s energy demand, is followed. With the system always operating
at least 40% of the power coming from the battery or diesel generator, the stability is
ensured. If charged, the battery should be discharged first before turning on the diesel
generator.

Figure 2. Dispatch strategy of the energy systems model used in the study

On the other hand, if the solar power generated is insufficient to supply the load, the
system discharges the battery. Once the battery is fully discharged to its allowable
State-of-Charge (SOC), which is 20% in the case of Li-ion battery, the diesel generator is
operated. In any case, the stability criterion must be fulfilled by the battery or the diesel
generator.
Looking at the available data from NPC-SPUG, the DPPs rated capacities were
assumed to be twice that of the peak loads for the island grids. It was assumed that no
additional installations of DPPs or replacement of old capacities are to be done during the

Journal of Sustainable Development of Energy, Water and Environment Systems 142

 Ocon, J. D., Bertheau, P. Year 2019
Energy Transition from Diesel-based to Solar ... Volume 7, Issue 1, pp 139-154
project lifetime of 20 years. The variable parameters in the study are the size of solar PV
and Battery Energy Storage System (BESS). By changing the solar PV and BESS share
of the hybrid system, the simulation tool minimizes the LCOE under the constraints
imposed by the equations discussed in Short and Packey [23]. The simulations are
automated to run independently and simultaneously for each small island grid location.

Geospatial information and techno-economic input data

The location of the individual DPPs were gathered from the NPC-SPUG website†.
For a single DPP supplying electricity to a mini-grid, the actual GIS location was taken.
Otherwise, the centroid of the multiple DPPs connected to a single micro-grid was taken
as the location.
A normalized load profile was used for the simulations. This load profile is based on
an average daily load profile, which was derived from the actual data of 22 island grids
[24]. The applied daily load profile is characterized by a peak demand in the evening
hours and slightly higher demand during the afternoon hours (see Figure 3). The minimal
load never falls below 50% of the peak load. These characteristics (low demand during
the day, peak demand in the evening) are typical for rural consumers in the Philippines.
The monthly variations in energy demands according to [24] were incorporated. Annual
variations are quite low with peak values in June reflecting additional demands for
cooling appliances, as shown in Figure 3. A generalization of load profiles was necessary
for this study as not for each of the NPC-SPUG areas real load profiles were available.
The daily load profile was normalized according to the peak demand during the day while
the annual load profile was normalized according to the average load during the entire
year. It is certain that a number of the considered grids are not operated 24/7 hours.
Nevertheless, for this study, it is assumed that all future hybrid systems provide
uninterrupted electricity supply to reflect the development goals of the government of the
Philippines. For scaling the normalized load profile to each of the considered island grids,
peak demand was defined as 50% of the installed power generation capacity in place.

1
Normalized load factor

0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hours
Normalized load factor

1,2
1,0
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0,0

Month

Figure 3. Normalized daily load profile applied for the simulation (top figure) and
normalized annual load profile applied for the simulation (bottom figure)

†
www.npc-spug.ph

143 Journal of Sustainable Development of Energy, Water and Environment Systems

 Ocon, J. D., Bertheau, P. Year 2019
Energy Transition from Diesel-based to Solar ... Volume 7, Issue 1, pp 139-154
Data on the Global Horizontal Irradiation (GHI) were gathered from global databases
in order to quantify the solar PV potential for all island grids considered (see Figure 4).
The NASA database covering the period 1984-2005 was used [25]. To get the GHI
time-series at a spatial resolution of 0.5° by 0.5°, the method developed by the German
Aerospace Center (DLR), where they applied a clear sky index approach and accounted
for hourly changes in the irradiance data, as adopted. In the modelling, the resource pixel
of the DPP location or the centroid for multiple DPPs in a single grid was chosen.
To translate the irradiation data to actual electricity production, a model using crystalline
silicon PV modules was utilized [26]. The effect of daily average temperature and
irradiation on the module efficiency was considered following previous works [27, 28].
Using our previous approach, a degradation rate of 0.3% per year and a power reduction
factor of 3% to account for the adverse effect of clouding and pollution were applied.
When the various models are combined, the system generates the island-based PV yield
in hourly time steps.

Figure 4. Map of the Philippines showing solar PV resource in terms of the GHI

To complete the simulation parameters, the technical and economic data of the
Philippine small island grids were loaded into our energy systems model, as shown in
Table 1. From previous experiences, diesel fuel cost influences the most the power
generation cost of the hybrid system. For the diesel cost, an average value of USD 0.90
per liter across all island grids considered was used, which was taken from the average
landing cost of diesel in NPC-SPUG islands [24]. A diesel price inflation of 3.8% per
year was used. While the national average price is lower, the landing cost of diesel
typically rises due to the transport cost in bringing the diesel by boat to these islands.
As discussed later in the sensitivity analysis section, this study also looked into the effect
of the diesel prices on the LCOE in each island grid.
Since the DPPs exist already in the NPC-SPUG small islands and are verified to be in
operation, it was assumed that there would be no initial cost for the diesel technology.
The operational costs, however, which are based on expenditures such as maintenance
and lubricant oils, account to around 0.05 USD/kWh [29]. The lifetime of the DPPs was

Journal of Sustainable Development of Energy, Water and Environment Systems 144

 Ocon, J. D., Bertheau, P. Year 2019
Energy Transition from Diesel-based to Solar ... Volume 7, Issue 1, pp 139-154
set to be at 20 years. To calculate the efficiency of the DPP as the actual loading changes,
the efficiency values described by [30] was used, which were between 30% and 40%.
To maintain the stability of the off-grid system, a rotating mass of 40% was set to ensure
enough diesel or battery capacities to maintain frequency and voltage control [31].

Table 1. Summary of technical and economic input parameters used in the

techno-economic simulations

Technology Parameter Value Unit

Initial costs 0 [USD/kW]
Operational and maintenance expenditures (var) 0.05 [USD/kW/yr]
Lifetime 10 [yr]
Diesel plant
Efficiency at min loading 30 [%]
Efficiency at max loading 35 [%]
Rotating mass 40 [%]
Initial costs 1,200 [USD/kW]
PV Operational and maintenance expenditures 25 [USD/kW/yr]
Lifetime 25 [yr]
Initial costs (capacity) 260 [USD/kWh]
Initial costs (power) 540 [USD/kW]
Operational and maintenance expenditures 7.25 [USD/kWh/yr]
Lifetime 15 [yr]
Maximum C-rate 0.5 [kW/kWh]
Battery Maximum depth of discharge 80 [%]
Charging efficiency 90 [%]
Discharging efficiency 90 [%]
Round trip efficiency 81 [%]
Maximum no. of cycles 5,000 cycles
Initial state of charge 0 [%]
Project development cost (fixed) 20,000 [USD]
Project lifetime 20 [yr]
Other
Weighted average cost of capital 9.94 [%]
Diesel inflation rate 3.8 [%]

The solar PV power plant is economically defined by the initial cost or Capital
Expenditure (CAPEX), Operational and Maintenance Expenditures (OPEX), and
lifetime. Typically, turn-key PV plants in the Philippines costs around 1,200 USD/kWp
and the OPEX is at 25 USD/kWh/yr for a lifetime of 25 years. On the other hand, the
Li-ion battery-based BESS was assumed to have an initial cost of 260 USD/kWh for
capacity and 540 USD/kW for power, combining the costs at a fixed C-rate of 0.5 to
800 USD for both as a modular unit. OPEX is set at 7.25 USD/kWh per year and a
lifetime of 15 years. For the cycle efficiency, a conservative estimate of 90% charging
and discharging efficiency, leading to a roundtrip efficiency of 81%, was used.
To initiate the hybridization process, a fixed development cost of 20,000 USD per
small island grid was assumed for a project lifetime of 20 years. The Weighted Average
Cost of Capital (WACC) was taken to be 9.94% for a typical energy and utility project in
the Philippines. Table 1 shows the summary of the technical and economic input
parameters loaded into the energy systems model.
For studying the effect of battery costs on the LCOE of hybrid energy systems, the
techno-economic sensitivity modelling and optimization was performed across all the
surveyed island grids on four scenarios with different battery costs. To generate the four
scenarios, the battery investment costs was decreased (−50%, −25%) and was increased
(+25%, +50%) relative to the original battery costs in the calculations discussed above.
All other parameters were fixed as in the main scenario (see Table 1). The applied values
for the sensitivity analysis are listed in Table 2.

Table 2. Applied costs values for battery cost sensitivity analysis

Parameter Unit −50% −25% Base scenario +25% +50%

Initial costs (capacity) [USD/kWh] 130 195 260 325 390
Initial costs (power) [USD/kW] 270 405 540 675 810

145 Journal of Sustainable Development of Energy, Water and Environment Systems

 Ocon, J. D., Bertheau, P. Year 2019
Energy Transition from Diesel-based to Solar ... Volume 7, Issue 1, pp 139-154

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

When pertaining to off-grid systems in the Philippines, there are mainly two types:
• Off-grid areas not connected to the three main electricity transmission grids
(Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao) and are serviced by the NPC-SPUG;
• Off-grid areas declared as unviable districts within the jurisdiction of the
distribution utilities or electric cooperatives.
The distribution utilities or electric cooperatives are usually getting their power from
among the three main grids. Majority of these off-grid areas are islands and are powered
by diesel generator sets.
After the deregulation and privatization of the Philippine energy sector in the 1990s,
only the major power plants were sold leaving the small islands still dependent on the
services of the government-owned and operated NPC. However, only around 10% of the
215 NPC-SPUG areas have access to 24/7 electricity [5]. As it stands, there are still over
four million households in the Philippines who are without access to electricity [32].
Figure 5 shows the location of the 215 NPC-SPUG off-grid systems. While majority
are located in small islands, some are still in the main islands of Luzon, Visayas, and
Mindanao. Among the 215 island grids operated by NPC-SPUG surveyed in this work,
the majority is located in Luzon (139) while the rest are located in Visayas (55) and
Mindanao (21). The peak capacities, however, of these DPPs vary from several kW
(i.e. mainly found in many locations in Masbate) to as large as several MW each
(e.g. Marinduque, Mindoro Occidental, Tawi-tawi, etc.). It is evident from the large red
circles that there are several large grids operated by NPC-SPUG. While already operating
for decades, these island grids suffer from frequent system breakdown and instability
depending on the arrival of diesel fuels [32].

Figure 5. Location of the 215 NPC-SPUG diesel power plants (left) and the corresponding rated
peak capacity (right), the blue lines delineate the boundaries of the three main island regions,
where the three main electricity grids are located

Presently, multiple diesel power plants, either stationary or barge-type power plants,
operate large mini-grids in the NPC-SPUG areas. It should be noted that the
techno-economic optimization performed in the island grids and not on individual DPPs.

Journal of Sustainable Development of Energy, Water and Environment Systems 146

 Ocon, J. D., Bertheau, P. Year 2019
Energy Transition from Diesel-based to Solar ... Volume 7, Issue 1, pp 139-154
As an example, the Marinduque grid is composed of six DPPs. Hence, the total peak
capacity of the diesel resource is taken as the sum of the individual capacities.
The results in this section are derived from the individual island energy supply system
based from the technical and economic data, the solar PV yield, and the load data of each
island grid. In each case, the data are loaded into the energy systems model and the tool
optimizes the hybrid configuration to minimize the LCOE over a period of 20 years.
To be specific, it calculates the RE share, which in this case corresponds to solar power
only, in the installed capacities with the minimized cost of generation. The cost of diesel
power generation and RE-based hybrid power generation in Luzon, Visayas, and
Mindanao is illustrated in Table 3. These costs reflect the average cost for the next
20 years, using an assumption of 3.8% annual increase of diesel. On the average, the
energy generation cost is around 0.4 USD/kWh at a diesel price of 0.9 USD/L.
The calculated energy generation cost for the diesel only case is close to the global
average of our previous work [8]. It should be noted that a uniform diesel price was set
across all diesel grids, in order to be able to study the effect of the various configuration
and location. A sensitivity test, which will be discussed in a later section, shows that even
under affordable diesel prices, hybrid energy systems still offer advantages over diesel
only generation.

Table 3. Results of the techno-economic analysis of the island grids in the Philippines grouped
according to the three main islands – LCOE Reduction and Optimal Hybrid Configuration

LCOEave LCOEave Battery

LCOE reductionave PV potentialsum RE share
Island group (diesel only) (hybrid system) potentialsum
[%] [MWp] [%]
[USD/kWh] [USD/kWh] [MWh]
Luzon 0.44 0.36 18.4 132 197 50.5
Visayas 0.44 0.35 20.5 40 66 49.7
Mindanao 0.44 0.34 23.5 88 141 52.0
National 0.44 0.35 19.8 260 404 50.4

As shown also in Table 3, the optimal average RE share for the island grids where
hybridization is feasible is around 50.4% across all surveyed islands grids. The lowest
obtained optimized LCOE is around 0.32 USD/kWh for the Siasi mini-grid in Mindanao,
while the highest optimized LCOE is around 0.4 USD/kWh for the Pinanaan mini-grid in
Luzon. Even at the latter’s electricity cost, this still represents a reduction of 8.4% of the
electricity cost. It should be emphasized that there are 53 existing DPP-based grids with
very low capacities where it is not feasible to hybridize due to the high project cost and
investment cost. All of these NPC-SPUG areas are powered by small diesel generator
sets with capacities between 7-15 kWp. While hybridization in these areas will be
difficult and costly due to its scale, these areas can be catered to by smaller solar hybrid
systems or by solar home systems instead.
In general, hybridization of the NPC-SPUG island grids leads to an average LCOE
reduction of 19.8%. Mindanao (23.5%) has a slightly higher LCOE reduction potential
than Luzon (18.4%) and Visayas (20.5%), which is most likely due to its more favourable
location near the equator and the corresponding larger solar resources. As shown in
Table 3, the average optimal RE share is around 50.4% across all surveyed islands grids.
This means that for RE, on the average, increasing the share of solar PV would increase
the LCOE due to higher CAPEX for both oversized batteries and solar PV plants. While a
lower RE share lowers the CAPEX, OPEX increases due to the amount of power
generation from imported diesel fuel. The optimized RE share ranges from 40% (Itbayat
DPP, Northern Luzon, 1,376 kWh/yr) to 61.2% (Sibutu DPP, Mindanao, 1,563 kWh/yr).
As shown in Figure 6, the bigger the island energy system, the higher the magnitude
of the solar PV potential. In 53 small island grids, it is not economical to transition to a
hybrid system due to higher capital costs driving the LCOE upwards. An alternative to

147 Journal of Sustainable Development of Energy, Water and Environment Systems

 Ocon, J. D., Bertheau, P. Year 2019
Energy Transition from Diesel-based to Solar ... Volume 7, Issue 1, pp 139-154
hybridization would be the use of Solar Home System (SHS) or distributed diesel
generator sets. Overall, transforming the current island energy systems into RE based
hybrid systems would reflect a solar PV potential of around 260 MWp. While this
economic potential is small in contrast to the grid-connected planned PV power plants
across the Philippines, capacity investment is targeted towards where electricity is really
needed.
On the other hand, a Li-ion battery potential of roughly 400 MWh was computed.
The installation of the BESS is a crucial piece in further decreasing the LCOE of hybrid
systems. Without the Li-ion BESS, an oversized solar PV plant is needed to provide the
electricity during daytime, while the DPP generates electricity for the rest of the day.
This results to an increase in the diesel consumption, which increases the LCOE for a
solar PV-diesel only system. The use of Li-ion BESS in recent years have increased
dramatically owing to the decreasing cost of energy storage. Various estimates suggest
that the cost of both solar PV and Li-ion BESS will continue to decrease in the coming
years [12].

Figure 6. Map of the calculated techno-economic PV potential (left) and Li-ion battery potential
(right) on NPC-SPUG island grids in the Philippines

Economic and environmental potential of hybridization

Hybridization of the islands avoids the importation of approximately 92 million liters
of diesel per year. At a diesel price of 0.9 USD/L, this corresponds to a diesel importation
cost of 82 million USD (4.3 billion PhP) annually. For the diesel only case, it was
estimated that the annual total importation cost to operate the existing DPPs is around
166 million USD (8.6 billion PhP) annually. Recently, there was a proposal from the
Philippine Department of Finance (DOF) to increase the excise tax on diesel by PhP 6 per
liter [33]. Surely, this move would impact the future UCME resulting from the increase in
the TCGR in these island grids.
Aside from the economic benefits of energy transition, hybridization enables the
Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emission savings of around 246 thousand metric tons of CO2
annually. Luzon (45.6 million L/yr) has the biggest diesel savings potential, followed by
Mindanao (31.8 million L/yr) and Visayas (14.5 million L/yr). For the above things to
happen, a capital infusion of around 529 million USD is needed (see Table 4).

Journal of Sustainable Development of Energy, Water and Environment Systems 148

 Ocon, J. D., Bertheau, P. Year 2019
Energy Transition from Diesel-based to Solar ... Volume 7, Issue 1, pp 139-154
Recent works argue that not all RE megawatts are created equal [34, 35].
They propose that RE power generation could be strategically used to promote social
outcomes where it is really needed (i.e. off-grid rural areas). While the Philippines in
recent years has a good track record in increasing the RE share with new solar, wind, and
hydro power plants constructed and planned, smaller RE based project would never come
into fruition if only megawatts were the only consideration. There is a bias for large,
grid-connected facilities. The availability of electricity in the off-grid areas should
provide an impetus for an increase and economic activity and production of high value
good in the countryside.

Table 4. Results of the techno-economic analysis of the island grids in the Philippines grouped
according to the three main islands – diesel savings, CO2 emissions credits, and
investment requirement

Island group Diesel savings [L/yr] CO2 emissions avoided [ton /yr] Investment requirement [million USD]
Luzon 45,678,000 122,000 264
Visayas 14,504,000 39,000 84
Mindanao 31,888,000 85,000 181
National 92,070,000 246,000 529

Sensitivity analyses on diesel price

For studying the effect of diesel costs on the LCOE of hybrid systems, a techno
economic sensitivity modelling and optimization for three scenarios of RE penetration
across all the surveyed island grids was performed. A high RE penetration scenario
corresponding to an average 60% RE share, a medium RE penetration scenario
corresponding to an average 45% RE share, and a low RE penetration scenario
corresponding to an average 30% RE share. As shown in Figure 7, at low diesel prices
(below 0.4 USD/L, it is expected that the diesel generation only system has the lowest
LCOE, followed by the low, medium, and high RE shares. On the other hand, at diesel
prices in between 0.5 to 1.0 USD/L, the 30% RE share configuration is the most
financially attractive. As diesel prices rise further, more RE penetration decreases the
LCOE. For instance, if the diesel prices reach 2.0 USD/L, a 60% RE penetration
configuration becomes the cheapest option. While the odds are low in the near future that
diesel prices reach that price, a high RE share has the most price stabilizing effect among
all options considered. While having a higher LCOE due to the increased capital
expenditure on the solar power plant and the Li-ion BESS, the 60% RE scenario is the
least dependent on the diesel price, not to mention the avoidance of importing millions of
liters of diesel each year and the associated GHG emissions.

Figure 7. Sensitivity analyses for diesel fuel price at different hybrid system configurations
according to the optimized RE shares

149 Journal of Sustainable Development of Energy, Water and Environment Systems

 Ocon, J. D., Bertheau, P. Year 2019
Energy Transition from Diesel-based to Solar ... Volume 7, Issue 1, pp 139-154

Sensitivity analyses on battery costs

The sensitivity analysis reveals the impact of battery costs on the overall LCOE
reduction potential and the cost optimized hybrid system design (see Table 5).
As expected, decreased battery costs (−50% and −25%) would result in lower LCOE and
higher RE shares. Decreased battery costs of −50% lead only to a marginal increase in the
RE share (+0.16%) compared to the −25% battery cost scenario. The applied stability
criteria (40% rotating mass) and diesel price prevent a higher RE share and a higher
battery potential. Further, decreasing battery and PV investment costs in combination
with higher initial diesel costs or a higher annual diesel price growth could change this
pattern.
A remarkable “tipping point” can be observed when comparing the base scenario to
the +25% battery cost scenario. With increasing battery costs, the battery potential
shrinks significantly (−70%) and the RE share decreases from 50.4% to 37.1%.
In contrast to the battery potential, the PV potential is decreased by 21%. Thus, with the
increased battery costs of +25%, it is less economically feasible to implement battery
capacities in the hybrid system to increase the overall RE share, however, it is still
economically feasible to implement PV capacities for substituting diesel power
generation. This “tipping point” reflects the economic breakpoint for hybrid “fuel saver”
systems (diesel and PV) to hybrid battery systems (diesel, PV and battery).
With regard to the LCOE of the hybrid systems the sensitivity analysis reveals that
changing battery costs would only slightly affect the overall power generation costs.
Lower battery costs (−50%) result in an additional average hybrid LCOE reduction
potential of 0.03 USD/kWh whereas higher battery costs (+50%) increase the average
hybrid LCOE by 0.01 USD/kWh.
Overall, the sensitivity analysis highlights that even when applying high battery costs
(+50%) a significant LCOE reduction potential (17.6%) compared to the diesel only
system exists. Nevertheless, with increasing battery costs the cost optimized RE share
and battery potential decreases significantly. Recent papers argue that the cost of battery
energy storage systems for microgrids will continue to decrease due to economy of scale
and continuous deployment of grid-scale battery technologies and ramping up in R&D
investments [13, 36].

Table 5. Results of sensitivity analysis of battery investment costs for base scenario and the four
considered cost scenarios– LCOE reduction and optimal hybrid configuration

LCOEave LCOEave LCOE Battery

PV potentialsum RE share
Scenario (diesel only) (hybrid system) reductionave potentialsum
[MWp] [%]
[USD/kWh] [USD/kWh] [%] [MWh]
−50% 0.44 0.315 28.1 293 570 58.8
−25% 0.44 0.335 23.7 283 518 57.2
Base sc. 0.44 0.352 19.8 260 404 50.4
+25% 0.44 0.359 18.3 204 117 37.1
+50% 0.44 0.362 17.6 197 71 35.1

Implication on the universal charge for missionary electrification

Continuing on the reliance on diesel in the future will surely lead to a rise in
missionary electrification subsidies. The steeper slope of the “diesel only” case
emphasizes the heavy dependence of the LCOE to the diesel price in the worldwide
market. For instance, according to the first official draft of the Missionary Electrification
Development Plan (MEDP) of the DOE for the period 2017-2021 [5] the total UCME
subsidy will increase from 138.5 million USD (7.2 billion PhP) in 2015 up to
273.1 million USD (14.2 billion PhP) in 2021. In 2016, the distribution utilities were
collecting an average UCME of PhP 0.19/kWh to all electricity consumers in the country.

Journal of Sustainable Development of Energy, Water and Environment Systems 150

 Ocon, J. D., Bertheau, P. Year 2019
Energy Transition from Diesel-based to Solar ... Volume 7, Issue 1, pp 139-154

For the planning period 2017-2021 considered above, missionary electrification in the
Philippies requires a total subsidy of 1.463 billion USD (76.06 billion PhP). Additionally,
DOE expects the addition of around 111.7 MW of installed capacity in the NPC-SPUG
areas, which could stretch further the UCME requirements. While there are on-going
privatization program in the NPC-SPUG areas in recent years, the reduction of costs and
improved operational efficiency are not yet sufficient to significantly reduce or even
remove the UCME subsidies. There are already fifteen NPPs with a total rated capacity of
around 206 MW powering nine off-grid areas with 24-hr electricity service. Most of the
generation plants, however, are still based on conventional fossil fuels like coal, natural
gas, and diesel. Yet, even with the power generation based on GHG-emitting plants, there
is still a need to infuse the gap between the true cost and the subsidized generation rates
by the missionary electrification subsidy.
Although the electricity consumers in the NPC-SPUG areas, who are mainly in the
marginalized sectors, pay a subsidized rate, this dependence on fossil fuels makes
electricity more expensive to everyone because UCME is eventually collected to all
grid-connected consumers. Taking into account the identified LCOE reduction potential
of 19.8% on average, our study underlines the feasibility of reducing the UCME charge
through investing in renewable energies. As emphasized above, dependence on diesel has
its associated externalities costs such as GHG emissions and environmental pollution.
Aside from improving the efficiency of the diesel-fired power plants, increasing the
penetration of renewable energy in missionary areas to rationalize the UCME subsidy
should be a key step going forward.

CONCLUSIONS
In this work, the techno-economic potential of transitioning the 215 micro and
mini-grids in islands spread across the Philippine archipelago was surveyed. This is the
first study quantifying the aggregate economic and environmental benefits of
transforming the DPPs into solar PV-battery-diesel hybrid systems. This transformation
brings benefits to all parties concerned. First, the government can avoid the increase or
even reduce the subsidy given for missionary electrification in these islands. In turn, this
would prevent in the increase of UCME collection from all electricity consumers in the
Philippines. Second, the private sector, who are expected to enter into Power Purchase
Agreement (PPA) with the utility companies as New Power Producers (NPPs) or as
Qualified Third Party (QTP) entrants, are provided with financial incentives with a less
costly energy production from the hybrid system and the additional incentives for
RE-based generation (i.e. tax rebates, RE incentives as percentage of the amount of RE
supplied). Third, residents in these island grids will be provided with access to cleaner
electricity for 24/7. This could hopefully translate into better economic opportunities and
productivities, thereby, improving their overall welfare.
In order for this to happen, it is in the government’s hands to improve and fast track
the application process for NPPs or QTPs in the NPC-SPUG islands. For instance, a
priority can be made for applications for power generation plants based on renewable
energy (i.e. micro hydroelectric, solar PV-battery-diesel hybrids, wind). In recent years,
private companies have power supply agreements with the electric cooperatives in the
NPC-SPUG areas, yet, most of them are still based on coal and other conventional fuel
sources. In the updated MEDP, the government has identified possible strategies in the
rationalization of the missionary electrification subsidy from universal charge to address
challenges such as a focusing on rural and peasant communities, redesigning of the
business model of NPC-SPUG in missionary areas, promoting private sector investment,
and leading towards an integrated and inclusive economic development in small island
grids. To this end, they have identified possible strategies such as the following [5]:

151 Journal of Sustainable Development of Energy, Water and Environment Systems

 Ocon, J. D., Bertheau, P. Year 2019
Energy Transition from Diesel-based to Solar ... Volume 7, Issue 1, pp 139-154

• Institutionalize a graduation policy where NPC-SPUG will submit to DOE its

assessment and prospects of all existing areas towards meeting the commercial
viability and recommendation for graduation from the UCME;
• Develop a tarriff differential mechanism among customers (e.g. large commercial
and industrial consumers in resorts and shopping malls in big islands) and
missionary areas to allocate the subsidy mainly to areas with low economic
development;
• Review the determination of the SAGR to assess of the rates are still reflective of
commercial and economic viability of the areas;
• Review the implementation of the cash generation-based incentive for renewable
energy developers;
• Conduct a study to interconnect some SPUG islands to the main grids of Luzon,
Visayas, and Mindanao. Hopefully, this work could provide guidance to the
policy-makers and the private sector to move towards rapid transformation to a
cleaner and efficient energy production and distribution in these islands.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
J. D. Ocon acknowledges the support from the Green Talents Competition of the
German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF), the Federico E. Puno
Professorial Chair Award, the CHED-PCARI Program Project 2 (IIID 2015-09), and the
DOST-UP ERDT Program of the Philippines. P. Bertheau is grateful to the PhD
Scholarship of the Reiner Lemoine Foundation. This work is also supported by the
Research Project entitled, “Ener-PHIL – Research Cooperation supporting the
Energiewende on the Philippine Islands” funded by the BMBF. The authors are grateful
to dr. Philipp Blechinger, mr. Hendrik Huysken, and ms. Catherina Cader of the Reiner
Lemoine Institut for the help in performing the study and preparing the manuscript,
ms. Diona Mae Lisniana and ms. Raquel Francisco of the University of the Philippines
Diliman for the help in the data gathering for the NPC-SPUG locations.

REFERENCES
1. IRENA 2012, Renewable Energy Country Profiles, International Renewable Energy
Agency, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates,
http://www.irena.org/DocumentDownloads/Publications/Country_profiles_special_
edition-islands.pdf, [Accessed: 12-November-2015]
2. IPCC, Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report, Contribution of Working Groups I, II
and III to the fifth assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change, Core Writing Team (Pachauri, R. K. and Meyer, L. A., eds.), p 151, Geneva,
Switzerland, 2014.
3. Kuang, Y., Zhang, Y., Zhou, B., Li, C., Cao, Y., Li, L. and Zeng, L., A review of
renewable Energy utilization in Islands, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews,
Vol. 59, pp 504-513, 2016, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.01.014
4. Ranaboldo, M., Ferrer-Martí, L., García-Villoria, A. and Pastor Moreno, R., Heuristic
Indicators for the design of Community Off-grid electrification Systems based on
multiple renewable Energies, Energy, Vol. 50, No. 1, pp 501-512, 2013,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2012.11.025
5. DOE 2016, Philippine Department of Energy, Missionary Electrification
Development Plan (2017-2021), Taguig City, Philippines, 2016.
6. Leon (de), E. G. and Pittock, J., Integrating Climate change adaptation and
Climate-related disaster Risk-reduction Policy in developing Countries: A Case
Study in the Philippines, Climate and Development, Vol. 0, No. 0, pp 1-8, 2016,
https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2016.1174659

Journal of Sustainable Development of Energy, Water and Environment Systems 152

 Ocon, J. D., Bertheau, P. Year 2019
Energy Transition from Diesel-based to Solar ... Volume 7, Issue 1, pp 139-154
7. Heintel, M., Manila as the Center of urbanization and internal migration in the
Philippines (in German), Geographische Rundschau, Vol. 61, No. 10, pp 14-19,
2009.
8. Blechinger, P., Cader, C., Bertheau, P., Huyskens, H., Seguin, R. and Breyer, C.,
Global analysis of the Techno-economic Potential of renewable Energy Hybrid
Systems on small Islands, Energy Policy, Vol. 98, pp 674-687, 2016,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2016.03.043
9. IRENA 2017, Renewables Readiness Assessment, International Renewable Energy
Agency, http://www.irena.org/DocumentDownloads/Publications/IRENA
_RRA_Philippines_2017.pdf, [Accessed: 17-April-2017]
10. United Nations 2015, Transforming our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development, https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/21252030
%20Agenda%20for%20Sustainable%20Development%20web.pdf,
[Accessed: 11-June-2018]
11. Pene, R., Tokelau Solar Energy ‒ Where we are at…,
http://tokelau.org.nz/site/tokelau/files/SIDS/SPREP-EnergyPresentation28Aug14.pd
f, [Accessed: 11-June-2018]
12. IRENA 2015, International Renewable Energy Agency, Battery Storage for
Renewables: Market Status and Technology Outlook,
http://www.irena.org/documentdownloads/publications/irena_battery_storage_repor
t_2015.pdf, [Accessed: 11-June-2018]
13. Schmidt, O., Hawkes, A., Gambhir, A. and Staffell, I., The future cost of Electrical
Energy Storage based on experience Rates, Nature Energy, Vol. 2, Article Number
17110, 2017, https://doi.org/10.1038/nenergy.2017.110
14. Heruela, C. S., Affordable Remote-area Power Supply in the Philippines, Journal of
Power Sources, Vol. 38, No. 1-2, pp 171-181, 1992,
https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-7753(92)80108-N
15. Morris, E., Analysis of renewable Energy Retrorfit options to existing Diesel
Mini-Grids, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, APEC Publication Number
98-RE-01.6, 1998.
16. Barley, C. D., Flowers, L. T., Benavidez, P. J., Abergas, R. L. and Barruela, R. B.,
Feasibility of Hybrid Retrofits to Off-Grid Diesel Power Plants in the Philippines,
Windpower ’99, Burlington, Vermont, USA, June 20-23, 1999.
17. Blasco, M., Fajard, J. E., Soriano, S. and Wilhelm, B., Technical-Economical analysis
of the integration of renewable Energies in the Power Supply System of San Vicente,
Palawan, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH,
Manila, Philippines, 2014.
18. Hong, G. W. and Abe, N., Sustainability assessment of renewable Energy Projects for
Off-grid Rural electrification: The Pangan-an Island Case in the Philippines,
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp 54-64, 2012,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2011.07.136
19. Marquardt, J., The Power to change? How Multi-level Governance Structures affect
renewable Energy development in Southeast Asia, Ph.D. Thesis, Freie Universität
Berlin, Berlin, Germany, 2015.
20. Painuly, J. P., Barriers to renewable Energy penetration; A Framework for analysis,
Renewable Energy, Vol. 24, No. 1, pp 73-89, 2001,
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0960-1481(00)00186-5
21. Martinot, E. and Beck, F., Renewable Energy Policies and Barriers, Encyclopedia of
Energy, Vol. 5, pp 1-22, 2004, https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-12-176480-X/00488-5
22. Huyksens, H. and Blechinger, P., Techno-economic optimization of a Hybrid
Mini-grid using a one minute Time Step approach, 7th International Conference on
PV-Hybrids and Mini-Grids Bad Hersfeld, Bad Hersfeld, Germany, April 10-11,
2014.

153 Journal of Sustainable Development of Energy, Water and Environment Systems

 Ocon, J. D., Bertheau, P. Year 2019
Energy Transition from Diesel-based to Solar ... Volume 7, Issue 1, pp 139-154
23. Short, W. and Packey, D. J., A Manual for the Economic evaluation of Energy
efficiency and renewable Energy Technologies, National Renewable Energy
Laboratory (NREL), NREL/TP-462-5173, Golden, Colorado, USA, 1995,
www.nrel.gov/csp/troughnet/pdfs/5173.pdf, [Accessed: 11-June-2018]
24. Navarro, S., Hybrid opportunities in SPUG Areas using HOMER, Asia Clean Energy
Forum, Manila, Philippines, 2016.
25. Stackhouse, P. W. and Whitlock, C. H. (eds.), Surface Meteorology and Solar Energy
(SSE) release 6.0, NASA SSE 6.0. Earth Science Enterprise Program, National
Aeronautic and Space Administration (NASA), Langley, Virginia, USA, 2008,
http://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/sse/, [Accessed: 11-June-2018]
26. Huld, T., Šúri, M. and Dunlop, E. D., Geographical variation of the conversion
efficiency of Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaic Modules in Europe, Progress in
Photovoltaics: Research and Applications, Vol. 16, No. 7, pp 595-607, 2008
https://doi.org/10.1002/pip.846
27. AlBusairi, H. A. and Möller, H. J., Performance evaluation of CdTe PV Modules
under natural Outdoor conditions in Kuwait, 25th EU PVSEC/ WCPEC-5, Valencia,
Spain, September 6-10, 2010, https://doi.org/10.4229/25thEUPVSEC2010-3BV.2.111
28. Montes, C., González-Diaz, B., Linares, A., Llarena, E., González, O., Molina, D.,
Pio, A., Friend, M., Cendagorta, M., Díaz, J. P. and Expósito, F. J., Effects of the
Saharan Dust Hazes in the performance of multi-MW PV Grid-connected Facilities in
the Canary Islands (Spain), 25th EU PVSEC/ WCPEC-5, Valencia, Spain,
September 6-10, 2010, https://doi.org/10.4229/25thEUPVSEC2010-5BV.4.29
29. ESMAP 2007, Technical and Economic Assessment of Off-grid, Mini-grid and Grid
electrification Technologies, Technical Report, 2007.
30. KPMG 2010, Image Study Diesel Power Plants Study on Image and actual potential
of Engine-based Power, 2010, http://mandieselturbo.com/files/news/filesof11510/
KPMG_Imagestudy.pdf, [Accessed: 12-November-2015]
31. Kirschen, D. and Rebours, Y., What is spinning Reserve (Release 1), The University
of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom, 2005, http://goo.gl/o4RXR0,
[Accessed: 12-November-2015]
32. Arriola, F., New opportunities in Microgrid – Power Supply and Electrification
Strategy in the Philippines, Korea Smart Grid Week, Seoul, Korea, 2015.
33. BusinessMirror, http://www.businessmirror.com.ph/higher-vat-on-sin-products-eyed
-excise-tax-on-p troleum-opposed/, [Accessed: 17-April-2017]
34. Roxas, F. and Santiago, A., Alternative Framework for renewable Energy planning in
the Philippines, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Vol. 59, pp 1396-1404,
2016, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.01.084
35. Mesina, A. J. F., Rethinking Off-grid Rural electrification in the Philippines, Energy
Sources, Part B: Economics, Planning, and Policy, Vol. 11, No. 9, pp 815-823, 2016,
https://doi.org/10.1080/15567249.2013.804894
36. Kittner, N., Lill, F. and Kammen, D. M., Energy Storage deployment and innovation
for the clean Energy transition, Nature Energy, Vol. 2, Article number 17125, 2017,
https://doi.org/10.1080/15567249.2013.804894

Paper submitted: 01.03.2018

Paper revised: 11.06.2018
Paper accepted: 13.06.2018

Journal of Sustainable Development of Energy, Water and Environment Systems 154