The Reproductive

11 System
CONTENTS Living organisms produce new organisms to preserve themselves
ensure continuity of life. This is one of the remarkable features of alliand
Asexual reproduction organisms. Offsprings are produced when each living organism renrodNg
Sexual reproduction
and produces its own kind. The process by which an organism of a specie
" Sexual reproduction in human produces young ones of its own kind is called reproduction. As coms
beings
to life processes like nutrition and respiration, the process of reproduchoe
Twins is not essential for the survival of an organism. However, it is essenbal t
ensure continuity of life, preserve species, and introduce new variations in
their population.
The process of producing new organisms of the same species, by the
living organisms is called reproduction. It can be broadly classified into tao
main types - asexual and sexual. Asexual reproduction involves asingle
parent. On the other hand, sexual reproduction involves two parents, ie
a male and a female.

Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction involves a single parent to produce new individuals.
It does not involve the fusion of sex cells or gametes. It occurs by mitotic
cell division where single parent cell divides into two daughter cells having
similar number of chromosomes as parent cell. As a result, the young ones
are genetically similar to the parent.
Asexual reproduction can be commonly seen in unicellular organisms
like bacteria, some plants and simple multicellular animals like Hydra. The
reproductive unit may be the whole body of the parent, a bud consisting of
a small group of cells, or a fragment of the body of parents.

Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction is a mode of reproduction which involves participatien
of two different sexes i.e., male and female to produce a new organism. Ine
sex cells are known as gametes. When a male gamete fuses with a female
gamete by a process called fertilisation, a new cell zygote (also called germ
cell) is formed. By undergoing several divisions, the zygote developed
a new organism.
Table 11.1 Differences between Asexual Reproduction and Sexual
Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction in
1. Only one parent is involved in asexual reproduction. 1. Two parents, a male and afemale, are involved
sexual reproduction.
2. Does not involve the fusion of gametes. 2. Involves the fusion of gametes to form zygote.
3. Offsprings are gernetically similar to the parents. D. Otsprings are genetically different from both u
parents, but possess certain similarities.
4. It involves mnitotic cell division. 4. In this, meiosis occurs first during gamete for
but later, all the divisions are mitotic.
or less variation in Variationin the
No mixing of genes, so no the 5. Mixing of genes results in producing
offspring, offspring.
 human beings grow, their body
As
thare replaced by permanent teeth.gainsBut height,
after a
weight, and temporary
growth begins to slow down and
maturity of particular time, body
it
ienerally, occurs at the age of 10-11 years in girlsreprOductive
and
tissues start.
Certainhormones are produced by 13-14 years in boys.
hormonefrom testes), and reproductive organs, testosterone(male
which progesterone and oestrogen (female
bring about changes in males and hormones
irom novary), of reproductive
of maturation organs and production females. This periodis
of sex hormones
alled onset of puberty.
Human beings are unisexual and show sexual
differencessin physical features of
males and females). dimorphism (visible
Common changes in teenage boys and girls after attaining puberty are
listed below.
Crowth of hair in armpits and genital (pubic) area
. Darkening of the genital area
. Appearance of hair on other body parts, such as legs,
arms and face
. Skin becoming oily and pimples appearing on the face very
. Becoming body conscious often
Specific changes that appear in human males and females at puberty
are listed below.
Secondary sexual characteristics in males
Enlargement of larynx and voice become hoarse
Moustaches and beard start appearing on face
Body becomes muscular
Chest and shoulder become broad
Penis occasionally becomes enlarged and erect
Sperm production starts
These changes are due to male sex hormone, testosterone, produced
by testes.
Secondary sexual characteristics in females
Voice becomes high-pitched
Enlargement of mammary glands, fallopian tubes, uterus and vagina
Occurs
Broadening of pelvis occurs
Fat deposition in thighs, hips and buttock region takes place
Onset of menstruation (menarche) occurs
Ovaries start releasing eggS
female sex hormones,
ese changes are due to the production of
Progesterone and oestrogen, from ovaries. years and may not
nese changes take place over a period of months orbetween the onset of
Occur in period
patternin all people. This timematurity is called adolescence.
puberty similar
and achievement of complete sexual
Sex Organs and Need of Sexual Maturity are a pair of testes and
The main reproductive organs in males and females
These sex organs
called primary sex organs.
varies, espectively.
produce gametes or
They
germ
are
cells. The other organs of reproductive system
 The Reproductive System

Sexual Reproduction in Human Beings

e human beings grow, their body gains height, weight, and temporary
ASare replaced by permanent teeth. But after a particular time, body
growth beginsto slow down and maturity of reproductive tissues start.
nerally, it occurs at the age of 10-11 years in girls and 13-14 years in boys.
Certain hormones are produced by reproductive organs, testosterone (male
Ceone from testes), and progesterone and oestrogen (female hormones
novary).which bring about changes in males and females. This period
roration of reproductive organs and production of sex hormones is
called onset of puberty.
Human beings are unisexual and show sexual dimorphism (visible
Aifferences in physical teatures of males and females).
Common changes in teenage boys and girls after attaining puberty are
listed below.
. Growth of hair in armpits and genital (pubic) area
Darkening of the genital area
Annearance of hair on other body parts, such as legs, arms and face
. Skin becoming oily and pimples appearing on the face very often
. Becoming body conscious
Specific changes that appear in human males and females at puberty
are listed below.
Secondary sexual characteristics in males
Enlargement of larynx and voice become hoarse
Moustaches and beard start appearing on face
Body becomesmuscular
Chest and shoulder become broad
" Penris occasionally becomes enlarged and erect
Sperm productionstarts
These changes are due to male sex hormone, testosterone, produced
by testes.
Secondary sexual characteristics in females
Voice becomes high-pitched
Enlargement of mammary glands, fallopian tubes, uterus and vagina
occurs
Broadening of pelvis occurs
*Fat deposition in thighs, hips and buttock region takes place
Onset of menstruation (menarche) occurs
Ovaries start releasing eg8S
These changes are due to the production of female sex hormones,
POgesterone and oestrogen, from ovaries.
nese changes take place over a period of months or years and may not
Occur in similar pattern in all people. This time period between the onset of
puberty and achievement of complete sexual maturity is called adolescence.
Sex
KOrgans and I Need of Sexual Maturity
The main reproductive organs in males and females are a pair of testes and
varies, respectively. They cells.
are called primary sex organs. These sex organs
produce gametes or germ The other organs of reproductive
system
 ICSE Biology 10
that transport and nourish the gametes are called secondary sex
for example, fallopian tubes and uterus in females; and seminal organs,
prostate gland and penis in males. vesicles,
Requirement of Special Organs
The actual transfer of germ cells between two individuals n,
special organs for the sexual act such as the penis when it is Canakt
of becoming erect.
The baby is carried in the mother's body for about nine months in
the uterus and after birth, the baby is breast fed. So, to accommodt
these body changes, the female reproductive organs and breasts need
to mature.

Table 11.2 Differences between Primary Sex Organs and Secondary Sex Organs
Primary Sex Organs Secondary Sex Organs
Primary sex organs produce gametes. 1. Secondary sex. S do not produce gametes, but they
transport and gametes.
They produce sex hormones testosterone in males, 2. They do not secrete hormones.
and oestrogen and progesterone in females.
Examples: Testes and ovaries. 3. Examples: Uterus, seminal vesicles.

ASSIGNMENT 1
Asexual and Sexual Reproduction
1. Define reproduction.
2. Name the two main types of reproduction.
3. Write any three differences between sexual and asexual reproduction.
4. Name the male and female sex hormones.
5. List any two secondary sexual characteristics in a male and a female.

The Male Reproductive System

The human male reproductive system consists of parts that produce germ
cells, and other parts that deliver the germ cells to the site of fertilisation.
These organs are testes, epididymis, vasa deferentia, seminal vesicles,
prostate gland, Cowper's gland and penis (Fig. 11.1).

Bladder
Seminal vesicle
Prostate gland Ejaculatory duct

Urethra Vas deferens

(spen duct)
Foreskin Epididymis
Penis glans
Urethral opening Testicle (Testis)
Scrotum
Fig. 11.1 Human male
reproductive system
he Reproduclive System
201
.
Testes: Testes are primary male sex
and male sex hormone, organs which produce sperms
testosterone. Testes are a pair of oval-shaped
organs located outside the
alled the scrotum. Scrotum abdominal cavity in a saclike structure
provides optimum temperature for the
iormation of sperms which is generally 1°C-3°C, lower than the normal
hody termperature. Each testis contains many seminiferous tubules
ined by germinal epithelial cells. These cells undergo the process of
spermatogenesis process of sperm formation) to produce male
(the
arm cells called sperms
(spermatozoa).in Testes
Sperms throughout the reproductive keep on forming
phase a male. About 300 million
sperms are produced every day. Between the seminiferous tubules are
numerous microscopic interstitial cells known as Leydig cells. The Inguinal canal is thePpassage trthrough
Ievdig cells produce the male sex hormone called
m£in functions of testosterone are the formation oftestosterone. The
which the testes descend into the
Scrotum just before the birth of a
development of male secondary sex characteristics. sperms and the male baby.
Structure of a sperm: A sperm or spermatozoa is extremely small in
size. Asperm has four distinct regions - head, neck, middle
tail (Fig. 11.2). piece and
" The head is flattened and oval in shape. It contains a
nucleus and
is capped by an enzyme-filled structure called acrosomne. The
acrosome facilitates the entry of the sperm nucleus into the egg
during fertilisation.
" Neck plays an important role during the 1% cleavage division of
zygote.
" The middle piece of the sperm has several mitochondria. It provides
energy for the movement of sperm.
" The tail helps in propulsion through the female genital tract.

Sperms are highly motile. They

remain alive in female genital
passage for a few days. But, their
fertilizing power is limited to one of
two days only.

Temperature
In a male, spermatogenesis is a continuous process. testes are
above 40°C inhibits spermatogenesis (this is the reason that
located outside the body).
tpididymis: Each testis contains several small through and coiled tubes. All
tube which sperm
nese tubes of one testis open into one large scrotum, this large tube
cells leave the testis, Behind each testis in theEpididymis is about 4-6
rOrms a mass of coils called epididymis. may remain temporarily stored in
eres long tube. The sperm cells
is joined to a tube or
pididymis. The lower end of each epididymis duct or sperm duct.
uct called vas deferens or seminal sperm duct
deferentia: Vas deferens (plural vasa deferentia) or
epididymis. It
Vasa tube-like structure that arises from
muscular
Sa pair of
long. It ascends the abdomen and joins the tube coming
dbout 30 cm common
urinary bladder. ie.. urethra. Thus, urethra formsofa each vas
Tom the urine. The terminal portion
Passage for both sperms and contractile ejaculatory duct.
deferens enlarges to form the
 Acrosomal cap
Acrosome
Head
Nucleus
Nuclear membrane=
Proximal centriole
Mitochondria
Dense fibers
Midpiece Axoneme

Annulus

Tail
Principal
piece
Axial filament

Terminal
piece
202
ICSE Biology- 10
. Seminal vesicles: These are paired tubular glands located bek:.
the neck of the urinary bladder. Each sperm duct is connected with
seminal vesicle before opening into the urethra. The secretions fron
Seminal vesicles, Prostate gland seminal vesicle make the sperms active. After the sperm duct unito
and Cowper's gland are the male with the urethra, the combined channel first passes through a glan
accessory glands. called prostate gland.
. Prostate gland: The prostate glands are situated near the urina.
bladder and around the urethra. The secretion of this gland is thi
milky and alkaline which is necessary for motility of sperms.
. Cowper's gland (Bulbourethral Glands): The Cowper's glands are
attached to the urethra, a little below the prostate gland. The secretion
of Cowper's gland and the prostate gland make the environment
suitable for sperm survival in the urethra.
Penis: The urethra continues to the outside througha thick muscular
organ called penis. It hangs in front of the testes. It contains a spong
tissue surrounding the urethra and a layer of skin on the outside.
The penis is richly supplied with blood. The functions of penis are
discharge of urine, and ejection and deposition of semen in the genital
tract of female.
Semen: The secretions epididymis, seminal vesicle and prostate gland
of
mix to form a whitish alkaline fluid called
semen. There may be about
34hundred millions of spermatozoa or sperm cells in 2.5-4.0 mLof semen.
The secretions from various accessory glands
and make their transport into the female genitalprovide nutrition to sperms
tract easier.
The Female Reproductive System
The female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries, a pair
oviducts (fallopian tubes), uterus, vagina and external geritalia (Fig. 11.3).
Uterus
Fallopian tube

Funnel of
fallopian
tube

Fimbriae LCervix Ovary

Vagina

Fig. 11.3 Human

female reproductive system
Ovaries: The
side of the ovaries are two almond shaped on either
are vertebral
of eggs (ova) behind the kidneys.structures
column lying
production and secretion of theThe functions of ovaries
(oestrogen and
progesterone) which help in the female sex hormones
of u
DReproducive System
203
opian tubes and vagina, appearance of secondary female sexual
haracters; regular menstrual cycle; development of mammary glands and
anges during pregmancy.
Ahen a girl child is born, the ovaries already contain thousands
mature eggs. Very few of these eggs develop during the active
reproductivelife of the female. On reaching pubertv, some ot
these eg8S
.maturing. As the egg grows larger, the follicle also enlarges and gets
Fled with a fluid. At this stage, it become mature and is called Graafian
licle. Normally, one egg 1s released every month by one of the ovaries.
Ccture of an ovum: Each Graafian follicle contains an ovum. The follicle
atains a fluid-illed space called antrum. An ovum is spherical and
aon-motile structure. It contains cytoplasm and a centrally located nucleus
Eig 11.4). It is surrounded by a membranous zona pellucida.
Outside
his, lies a layer of radially arranged cells (at the time of ovulation) which
is known as corona radiata. The rupture of Graafian follicle to release a
mature ovum from ovary at an interval of 28 days is called ovulation.

Function of Ovum
In humans, gametes have 23
chromosomes.

The function of the ovum is to carry

the set of chromosomes contributed
by the female and create the right
environment to enable fertilization
by the sperm. Ova also provide
nutrients for the growing embryo
until it sinks into the uterus and the
placenta takes over,

Fallopian tubes (Oviducts): The fallopian tubes or oviducts or uterine

tubes carry eggs from the ovary to the uterus. Each oviduct is about
12 cm long. The ovum released from the ovary enters into the fallopian
tube through its open fimbriated (having finger-like projections) end.
The ovumn is moved into the oviduct by the ciliary action of the inner
lining of the oviduct and contraction of its wall. The two fallopian
tubes open into uterus.
Oterus (Womb): The uterus or womb is a hollow, thick-walled,
muscular organ located in the lower abdomen with an ovary on each
SIde. The function of uterus is to nurture the developing baby for about
nine months before birth. The lower portion of the uterus is constricted
and is known as cervix. The uterus opens into vagina through the
Cervix. The thick, muscular wall of the uterus is called myometrium,
nd nutritive. Highly vascular inner lining of the uterus is called the
endometrium.
Vagina: it is an elastic, tubular or canal-like structure that connects the
ulerus with the outside of the body. It is about 10 cm long. The sperm
enter the uterus through vagina. Until puberty, the vagina is partially
Or almost completely closed by a thin membrane called hymen.
Egg Cell
Corona radiata
Zona pellucida
Vitelline membrane
Nucleus
-olar Body
Cytoplasm
 This membrane usually gets ruptured by physical exercise dur:
bloogy 10
childhood or at the time of first intercourse. The opening of vacin "5
completely separate than that of the urethra. Vagina is the nacS
way for menstrual flow. It is the copulatory organ for females and:
also termed as birth canal because it is through this passage that u
baby is born.
External genitalia: The external genitalia or external female s.
organs are collectively termed as vulva. The opening of the vagina ie
surrounded by twO muscular folds of skin called labia majora. Insida
these are present a pair of folds of skin called labia minora Where the
two meet, a very sensitive and erectile organ about the size of a nes
is present. It is called clitoris, which is homologous to the penis of a
male. A pair of Bartholin's or vestibular gland is present on either
side of the vaginal orifice which secretes a lubricating fluid.
Artificial Insemination Fertilisation: The fusion of sperm with an egg is called fertilisation. It can
It is the process of introducing sperms occur within 2-3 days of ovulation (between 14 and 16 days of menstrual
directly into a woman's womb by
artificial means. It is a method used to cycde). During copulation 3-4 hundred millions of sperm are deposited
treat infertility. into the vaginal pasage of a female. Sperm are highly motile. They travel
upwards with the help of their tail and reach the fallopian tubes where one
single sperm may fuse with arn egg. Fertilisation takes place in the fallopian
tubes. The fusion of sperm and egg results in the formation of zygote (the
The chromosome number of fertilized egg) (Fig. 11.5).
and zygote in humans is 23 and 46, The zygote undergoes division and travels down the oviduct towards
respectively. the uterus.

In case of pregnancy, the fertilized

egg gets implanted in the uterus.
Developing placenta secretes HCG Implantation: The zygote or fertilised egg moves from the fallopian tube
(Human chorionic gonadotropin) towards the uterus and attaches itself onto the wall of the uterus. This fiing
hormone which prevents corpus
luteum of the ovary from of fertilised egg in the lining of the uterus is called implantation (Fig. 11.0)
degeneration and thus progesterone Before implantation, the zygote divides several times by mitosis to tort
levels are maintained during the
pregnancy. The walls of the uterus an embryo. Implantation of the embryo occurs on about the 7h day arte
keep nourishing the embryo so no fertilisation. It occurs when the blastocyst (a stage in the developmentof te
breaking of the uterine walls takes embryo) gets attached to the inner lining of uterus, i.e., the endometriu
place, as a result no menstruation
The embryo starts developing on the uterine wall. At this stage, a woma
occurs. is said to be pregnant, and the phenomenon is called pregnancy.
 FERTILIZATION
SPERM NUCLEUS -
· FIRST POLAR BODY

VITELLINE
MEMBRANE
.. EGG NUCLEUS

ZONA
PELLUCIDA
CYTOPLASM
OF OVUM

ACROSOME
SPERM
 Early cleavage Blastocyst
Zygote
(tertilized egg) Lale tlastocyst

Fertilization,
Uterine Ovulation
tube

Secondary oocyte Uterus

Ovary' Endometrium
 2-cell
8-cell
uncompacted
stage 4-cell morula Early
First
cleayage stage blastoyst
8-cell
Day 2 compacted
Day 3-4 morula
Day 1
pay 4
Day 0 Day 5
Fertilized
egg
(Zygote) Day 67
Late-stage
blastocyst
Implantation
of the
blastocyst
 205

Post-Fertilisation Changes
Placenta is a disc-like structure that is embedded in the mother's uterine
wall. The foetus gets attached to the mother's uterine wall through placenta.
The umbilical cord connects the placenta with foetus. The cord consists
of avein (or foetal vein) that carries oxygenated blood and nutrients from
the mother (or placenta) to the foetus; two arteries (or foetal arteries) that
transport deoxygenated blood and waste products like CO, from the foetus
to the mother (or placenta).
Functions of Placenta

"Acts as nutritive organ. It provides nutrition and respiration (oxygern)

from the mother's blood to the developing foetus.
" Acts as a digestive organ, as it digests the complex proteins before
allowing them to pass to the foetus.
Acts as respiratory organ. Exchange of gases (O, and CO,) takes place
through it.
released by the foetus
Acts as an excretory organ. The waste productsinto
transferred through placenta the mother's blood.
are removed and
progesterone
Acts as an endocrine organ, as it secretes oestrogen and
during last 6 months of pregnancy.
to pass through.
Acts as a filter and does not allow unwanted material
the time of need.
Stores glycogen and supplies glucose to the embryo at only
It allows respiratory
It is selectively permeable in nature. through it. It does not allow
gases, antibodies and nutrients to pass
mother to the foetus. Thus it acts as a
ne passage of germs from the
protective barrier for the growing foetus.
Excretion of the Embryo
Ole of Placenta in Nutrition, Respiration and
lacunae (Fig. 11.7), which are
intternal portion of the placenta bears blood. The maternal blood vessels
inmtervinto spaces bathed in maternal
l ous lacunae. away, whereas
Mother's veins carry foetal wastes placenta (or
hother's arteries carry Oxygenated blood and nutrients to the

lacunae).
The foetal Portion of the placenta
chorionic villi extend into
lacunae
vessels
consists of foetal blood (filled

enclwith osedmother'withins blood)

chorionic villi. The
and mediate the exchange
of material between
mother
and foetus.
 ICSE Biology-10
206 Foetal vein carries oxygenated blood and nutrients from the mother's
blood (or placenta) to the foetus, and foetal arteries transport t deoxygenated
from foetus to
blood and waste products like CO,, urea, etc., mother's
blood (or placenta).
The exchange of materials between the mother and the foetus takkes
place by the process of diffusion.
Chorionic villus, an extension of chorion (outermnost foetal membrane), contains footsi..
vessels and serves as the site for exchange of materials between mother and foetus.

Foetal vein Umbilical

Cord
Foetal artery

Chorionic
villus

Maternal artery
(carries oxygenated Maternal vein
blood and nutrients (carries foetal wastes away)
to the placenta)
Intervillous space
(lacunae) filled with mother's blood
Fig. 11.7 Structure of placenta

Connected to the foetal side of the placenta are foetal membranes

(Fig. 11.8), namely, chorion, amnion, yolk sac and allantois.
1. Chorion: It is the outermost membrane that surrounds the foetus. It
is attached to the margins of placenta, so chorion is also in contact
with the mother's uterine wall. It protects and nurtures the foetus,
and forms placenta.
2. Amnion: It is the layer next to chorion. It is
transparent and greyish in
colour. It surrounds and protects the foetus. It forms a sac filled with
amniotic fluid. The amniotic fluid is clear and pale. It serves the three
main functions:
" Protects the foetus against an injury
Allows the foetus to move freely in
the womb
" Helps regulate foetal body
3. Yolk sac: It is a bag-like temperature
structure formed below the foetus. In brds,
reptiles and egg-laying mammals, the yolk sac provides nutrition to
the growing foetus inside the egg. However, in
not provide nutrition to the foetus. Instead, ithumans, yolk sac aoe
will later develop into blood cells, egg provides cells whnc
foetus. cells and sperm celS 1
4. Allantois: It develops from the gut of the foetus and near the
As the foetus develops, the allantois yok
shrinks in size and becomes
elongated sac and a part of the umbilical cord. The
helps in formation of allantois Vesu
in humans except that it is A
veins. umbilical arterie
 Umbilical Placenta
Cord

Yolk sac Amniotic

fluid

Chorion Embryo
Amnion Uterus
n ReproductiveSystem

Placenta
Umbilical cord
Amniotic fluid
Yolk sac Allantois
Embryo
Chorion
Uterus
Amnio

Fig. 11.8 Foelal membranes

The development of embryo in the uterus till the birth of baby is called
be of 280 days or nine months,
ostation period, and it is considered to cycle. The child is born as
Phen calculated from the first day of menstrual gradually
restult of rhythmic contraction of muscles in the uterus which process of
vagina. The
nsh the baby out of the mother's body through
givingbirth a baby is called parturition. Till birth, the baby is attached
cord has to be tied and cut to
to the placenta by the umbilical cord, but the
separate the baby from mother.
Oxytocin and relaxin are the two important hormones which play a
the contraction of uterine
vital role during childbirth. The oxytocin helpsthein ligament placed between
muscles, and relaxin dilates the cervix and
pelvis, facilitating the easy delivery of the child.
Parturition
Table 11.3 Differences between Gestation and
Parturition
Gestation
is the process of giving birth to a
|1 Itis the period during which embryo 1. Itbaby.
develops in the uterus till birth.
2 It lasts for about nine months. 2. It lasts only for a few hours.
3. Hormones like oxytocin and
|3. Hormones like progesterorne relaxin regulate this process.
regulate this process.
of mammary glands or breasts to
Lactation: In females, there is a pairpregnancy, the breasts enlarge under
nourish the baby after birth. During and storage of milk in the mammary
ne influence of hormones. Secretion
glands begin usually within 24 hours after delivery.
ASSIGNMENT2
System
Male and Female Reproductive

What is the function of Leydig cells?

the abdominal cavity?
Why are testes located outside
3. How do the sperms get nutrition
4. Write the function of acrosome.
What is the function of fallopian tubes?
wny is vagina also called the birth canal?
6

I. What is ovulation? (üi) Implantation.

Define: (i) Fertilisation (ii) Placenta
humans.
Name the four foetal membranes in
9
Amniocentesis

A
prenatal diagnostic
test in which a small
amount of amníotic
fluid is removed to
determine any
genetic abnormality.
 Skin

Abdominal
Wall

Uterine
Wall
Amniotic
Sac
 Amniocentesis is a diagnostic genetic testing offered to
pregnant women with a higher risk of having a child with genetic
abnormalities and those with positive screening tests.
PURPOSE PROCEDURE
Diagnose genetic disorders
Consists of withdrawing a small
and neural tube defects, sample of amniotic fiuid from
incuding: the uterus with a long, thin
Down syndrome needle guided by ultrasound.
Sickle cell anemia
Spina bifida
Outpatient procedure
Takes 45-60 minutes
Cystic fibrosis

RISKS 8 COMPLICATIONS RESULTS

Though gener ally safe, it is
an invasive procedure. Results can take from
Possible, but rare risks and
complications include: 3 days to up to 4 weeks.
Positive results are
Miscarriage 98-99% effective for
Amniotic fluidleakage tested conditions.
Infection
Injury to the baby
 ICSE Biology -10
Menstrual Cycle
A mature ovary releases an ova or egg once every 28 days by the pro
called ovulation. The uterus prepares itself to receive a fertilised
every month. The inner lining (endometrium) of the uterus becomee L6
and spongy to nourish the developing embryo. If the egg released is hot
fertilised, it lives only for about one day and the inner lining of the uterue
slowly breaks and comes out through the vagina as blood and mucus. This
is called menstrual cycle or menstruation. It usually lasts for about ot
eight days.
Amenstrual cycle is divided into the following four phases:
1. Menstrual phase
2. Follicular phase
3. Ovulatory phase
4. Luteal phase

Ovary

Mature Ovulation Early corpus Degenerating

Developing follicle luteumn corpus
follicle
luteum
Hormones LH
FSH

Estrogen
Progesterone

Uterus

Luteal phase
Menstruation Follicular phase Ovulatlon

Fig. 11.9 Menstrual cycle

1. Menstrual Phase: This phase starts when an egg from the previou
cycle is not fertilised. As fertilisation (or pregnancy) has not ta
the body.
place, the oestrogen and progesterone levels drop in breas
thickened, inner lining of the uterus (endometrium) slowlyis called
This
and comes out through the vagina as blood and mucus. females once
menstruation. The process of menstruation occurs in
after a fixed interval of 28 days. This phase lasts for about 4-5 day
The ReproductiveSystem 209

Collicular Phase: During this phase, the FSH (Follicle Stimulating

Hormone) level increases slightly, stimulating the ovaries to produce
several follicles. Each follicle contains an immature egg- As the FSH
level decreases later in this phase, only one follicle continues to
develop. This follicle produces oestrogen that prepares the uterus to
receive the fertilised egg. estrogen causes the lining of the uterus to
hecome thick and spongy, and develop more blood vessels. This phase
lasts for about 16 days.
Ovulatory phase: The rising oestrogen level in the follicular phase
triggers pituitary to Secrete Leutinising Hormone (LH) which stimulates
therelease of ovum (ovulation). During ovulation, the follicle ruptures,
and releases the mature egg. The egg travels down the fallopian tube
to be fertilised by a sperm. In addition, the oestrogen level decreases
and progesterone level starts to increase. Ovulation happens at around
day 14 (in a 28 day cycle). Surrogate Mother
4. Luteal Phase: The ruptured follicle closes after releasing the egg and Awoman who becomes
pregnant
changes into corpus luteum, which produces progesterone and some usually by surgical implantation
of
uterus
oestrogen. The rise in these hormones keeps the lining of the afertilised egg of others for the
purpose of carrying the foetus in her
thick and ready for the implantation of a fertilised egg. womb ill completion of pregnancY
continues to function and
If the egg is fertilised, the corpus luteum and delivery.

helps maintain pregnancy.

If the egg is not fertilised, the corpus
luteum degenerates. This leads
progesterone. As a result, the uterine
to decreased level of oestrogen and
slowly breaks and is discharged in the form of blood and mucus
lining
of menstruation.
through the vagina. This marks the onset
The luteal phase lasts for about 14 days. actually
of menstruation at puberty is called menarche. It Conjoined twins can be defined
The start woman. The period
marks the beginning of the reproductive life of a
12-50 years) is the normal
as a pair of twins born with their

and menopause (i.e., about bodies connected to each other.

between menarche there is no
females. During pregnancy, the birth of
They remain physicaly connected
reproductive period in human resume after most often at the head. chest
ovulation. Both these processes abdomen, pelvis, etc They may also
menstruation and
45-50, menstruation stops. This natural stoppage of share one or more internal organs
achild. After the age of menopause. Conjoined twins start as a single
menstruation in a female is called fertilised egg (or zygote). The
following are the two ideas about
how conjoined twins are formed:
Twins who are formed when an
egg is fertilised " The zygote does not fully divide
during the process of forming
ones
egg) splits into two during
ldentical twins are the
The zygote (or fertilised
identical twins

y one sperm only.division, with same genetic

thus forming two embryos time. These
or

early stages of cell identical siblings are born

at the same Zygote divides and then rejoins
material. As a result, two boys or both girls. They are also called
either both
ldentical siblings can be formed from a single
zygote.
as they are are
alonozygotic twins, formed when two eggs
ones who are
Fraternal twins are the two siblings are born at the same
time
sperms. As a result, identical
fertilised
by two to each other. But they are never
Which can be similar or
different boy and a girl.
siblings can be both boys or both girls or a
from two zygotes.
O each other. The they are formed
dizygotic twins, as
hey are also called
210

ldentical twins share same placenta,

whereas fraternal twins have separate ldentical (monozygotic) twins
placenta. Sperm

Fertilized 2-cell Single zygote

Egg divides in two
stage

Fratornal (dizygotic) twins

Sperm

Fertilzed 2-cell
Egg Single zygote
egg stage
Sperm

Egg Fertilized 2-cell

stage Single zygote
egg
Chang and Eng Bunker, who were
born on 11 May 1811 in Meklong, Fig. 11.10 ldentical and fraternal twins
Siam, were the first pair of conjoined
Differences between ldentical and Fraternal Twins
twin brothers to be known

internationally. They were joined at

Identical twins, as the name suggests, are identical to each other, as they
the chest or breastbone by a small
piece of cartilage. share the same genetic material. They show no differences. However, they
As Chang and Eng were from Siam,
they were known as Siamese twins. can show differences due to external factors, such as scars, fingerprints,
The term Siamese twins was used to birthmarks and hairstyle.
describe conjoined twins in general Fraternal twins look like two normal siblings. They may be very
until the twentieth century.
similar or may show differences in height, body build, skin tone, etc.

ASSIGNMENT3
Menstrual Cycle,Twins

1. Define menstruation.
2. List the four stages of the menstrual cycle.
3. What is inner lining of the uterus known as?
4. Which phase of the menstrual cycle marks the release of mature egg from the follicle?
5. What is the difference between menarche and menopause?
6. List the differences between identical and fraternal twins.

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