Biology

CHAPTER 1
Reproduction in
Organisms
Chapter Analysis with respect to Last 3 Years’ Board Exams
List of Topics 2016 2017 2018

Delhi All India Delhi All India Delhi/All India
Reproduction, a
characteristic feature
of all organisms for
continuation of species
Asexual reproduction 1Q 1Q 1Q
Modes of reproduc- (1 mark) (1 mark) (3 marks)
tion-Asexual and sexual
reproduction
Modes-Binary fission, 1Q 1Q
sporulation, budding, (2 marks) (2 marks)
gemmule, fragmentation
Vegetative propagation 1Q
in plants (3 marks)
On the basis of above analysis, it can be said that from exam point of view Different types
of plants, Types of Fertilization and application of the Sexual Reproduction and Asexual
Reproduction are most important concepts of the chapter.
1.2 CHAPTER 1 : Reproduction in Organisms
[Topic 1] Asexual Reproduction
Summary in offsprings that are not exactly identical to their

parents or amongst themselves.
Reproduction and its basic features Juvenile phase: The period of rapid growth to
Reproduction can be defined as the production of attain maturity for sexual reproduction. In plants, it
offspring by a sexual or asexual process. Formation is known as the vegetative phase.
of reproductive bodies or units can be done by,
Reproductive phase: It is the phase of life cycle
• Replication of DNA
wherein the growth of the individuals is slowed down
• Development of reproductive bodies into offsprings
but it attains the maturity to reproduce. Annual and
• Cell division
biennial plants show visible vegetative, reproductive
Types of Reproduction and senescent phases but it is quite difficult to
Production of offsprings by a single parent is known identify these phases in perennial plants.
as asexual reproduction. The offsprings produced are Oestrus cycle: The females of placental mammals
identical to one another and also to their parent. This exhibit cyclic changes in the activities of ovaries and
type of reproduction is usually found in unicellular
hormones, during reproductive phase. These cyclic
organisms and also in simple plants and animals.
changes are known as Oestrus cycle.
Methods of Asexual reproduction Senescence: Also known as ‘Old age’ in plants.
• Fission- In this type of asexual reproduction, It is the last phase of their life span and end of
the cell divides into two or more individuals. For
reproductive phase. In this phase, metabolism slows
example - Monerans and Protists.
down, finally leading to death.
Fission can be divided into two types:
 Binary fission: It is a division of parent cell into Events in Sexual reproduction
two individuals. For example: Amoeba. • Pre-fertilization Events- The events prior to
 Multiple fission: It is a division of parent cell into the fusion of gametes.
multiple individuals. For example: Plasmodium.
• Budding- In this type of asexual reproduction, Gametogenesis- Process of gamete formation for
a daughter individual is formed from a small both male and female
projection (bud) arising on the parent body. It can  Homogametes/Isogametes: Gametes cannot be
be found in Yeasts, Hydra and Sponges. classified into male or female. Fusion of such
gametes is known as Isogamy.
Other reproductive structures  Heterogametes: Male and female gametes can be
 Zoospores (motile spores): Found in some algae,
fungi and protists. easily differentiated. Female gamete is known as
ovum or egg and the male gamete is known as
 Conidia (non-motile spores): Penicillium
antherozoid or sperm.
 Gemmules (internal buds of sponges): sponges
Vegetative propagation Sexuality in organism

 Heterothallic/dioecious: Plants that have only one
In certain plants, vegetative propagules arise from
sex organ.
the nodes of modified stems. When the nodes come
 Homothallic/monoecious: Plants that have both
in contact with damp soil or water, they produce
male and female sex organs.
roots and new plants. For example: Eyes in potato,
Rhizomes of banana and ginger, Bulbil.  Unisexual: Animals that have only one type of
reproductive system. For example: cockroach.
Sexual reproduction  Bisexual: Animals that have both male and female
In sexual reproduction, formation of male and female reproductive system. Example: earthworms or
gametes is achieved, either by the same individual or leech. Fungi maybe bisexual (homothallic) or
by different individuals of the opposite sex. It results unisexual (heterothallic).
CHAPTER 1 : Reproduction in Organisms 1.3
Cell division
Diploid parental body produces haploid gametes
by the process of meiosis. It can be observed in
PREVIOUS YEARS’
angiosperms, gymnosperms and animals. EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
Haploid parental body produces haploid gametes by TOPIC 1
mitosis. It can be observed in Algae, Fungi, Monera.
Gamete transfer: For fertilization, male gametes
1 Mark Questions
1. How many chromosomes do drones of honey bees
need a medium to transport towards female. A large
possess? Name the type of cell division involved
number of male gametes are produced to compensate in the production of sperms by them.
the loss of male gametes during their movement [ALL INDIA 2015]
toward the female gametes. 2. Name the type of cell division that takes place in
In plants like bryophytes and algae, the medium for the zygote of an organism exhibiting haplontic
the transfer of gametes is water. life cycle? [DELHI 2011]
• Fertilization Events- Fusion of gametes to form 3. A male honeybee has 16 chromosomes whereas
a diploid zygote. its female has 32 chromosomes. Give one
The female gamete develops into a new organism reason. [ALL INDIA 2016]
without fertilization in honeybees, turkey, some 4. State the fate of a pair of autosomes during
lizards. This is called parthenogenesis. gamete formation. [DELHI 2017]
5. Name the phase all organisms have to pass
There are two types of Fertilization (Syngamy):
through before they can reproduce sexually.
 External fertilization- In this, the fertilization [ALL INDIA 2011]
occurs outside the body of the organism. For
6. Name the type of cell division that takes place in
example- Aquatic organisms like amphibians,
the zygote of an organism exhibiting haplontic
algae. The offsprings produced from this type of
life cycle? [ALL INDIA 2011]
fertilization are extremely vulnerable to predators
7. Mention the unique flowering phenomenon
threatening their survival.
exhibited by Strobilanthuskunthiana?
 Internal fertilization- In this the fertilization
[ALL INDIA 2012]
occurs inside the body of the organism. For
example- angiosperms, gymnosperms and 8. Name an organism where cell division in itself
bryophytes. The number of eggs is very low while is a mode of reproduction. [ALL INDIA 2013]
the sperms are produced in large quantity. 2 Marks Questions
• Post-fertilization Events- The events that take 9. The cell divisions involved in gamete formation
place after the formation of zygote. is not of the same type in different organisms.
 Zygote: Every sexually reproducing organism Justify. [ALL INDIA 2011]
begins its life as a zygote. Zygote is formed after 10. Why do algae and fungi shift to sexual
fertilization. The development of zygote depends mode of reproduction just before the adverse
on the life cycle off the organism and nature of conditions? [DELHI 2014]
environment. Organisms having diplontic life 11. Explain the significance of meiocytes in a diploid
cycle, zygote divides by the process of mitosis organism. [DELHI 2016]
whereas organisms having haplontic life cycle, 12. A single pea plant in your kitchen garden
zygote divides by the process of meiosis to produce
produces pods with viable seeds, but the
haploid spores.
individual papaya plant does not. Explain.
 Embryogenesis- The process of development of
[ALL INDIA 2016]
zygote into an embryo.
Cell division increases the number of cells in 3 Marks Questions
the embryo. Cell division (mitosis) and cell 13. (a) List the three stages the annuals and
differentiation occurs in zygote. biennial angiosperms have to pass through
Animals that lay eggs and the zygote development during their life cycle.
takes place inside the egg are known as Viviparous. (b) List and describe any two vegetative propagules
For example- Reptiles and birds in flowering plants. [DELHI 2017]
Animals that give birth to the young ones are 14. Differentiate between parthenocarpy and
known as Oviparous. The zygote is developed Parthenogenesis. Give one example of each.
inside the body of the female. [DELHI 2018]
12. Pea plant is monoecious, and produces bisexual

Solutions
flowers (Both male and female flowers) on the
1. Drones are male honey bees. They are haploid same plant. It produces viable seeds after self-
and contains 16 chromosomes. Sperms produced pollination and fertilization. Whereas papaya
by drones is through mitosis cell division. [1] plant is dioecious, produces unisexual flowers
2. Meiosis is the cell division that takes place in (male and female flowers) which develop on
the zygote of an organism which forms haploid the different plants. Each plant is either male
spores which grow into haploid individuals. [1] or female. In absence of opposite reproductive
3. Male honey bees are called drones and have partner a single papaya plant cannot produce
16 chromosomes because they develop from viable seeds. [2]
unfertilized eggs, hence they are haploid. 13. (a) The three phases through which the annuals
Females develop from fertilized eggs and are and biennial angiosperms pass during their
diploid having 32 chromosomes. [1] life cycle are: Vegetative or Juvenile phase,
4. During gametogenesis or gamete formation, the reproductive phase and senescent phase.[1]
pair of autosomes get separated from each other (b) In flowering plants, the vegetative propagules
and one set of a pair moves to each gamete. Hence are the structures through which vegetative
each gamete receives one set of chromosomes. propagation takes place. Examples of these
Gamete has one set of chromosomes and is structures are runner, rhizome, sucker,
haploid. [1] tuber, offset, and bulb. These structures give
5. All organisms have to pass through juvenile rise to new offspring. These structures are
phase before they can reproduce sexually. It is called vegetative propagules. The formation
also known as vegetative phase in plants. [1] of these structures does not involve two
6. Meiosis is the cell division that takes place in the parents. Rhizome is a modified stem which
zygote of an organism which include production contains node, from the nodes, it give rise to
of haploid spores. [1] new plants. For example ginger, turmeric.
7. Strobilanthus kunthiana is known for flowering Tuber is also modified stem, contains buds
once in 12 years. This plant is found in the states (eyes) which gives rise to new plant. For
like Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. [1] example potato. [1]
8. Amoeba is the name of organism where cell
division in itself is a mode of reproduction. [1]
9. Yes, cell divisions involved in gamete formation
is not of the same type in different organisms.
For example, in organism like monera, algae
and fungi, gametes are haploid and are
produced by mitotic division whereas in humans, [1]
pteridophytes and angiosperms, the parent body 14. In most plants, female gametes need to be
is diploid and produces haploid gametes with the fertilized by male gamete to produce fruits.
help of meiotic division. [2] However, some plants can produce fruits without
10. Sexual reproduction is helpful in bringing new fertilization or before fertilization. The process
variation in the organisms that is not possible is called parthenocarpy. During this process,
using asexual reproduction. Hence, the variation the unfertilized ovule develops into fruits.
produced by sexual reproduction could induce These fruits do not contain seeds (seedless). For
useful variation that may help the algae and examples papaya, banana, guava. [1½]
fungi to cope up with adverse conditions. [2] Parthenogenesis is a type of asexual reproduction
11. In diploid organisms, there are two types common in some invertebrates and lower
of cells somatic and germ cells. Germ cells plants. In parthenogenesis, the unfertilized
are specialised cells called meiocytes which ovum develops into an individual (virgin birth)
undergo meiosis to form gametes. Gametes without fertilization. Organisms produced by
are universally haploid. During meiosis only parthenogenesis are haploid. Therefore, it can be
one set of chromosomes gets incorporated into considered as a method of asexual reproduction.
each gamete. Diploid status is restored after It is seen in organism like rotifers, honeybees
fertilization, forming zygote. [2] and even some lizards. [1½]
CHAPTER 1 : Reproduction in Organisms 1.5
CHAPTER 2
Sexual Reproduction in
Flowering Plants

Flower structure 1Q
(3 marks)
Development of male and
female gametophytes
Pollination-types, 1Q 1Q
agencies and examples, (3 marks) (2 marks)
Outbreeding devices
Pollen-Pistil interaction; 1Q 1Q 1Q 1Q
Double fertilization; Post (5 marks) (3 marks) (3 marks), (5 marks)
fertilization events- 1Q
Development of endo- (5 marks)
sperm and embryo
Development of seed 1Q(5
and formation of fruit; marks)
Special modes-apomixis,
parthenocarpy,
polyembryony
Significance of seed and
fruit formation
On the basis of above analysis, it can be said that front exam point of view the concepts
Structure of Mature Pollen Grain. Embryo Sac, Double Fertilization and Specialized
Phenomena are most important concepts.
2.8 CHAPTER 2 : Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
[Topic 1] Flowers and its parts
Summary further development of microsprorangia takes place

and converts into pollen sacks. Microsporogenesis
Structure of Flower can be defined as the process in which microspores
are formed from the mother cell. They are divided by
the process of meiosis.
Pollen grain: The pollen grains represent the male
gametophytes.
The presence of sporopollenin ensures the pollen
grains are well preserved as fossils. Generative cell
and the vegetative cell are the two cells present in a
matured pollen grain.
• Pistil: The gynoecium represents the female
reproductive part of the flower. Gynoecium
consisting of single pistil is known as
monocarpellary and of multiple pistils is known
as multicarpellary.
Gynoecium consists of pistils and each pistil has
three part, the stigma, style and the ovary. From the
placenta, megasporangia arises which are also called
as ovules. An ovary may have one ovule such as in
Fig.: Structure of Flower paddy or mango or it may have several ovules such
Flower is the reproductive structure in plants. This as in water melons.
is where male and female gametes fuse. The stigma lands on pollen grains. Beneath the
stigma is a lean part known as style. The bottom
Structures and Events of pre- bulged part is ovary.
fertilization Megasporangium (Ovule)
The male reproductive system in a flower is called
The female gametophyte is situated inside the
androecium that contains whorl of stamens and
nucleus. The megaspore is responsible for formation
a female reproductive part known as gynoecium
of a single embryo. The process in which megaspores
consisting pistil.
are formed from the mother cell is coined as
• Stamen: It is the organ of the flower that produces
megasporogenesis.
pollen.
It consists of three main parts namely: filament which Female gametophyte
is a lean and long stalk and has a bilobed extension Monosporic development is the method of embryo
known as an anther. sac formation from a single megaspore. In general an
There are four microsprorangia located at the four angiosperm embryo sac at maturity, though it is 8
sided structure of anther, two in each lobe. The nucleate is 7 celled.
CHAPTER 2 : Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 2.9
3. Moss such as Sphagnum are bryophytes. For
PREVIOUS YEARS’ fertilization water is an essential requirement.

Mosses produce flagellated male gametes
which swim across the water to reach the
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS female gamete. In this process, a majority of
TOPIC 1 male gametes fail to reach the female gametes.
Therefore, large number of male gametes are
1 Mark Questions produced by mosses to ensure fertilization. The
1. An anther with malfunctioning tapetum often
male gametes of mosses are antherozoids in
fails to produce viable female gametophytes.
Give any one reason. [DELHI 2013] antheridium. [1+1]
2. Name the part of the flower which the tassels of 4. Sporopollenin that made outer layer of pollen
the corn- cob represent. [ALL INDIA 2014] which is exine considered as most resistant
organic material because Sporopollenin is
highly resistant to temperature, acid, alkali or
2 Marks Questions enzymatic action. [3]
3. Why do moss plants produce very large number
5. (a)
of male gametes? Provide one reason. What are
these gametes called? [ALL INDIA 2015]
3 Marks Questions
4. Draw a diagram of a male gametophyte of
an angiosperm. Label any four parts. Why is
sporopollenin considered the most resistant
organic material? [DELHI 2011]

[2]
Fig.: L.S. of a pistil showing pollen tube entering
the embryo-sac in an angiosperm
(b) (i) Seed is formed from the fertilized ovule.
A seed develop seed coat. This is the
5 Marks Questions outermost covering of the seed and
5. (a) Draw a L.S. of a pistil showing pollen tube provides protection to the seed from
entering the embryo-sac in an angiosperm adverse environmental conditions. The
and label any six parts other than stigma, outer layer of seed coat is known as
style and ovary. testa and inner layer of seed is called
(b) Write the changes a fertilized ovule as tegma. Seed coat also contain germ
undergoes within the ovary in an angiosperm pore that aid in the entry of oxygen
plant. [ALL INDIA 2013] and water that is required during seed
germination.
Solutions (ii) Embryo is formed from fertilised egg
1. The main function of the tapetum include (zygote).
nourishment of viable male gametes. Hence, (iii) Antipodal cells degenerate.
malfunctioning tapetum often fails to produce (iv) Synergid cells degenerate.
viable male gametophytes. [1] (v) Central triploid cell form the endosperm.
2. Style and stigma that are female reproductive (vi) Chalaza and micropyle remain but
parts of a flower which represents the tassels of nucellus is gets consumed. [3]
the corn-cob. [1]
[Topic 2] Pollination
Summary • Xenogamy: When the pollen grains transfer from

anther to the stigma of another plant.
• Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from
anther to stigma of a pistil. Pistel- Pollen Interaction
• Pollination can be conducted through abiotic agents • Emasculation is the process carried out in bisexual
like wind and water and biotic agent like animals. flowers by removing their anthers using a pair of
• We can prevent self- pollination by various practices forceps before the anther bursts open.
like, In some species pollen release and stigma • A bag of convenient size, usually made up of
receptivity cannot take place simultaneously. In butter paper is used to cover the flowers that are
some species anther and stigma are at different emasculated to prevent contamination of that
positions, third device is incompatible and another flowers stigma with unwanted pollen is called
way to prevent self pollination and encourage cross bagging.
pollination is production of unisexual flowers.
There are three types of pollination, on the basis of
Double-Fertilisation
• When two types of fusions happen inside the
source of pollen: embryo sac the first being triple fusion and
• Autogamy: When the pollination is attained the other syngamy this event is called double
within the same flower and pollen grains transfer fertilization. After triple fusion, the central
from the anther to the stigma of the same flower. cell becomes the primary endosperm cell and is
• Geitonogamy: When pollen grains transfer from developed into endosperm. The zygote is developed
the anther to the stigma of a different flower of into an embryo.
same plant.
species growing in New Delhi? Provide
PREVIOUS YEARS’ explanations to your answer.

(b) Draw the diagram of a pistil where
pollination has successfully occurred. Label
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS the parts involved in reaching the male
TOPIC 2 gametes to its desired destination.
[ALL INDIA 2017]
2 Marks Questions 5. Why are beehives kept in crop field during
1. State one advantage and one disadvantage of
flowering period? Name any two crop fields
cleistogamy. [DELHI 2012]
where this is practiced. [ALL INDIA 2014]
3 Marks Questions
2. Double fertilization is reported in plants of 5 Marks Questions
both, castor and groundnut. However, the 6. (a) Why is Fertilization in an angiosperm
mature seeds of groundnut are non-albuminous referred to as double fertilization? Mention
and castor are albuminous. Explain the post the ploidy of the cells involved.
fertilization events that are responsible for it. (b) Draw a neat labelled sketch of L.S. of an
[DELHI 2015] endospermous monocot seed.[DELHI 2012]
3. (a) Name the organic material exine of the 7. A flower of tomato plant following the process of
pollen grain is made up of. How is this sexual reproduction produces 240 viable seeds.
material advantageous to pollen grain? Answer the following questions giving reasons:
(b) Still it is observed that it does not form a (a) What is the minimum number of pollen
continuous layer around the pollen grain. grains that must have been involved in the
Give reason. pollination of its pistil?
(c) How are ‘pollen banks’ useful? (b) What would have been the minimum
[ALL INDIA 2016] number of ovules present in the ovary?
4. (a) Can a plant flowering in Mumbai be (c) How many megaspore mother cells were
pollinated by pollen grains of the same involved?
(d) What is the minimum number of microspore (b) Diagram of a pistil after pollination [1]
mother cells involved in the above case?
(e) How many male gametes were involved in
this case? [DELHI 2015]
Solutions
1. Cleistogamy is the phenomenon of self-
pollination and takes place in unopened flower.
The advantage of cleistogamy is that it produces
seed even in the absence of pollination. The
disadvantage is that it produces flowers are
exactly similar to the parent and hence have no
variation. [2]
2. Double fertilisation occurs in both castor and
groundnut but their mature seeds are different 5. Beehives are kept in crop field during flowering
as far as endosperm is concerned. One of period as they help in the pollination of the crop that
the male gamete fuses with polar nuclei to increases the yield of that crop. Bees while collecting
form primary endosperm nucleus. It divides nectar from the flower help in the transfer of pollen.
mitotically without cytokinesis to initiate the For example, apple and watermelon. [3]
formation of endosperm. As a result of repeated 6. (a) Fertilization in an angiosperm referred to as
nuclear division, free nuclear endosperm is double fertilization because out of two sperm
formed. Then, cell wall formation occurs around nuclei, one is fertilized with egg nucleus to
each nucleus to become cellular endosperm. form an embryo and the other one fuse with
In groundnut, endosperm may be completely polar nuclei to form endosperm [2]
utilised by the developing embryo before the (b)
maturation of seeds. Such seeds are called
non-albuminous or non-endospermic seeds.
But in castor seed, a portion of endosperm
remains in the seed and is used up during seed
germination. Such seeds are called albuminous
or endospermic seed. [1+1+1]
3. (a) The exine is made of sporopollenin. It is one
of the most resistant organic material. It can
withstand high temperature, strong acids
and alkalis. It cannot be degraded by any Fig: L.S. of Endospermous monocot seed. [3]
of the known enzymes. Hence, sporopollenin 7. (a) The minimum number of pollen grainsare
protects pollen grain from any kind of involved in the pollination of its pistil are
damage. [1] 240. One of the male gametes fuses with the
(b) Exine layer is not a continuous layer around egg cell to form the zygote that eventually
pollen grain. Continuity of the layer is give rise to seeds. Therefore, in order to form
broken by a pore called germ pore through in 240 seeds, number of pollen grains are
which pollen tube emerges. [1] required is 240. [1]
(c) Pollen grains at a large can be stored for (b) The number of ovules involved in this process
years in liquid nitrogen at (–196°C). So, would be 240, as the number of viable seeds
after this treatment they are stored in pollen are 240. After fertilisation, the ovary becomes
banks. Such stored pollen grains can be used fruit and the ovules becomes seeds. Therefore,
in plant breeding programs. [1] the number of ovules are corresponding to the
4. (a) Yes, such type of pollination can be number of seeds developed. [1]
achieved by artificial means or artificial (c) During the process of gametogenesis, 240
hybridisation. But there should not be megaspore mother cells are involved because
any self-incompatibility. In such type of out of four (tetrad) megaspores formed after
pollination pollen grain of one flower from meiosis, only one megaspore is functional
one city is introduced artificially on the and it develops further and the rest three
megaspores get degenerated. [1]
stigma of another flower of another city. [2]
(d) Minimum 60 microspore mother cells are (e) The number of male gametes involved in
involved in producing 240 pollen grains. seed formation would be 240 as one of the
Each microspore mother cell divides by male gametes fuses with egg nuclei to form
meiosis to give rise to 4 microspores or pollen zygote, which will further give rise to the
grains. Since 1 microspore mother cell would seed. [1]
produce 4 microspores, therefore, to obtain
240 pollen grains 60 microsporemother cells
are required. [1]
[Topic 3] Post-fertilisation: Structure and Events

Post-fertilisation events is a collective term given to
transformation of ovary into fruits, ovules into seeds
and the development of embryo and endosperm that
PREVIOUS YEARS’
starts after the double fertilisation process. EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
Endosperm TOPIC 3
Before the development of the embryo, endosperms 1 Mark Questions
develop. The cells of the endosperm tissue contain 1. Normally one embryo develops in one seed but
banked food materials and are also used to provide when an orange seed is squeezed many embryos
nutrition to the developing embryo. It is either to be of different shapes and sizes are seen. Mention
entirely eaten up by the developing embryo (e.g., pea, how it has happened. [DELHI 2011]
groundnut, beans) before the seed matures or it may 2. Why banana is considered a good example of
exist in the mature seed. For example- coconut. parthenocarpy? [DELHI 2012]
The Embryo 2 Marks Questions

3. Differentiate between albuminous and non-
• At the micropylar end of embryo sac the embryo
albuminous seeds, giving one example of each.
development begins, this is where zygote is
[DELHI 2011]
situated. Embryogeny refers to the early stage
4. Geitonogamous flowering plants are genetically
of embryo development which is common in both
autogamous but functionally cross-pollinated.
dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous embryo. Justify. [DELHI 2013]
Seed 5. In angiosperms, zygote is diploid while primary
endosperm cell is triploid. Explain.
• The mature may be of two types either non-
[ALL INDIA 2013]
albuminous or ex- albuminous. The non
6. A mature embryo-sac in a flowering plant may
albuminous seeds have no residual endosperm
possess 7-cells, but 8-nuclei. Explain with the
as it is consumed during embryonic development
help of a diagram only. [DELHI 2017]
where as in albuminous seeds a part of endosperm
7. A pollen grain in angiosperm at the time of
is retained as it is not completely used up during
dehiscence from an anther could be 2-celled
embryonic development.
or 3-celled. Explain. How are the cells placed
Apomixis and Polyembryony within the pollen grain when shed at a 2-celled
• Some species of Asteraceae and grasses and few stage? [ALL INDIA 2017]
other flowering plants have evolved a special
mechanism to produce seeds without fertilization 3 Marks Questions
and this is called ‘Apomixis’. 8. State what is apomixis? Comment on its
• The event of presence of more than one embryo in significance. How can it be commercially used?
a seed is referred to as polyembryony. [ALL INDIA 2015]
9. Explain the function of each of the following: 17. (a) Explain the different ways apomictic seeds
(a) Coleorhizae can develop, Give an example of each.
(b) Umbilical cord (b) Mention one advantage of apomictic seeds
(c) Germ pores [DELHI 2012] to farmers.
10. (a) Describe the endosperm development in (c) Draw a labelled mature stage of a
coconut. dicotyledonous embryo.[ALL INDIA 2014]
(b) Why is tender coconut considered a healthy 18. (a) Plan an experiment and prepare a flow chart
source of nutrition? of the steps that you would follow toensure
(c) How are pea seeds different from castor that the seeds are formed only from the
seeds with respect to endosperm? desired sets of pollen grains. Name the type
[ALL INDIA 2013] of experiment that you carried out.
11. Explain any three advantages the seeds offer to (b) Write the importance of such experiments.
angiosperms. [DELHI 2014] [ALL INDIA 2015]
19. (a) Explain the post-pollination events leading
12. Why angiosperm anthers are called dithecous?
to seed production in angiosperms.
Describe the structure of its microsporangium.
(b) List the different types of pollination
[ALL INDIA 2014]
depending upon the source of pollen grain.
13. How does the megaspore mother cell develop
[DELHI 2016]
into 7-celled, 8 nucleate embryo sac in an
20. (a) As a senior biology student you have been
angiosperm? Draw a labelled diagram of a
asked to demonstrate to the students
mature embryo sac. [ALL INDIA 2011]
of secondary level in your school, the
procedure(s) that shall ensure cross
5 Marks Questions pollination in a hermaphrodite flower. List
14. Give reason why: the different steps that you would suggest
(i) Most zygote in angiosperms divide only after and provide reasons for each one of them.
certain amount of endosperm is formed. (b) D r a w a d i a g r a m o f a s e c t i o n o f a
(ii) Groundnut seed are ex-albuminous and megasporangium of an angiosperm and
castor seed are albuminous. label funiculus, micropyle, embryosac and
(iii) Micropyle remains as a small pore in the nucellus. [ALL INDIA 2016]
seed coat of a seed. 21. Read the following statement and answer the
(iv) Integuments of an ovule harden and the questions that follow:
water content is highly reduced, as the seed “A guava fruit has 200 viable seeds.”
(a) What are viable seeds?
matures.
(b) Write the total number of:
(v) Apple and cashew are not called as true
(i) Pollen grains
fruits. [ALL INDIA 2012]
(ii) Gametes in producing 200 viable guava
15. Draw a diagrammatic sectional view of a mature
seeds.
anatropous ovule and following parts in it:
(c) Prepare flow-chart to depict the post-
(i) that develops into seed coat.
pollination events leading to viable-seed
(ii) that develops into an embryo after
production in a flowering plant.
fertilization. [DELHI 2017]
(iii) that develops into an endosperm in an 22. (a) When a seed of an orange is squeezed,
albuminous seed many embryos, instead of one are observed.
(iv) through which the pollen tube gains its entry Explain how it is possible.
into the embryo sac. (b) Are these embryos genetically similar or
(v) that attach the ovule to the placenta different? Comment. [ALL INDIA 2017]
Describe the characteristics feature of wind 23. (a) Describe any two devices in a flowering
pollinated flowers. [DELHI 2013] plant which prevent both autogamy and
16. (a) Coconut palm is monoecious, while date geitonogamy.
palm is dioecious. Why are they so called? (b) Explain the events up to double fertilization
(b) Draw a labelled diagram of sectional view after the pollen tube enters one of the
of a mature embryo sac of an angiosperm. synergids in an ovule of an angiosperm.
[DELHI 2014] [DELHI 2018]
Solutions
1. Presence of more than one embryo is called as
polyembryony, is the phenomenon responsible
for embryos of different shapes and sizes are
seen in oranges. This occur due to formation
of two or more embryo from the nucellar cells
surrounding the embryo. These cells divide and
protrude into the embryo. Then they develop as
seeds. [1]
2. Banana is considered a good example of
parthenocarpy because it produces seedless

fruit in the absence of successful fertilization Fig.: Mature embryo-sac [1]
by application of hormones [1] 7. In most of the angiosperms, pollen grains
3. Seed is formed as a result of sexual reproduction released at 2-celled stage. Pollen grain contains
in angiospermic plants. Seed contain three a small generative and a large vegetative cell.
important parts: seed coat, cotyledons and At 3-celled stage pollen grains contains one
embryo axis. Mature seed can be classified into vegetative cell and two male gametes. [1]
albuminous and non-albuminous seed on the
basis of reserve food. [1]
Pollen
(i) Albuminous seed: they store or retain their
some part of endosperm during the period
of embryo development. Example is sun- Generative cell
flower [½]
(ii) Non-albuminous seed: they consume entire Fig.: Schematic diagram of a pollen
endosperm during the period of embryo grain with two cells [1]
development. Example is pea. [½] 8. Apomixis is a process by which new individuals
4. The pollination where pollen grain is transferred are formed without involving the process of
from one flower anther to stigma of another flower meiosis and syngamy (fertilization) due to non-
formation of gametes. Apomixis can be seen
in the same plant is known as geitonogamy. As,
in certain plants like grasses, citrus plants,
in this type of plants, gametes are coming from
conifers like pine etc. Significance of Apomixis:
the same parent it is known as autogamous Apomixis is an alternative process by which
but at the same time since, pollen grain is hybrid varieties can be raised from hybrid seeds.
transferred from one flower anther to stigma of If the Hybrid seeds are sown they segregate
the another flower which require the pollinating their characteristics in progeny plants. Therfore,
agent is known as cross-pollination. [1+1] Hybrid seeds have to be produced every year as
5. Zygote is formed by the fusion of haploid male these cannot be collected from hybrid plants.
gamete and haploid female gamete by the By making hybrid seeds as apomicts, rapid
process of syngamy. [1] multiplication of genetically uniform individuals
Male gamete (n) + Egg (n) → Zygote (2n) can be achieved without risk of segregation by
Primary endosperm is formed by the fusion of apomixis. [2]
secondary nucleus which is diploid and male Commercial applications of apomixis are:
• By apomixis, hybrid seeds can be produced,
gamete which is haploid. Hence, endosperm is
which will provide higher and better yield.
triploid
• It prevents the loss of specific characteristics
Secondary nucleus (2n) + Male gamete (n) →
in the hybrid plants.
Primary endosperm (3n) [1] • Apomixis is a cost-effective method of
6. Diagram of mature embryo-sac in a flowering producing seeds. [1]
plant may possess 7-cells, but 8-nuclei. 7 cells 9. (a) Coleorhiza is a sheath like structure in
are: 3 antipodal cells (3 nuclei), 1 central cell (2 the seed of plants that provide protective
nuclei), 1 egg cell (1 nucleus) and 2 synergids (2 covering enclosing radicle and root cap. [1]
nuclei). [1] (b) The functions of umbilical cord are:
(i) Deliver oxygen to the foetus wall formation. Out of the eight nuclei, six are
(ii) Delivers nutrients to foetus covered by cell wall while remaining two nuclei
(iii) Withdrawing of CO2 & waste. [1] are placed above the egg apparatus in the central
(c) Germ pores is the region through which the cell. Among the six cells, three cells are placed
pollen tube enters the ovary. [1] at micropylar end, in which two are called as
10. (a) Coconut endosperm formation is of nuclear synergids and one is egg cell. Remaining three
type which involve the nuclear division of cells are placed at chalazal end and are known
primary endosperm without the formation as antipodals. In this way, megaspore mother
of cell wall. [1] cell develop into 7-celled, 8 nucleate embryo sac
(b) Tender coconut considered a healthy in an angiosperm. [2]
source of nutrition as its endosperm is
rich in nutrients like proteins, minerals,
vitamins. [1]
(c) Pea is a non-albuminous seed as they
consume entire endosperm during the period
of embryo development where castor seed is
an albuminous seed as it retains some part
of endosperm during the period of embryo
development. [1]
11. Three advantages that the seeds offer to
angiosperms are:
(a) Seeds provide protection of the embryo from
adverse environmental conditions. [1]
(b) Seed provide nourishment to the embryo. Fig.: Mature embryosac [1]
[1] 14. (i) Most zygote in angiosperms divide only after
(c) Dispersal of seed helps them to have better certain amount of endosperm is formed to
adaptive strategies. [1] get nourishment from the endosperm for the
12. Angiosperm anthers are called dithecous developing embryo. [1]
because it is bilobed with each lobe having two (ii) Groundnut is a non-albuminous seed as they
theca. Structure of its microsporangium include consume entire endosperm during the period
four layers: of embryo development whereas castor seed
(i) Epidermis: Provide protection is an albuminous seed as it retain their
(ii) Endothecium: Provide protection some part of endosperm during the period
(iii) Middle layer: Provide protection [1] of embryo development [1]
(d) Tapetum : Nourishes the pollen grain (iii) Micropyle remains as a small pore in the
At the young stage of anther, it consist of seed coat of a seed because it provide the
sporogenous tissue present in the center of each entry for water and oxygen which is required
microsporangium. for the germination. [1]
(iv) Integuments of an ovule protect the embryo
from the harsh environmental conditions
and help the seed to remain viable. [1]
(v) Apple and cashew are not called as true
fruits because their fruit is not formed from
ovary but it develop from thalamus. [1]
15.
Chalazal pole

Fig.: Microsporangium Embryo sac
13. Mitosis in the megaspore mother cell leads to Nucellus
Inner integument
formation two nuclei which move to two opposite Outer integument
poles. After that, further mitotic divisions lead Micropyle pole
to the formation of 4 nuclei and 8 nuclei embryo Micropyle
Funicle
sac in an angiosperm. This division is unique Hilum
because nuclear division is not followed by cell Fig.: Mature anatropous ovule [3]
Fig: sectional view of a mature anatropous ovule This Flow chart of the steps of the experiment:
The characteristics feature of wind pollinated Bisexual flower is selected
flowers are
(a) Large number of pollen grain production
Removal of anthers from flower (emasculation)
(b) Pollen are smooth and light [2]
16. (a) Coconut palm is monoecious due to the
presence of male and female flowers on the Stigma of emasculated flower is covered bag of
same plant. [2] butter paper or plastic (Bagging)
Date palm is dioecious due to the presence of
either male flower or female flower exclusively Desired pollens are dusted on receptive
on one plant. [1] stigma by removing the bag (pollination)
(b)
Re-bagging of stigma is done
Fruits are allowed to form
Desired seeds are obtained

Fig.: Artificial hybridization [1½]
(b) Importance of artificial hybridization are:
(i) Creation of new genetic recombination with
[2] better qualities.
Fig.: sectional view of a mature embryo sac (ii) Incorporation of a large number of desirable
17. (a) Different ways apomictic seeds can develop are: characters into a single variety. [2]
(i) Diploid embryo is formed without the 19. (a) After the pollination, pollen grains are
process of fertilization. Example is transferred to the stigma. As a result of
banana. [1] pollen-pistil interaction, germination of
(ii) Some nucellar cells surrounding the pollen grains occur. Pollen tubes arise from
embryo sac, enter into the embryo sac, pollen grains. Pollen tubes carrying two
divide in a continuous manner and lead male gametes enters into the embryo sac for
to the formation of embryo. Example is double fertilization. One male gamete fuses
mango. [1] with the egg cell (syngamy), while the other
(b) Farmers can use the hybrid seeds for the fuses with two polar nuclei to form primary
next season that reduce the seed cost. [1] endosperm nucleus (PEN). The fertilised
(c) egg develops into zygote, which eventually
develops into an embryo while the PEN
develops to form endosperm. After double
fertilisation, the ovule matures into a seed
while the ovary matures into a fruit. [2]
(b) Different types of pollination depending
upon the source of pollen grain are: [1]
Autogamy: A type of pollination in which
transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the
stigma of the same flower. For examples as in
[2] Pansy, Oxalis.
Fig.: Mature stage of a dicotyledonous embryo Geitonogamy: Transfer of pollen grain from
18. (a)The name of the experiment or technique to anther of one flower to the stigma of another
obtain seeds from a desired set of pollen grains flower of the same plant. [1]
is ‘Artificial Hybridization’. In this technique, Xenogamy:A pollination in which transfer
only desired pollen grains are used to pollinate of pollen grains from anther to the stigma
the stigma of a desired plant. The specific stigma of a different plant In xenogamy, genetically
is kept protected from the contact of unwanted different types of pollen grains are introduced
pollen. to the stigma. [1]
20. Cross-pollination in a hermaphrodite or bisexual Pollen grain germinates on stigma

flower can be achieved by:
Emasculation: by removing anthers of one of the
Pollen tube carrying the male gametes to the ovule
flowers. [1]
Bagging: The emasculated flower is covered by
Discharge one male gamete near the egg
a bag to prevent contamination of its stigma by
unwanted pollen grains. [1]
Rebagging: When the stigma of the bagged Fusion of male gamete with egg to form zygote
flower becomes receptive, the pollen grains
collected from the other flower are dusted on
the stigma and allow the fruit to develop after Fusion of other male gamete with two polar nuclei
to form Primary Endosperm Nucleus
pollination and fertilisation by covering the
stigma with a bag. [1]
Ovule develops into seed

Fig.: Post pollination event in a flowering plant
22. (a) When a seed of an orange is squeezed,
instead one, many embryos are observed
in it. This happens due to the phenomenon
called polyembryony. Polyembryony may
arise due to the development of embryos
from synergids or from antipodal cells.
Some embryos can also be develops from
sporophytic cells of ovule such as nucellus
Fig.: A diagram of a section of a megaspo-
or integument. [3]
rangium of an angiospermic plant. (b) The embryos develop as a result of
polyembryony are genetically similar. The
embryos developing from gametophytic
tissues such as synergids and antipodal
cells are similar to each other, but not to
their parents. Similarly the embryos that
are formed from sporophytic tissues are
usually similar to each other as well as their
parents. [2]
23. (a) A type of pollination in which there is transfer
of pollen grains from anther to the stigma
Fig.: Megasporangium [1] of same flower is called autogamy and in
geitonogamy there is transfer of pollen
21. (a) Seeds that remain alive and can give rise to grains from anther to the stigma of another
new plant or have the capacity to germinate flower of same plant. Two devices that
into a new plant are called viable seeds [1] prevent both autogamy and geitonogamy
(b) (i) Number of pollen grains required is are: [1]
(i) Self-incompatibility is a genetic
200. [1]
mechanism which prevents self-pollen
(ii) Number of gametes required is 600 from fertilising the ovules by inhibiting
gametes (400 male gametes and 200 pollen germination or pollen tube
female gametes). [1] growth in the pistil. [½]
(ii) Dioecious plants: Male and female
(c) A flow-chart showing the post-pollination
flowers are present on different plants,
events leading to viable-seed production in that is each plant is eithermale or
a flowering plant: [1] female. [½]
(b) The events seen after the pollen tube enters one of the synergids in an ovule are as follows:
(i) Pollen tube, after reaching the ovary, enters the ovule through the micropyle and thus enters
one of the synergids through filiform apparatus.
(ii) After entering into synergid, the pollen tube releases the two male gametes into the cytoplasm
of the synergids.
(iii) One of the male gametes move towards the egg cell and fuses (fertilization)with it results in
formationof the zygote.
(iv) The other male gamete move towards the two polar nuclei located in the central cell and fuses
to form triploid primary endosperm nucleus (PEN). This involves fusion of three haploid nuclei
& hence termed as triple fusion.
(v) Two types of fusions, fertilization (syngamy)and triple fusion takes place in an embryo sac and
hence the phenomenon is termed as double fertilisation.
(vi) After fertilisation, PEN becomes the primary endosperm cell and develops into endosperm while
zygote develops into an embryo. [2]

Fig.: Double fertilization [1]
CHAPTER 3
Human Reproduction

Male and female
reproductive systems
Microscopic anatomy of
testis and ovary
Gametogenesis-sper- 1Q
matogenesis & oogenesis, (1 mark)
Menstrual cycle
Fertilisation embryo 1Q
development up to (1 mark)
blastocyst formation,
implantation
Pregnancy and placenta 1Q 1Q 1Q
formation (Elementary (5 marks) (4 marks), (3 marks)
idea), Parturition (Ele- 1Q
mentary idea), Lactation (5 marks)
(Elementary idea)
On the basis of above analysis, it can be said that from exam point of view Parturition, The
Fertilization Events, Hormones, Male and Female Reproductive System, Menstrual Cycle
and contraceptive methods are most important concepts of the chapter.
3.22 CHAPTER 3 : Human Reproduction
[Topic 1] Reproductive Systems
Summary • Accessory Glands

 It comprises of several glands such as Cowper’s
Male Reproductive System gland, prostate gland etc.
The male reproductive system is classified into the  Seminal plasma is the resulted secretion of these
glands.
following categories:
 This seminal plasma is very calcium and fructose
• Testes
rich.
 Testes are the sex organ whose primary role is to
 Cowper’s gland acts as lubricating agent for penis
produce testosterone and sperms.
as their secretion is rich in mucus.
 Testes are found inside of scrotum in the upper
thigh area. Female Reproductive System
 The shape of testes is oval. The female reproductive system is classified into the
 Testes are found outside of the body in a sack following categories:
because it needs 2 to 3 degrees less temperature • Ovaries
for its optimal functioning.  Ovaries are the sex organ whose primary role is to
 There are two testes both having around 500 produce estrogen and ova.
testicular lobules.  Ovaries are found in the lower abdomen.
 Every single lobule is stacked with connective  The size of each ovary is around 3cm in length.
tissue having around 2 semiferous tubules which  A ligament is used to link ovary to pelvic wall.
are yellow in color.
 Graafian follicles are the constituent cell of ovary.
 These semiferous tubules are queued along with • Accessory Ducts
spermatogenic cells are also termed as sertoli
cells. The three major constituent part of duct systems are:
 These sertoli cells are responsible for optimal Two oviducts: The oviducts are comprised of the
growth of spermatogenic cells and hence the term following parts-
coined for it, is nurse cells.  Ampulla
• Accessory Ducts  Isthmus
 The four major constituent part of duct systems  Infundibulum
are:  Uterine Part
testis Uterus:
epididymis  Uterus is basically the womb. It called so because
vas deferens the shape of the womb is uterus in shape.
vasa efferentia  Uterus opens up in vagina by cervix.
 The tubules semiferous in nature open in vasa  Uterus is responsible for the growth of the baby
efferentia via testes. after fertilization.
 Vasa efferentia is lead into opening of Epididymis. Vagina: It is a tube shaped canal which connects
 Now a duct is being attached to urethra as an exit the outer body with the uterus. It is used for
path. accommodating male external organ i.e. penis which
 Now the urethra originates at urinary bladder results into fertilization of an egg and the other use
and ends in urethral meatus which is an opening is to deliver a baby while child birth.
end of penis. • External Genetelia:
• External Genetelia  Vagina is the major part of the external organ in
 Penis is the only major part of the external organ. females. It also constitutes of the following parts:
 Penis is made up of special tissue. • Clitoris
 This special tissue helps in erection of the penis • Hymen
which is needed for insemination. • Labia Minora
 The terminal end of penis comprises of foreskin. • Mons pubis
CHAPTER 3 : Human Reproduction 3.23
 Mons pubis is the fatty tissue. It acts as a cusion 8. Draw a labelled diagram of the human female
and is overlapped by pubic hair and skin. reproductive system. [ALL INDIA 2011]
 The opening of vagina is Labia minora. It is
basically two folds which are very fleshy. 5 Marks Questions
 Above the urethra opening there is a tiny structure 9. (a) Draw a labelled diagram of the human
like a finger. This part is called as clitoris. female reproductive system.
• Mammary Glands (b) Enumerate the events in the ovary of a
 In the chest region there is a pair of mammary human female during:
gland. (i) Follicular phase
 This gland also contains a vital component known (ii) Luteal phase of menstrual cycle
as Glandular tissue that helps to carry milk to the [DELHI 2011]
nipples. 10. (a) Write the specific location and the functions
 Every single tissue has around 20 lobes which is of the following cells in human males:
actually a cell cluster also called as alveoli. (i) Leydig cells
 In alveoli cavities we can find the stored milk (ii) Sertoli cells
which can be secreted. (iii) Primary spermatocyte
 The alveoli opens up into mammary duct. (b) Explain the role of any two accessory glands
 These ducts combined together are connected to a in human male reproductive system.
lactiferous duct using which the milk is secreted [DELHI 2011]
out. 11. (a) Identify the figure that illustrates corpus
luteum and name the pituitary hormone
that influences its formation.
PREVIOUS YEARS’ (b) Specify the endocrine function of corpus
luteum. How does it influence the uterus?
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS Why is it essential?
(c) What is the difference between “d” and “e”?
TOPIC 1 (d) Draw a neat labelled sketch of Graafian
follicle.
1 Mark Questions
1. Where is acrosome present in humans? Write
its function. [DELHI 2012]
2. Write the location and function of the sertoli
cells in humans. [ALL INDIA 2012]

2 Marks Questions [DELHI 2012]
3. Give reasons for the following 12. (a) Draw a diagrammatic sectional view of the
(a) The human testes are located outside the female reproductive system of human and
abdominal cavity. label the parts:
(b) Some organisms like honey-bees are called (i) Where the secondary oocytes develop
parthenogenetic animals. [DELHI 2012] (ii) Which helps in collection of ovum after
4. When and where do chorionic villi appear in ovulation
humans? State their function. [DELHI 2013] (iii) Where fertilization occurs
(iv) Where implantation of embryo occurs.
5. Why are the human testes located outside the
(b) Explain the role of the pituitary and the
abdominal cavity? Name the pouch in which they
ovarian hormones in menstrual cycle in
are present. [ALL INDIA 2014]
human females. [DELHI 2013]
13. (a) Draw a diagrammatic sectional view
3 Marks Questions of a human seminiferous tubule, and
6. Draw a labelled diagrammatic sectional view of label Sertoli cells, primary spermatocyte,
a human seminiferous tubule. [DELHI 2017] spermatogonium and spermatozoa in it.
7. Write the function of each one of the following: (b) Explain the hormonal regulation of the
(a) Fimbriae process of spermatogenesis in humans.
(b) Coleptile [ALL INDIA 2013]
(c) Oxytocin [ALL INDIA 2012]
8.
Solutions
1. Acrosome is a cap like structure present in the
head of sperm. It facilitates the entry of sperm
nucleus in the human ovum by breaking the
zona pellucida. [1]
2. Sertoli cells are present in the membrane of
seminiferous tubule and its function is to provide
nourishment to the male gamete. [1]
3. (a) The human testes are located in the scrotum
which is outside the abdominal cavity
because it need slower temperature for
[3]
developing male gametes than the normal
Fig.: Labelled diagram of the human female
body temperature. [1]
reproductive system
(b) As, male honey bee are formed without the
9. (a)
process of fertilization they are called as
parthenogenetic animals. [1]
4. Chorionic villi appear in humans develop from
trophoblast layer that develop into zygote after
its implantation. Chorionic villi helps in the
formation of placenta which is the interface
between maternal and fetal blood during the
period of pregnancy. [2]
5. The human testes located outside the abdominal
cavity because it needs a little lower temperature
than the normal body temperature. Scrotum is
the pouch in which they are present. [2] [2]
6. Sectional view of a human seminiferous tubule: Fig.: Labelled diagram of the human female
reproductive system
(b) (i) During Follicular phase, Follicle
stimulating hormone aids in the
growth of primary ovarian follicles and
maturation of primary oocyte in the
follicle. Graafian follicle cells secrete
estrogen that lead to the thickening of
uterine endometrium and make it more
vascular and grandular. This phase
has the duration of 10 to 14 days and
results in the ovulation. [2]
(ii) In this phase, after ovulation, ruptured
graafian follicle develops into corpus
luteum. It secretes progesterone

which further makes the uterus more
Fig.: Sectional view of a human seminiferous
vascular and glandular in anticipation
tubule. [3]
of a fertilised ovum. If fertilisation
7. (a) Fimbriae are present in the fallopian tubes
occurs and zygote arrives in the uterus,
of human female They pick up the eggs from
progesterone supports pregnancy.
the overies and move it into the fall opium
Otherwise the levels decline and luteal
tube. [1]
phase ends in menstrual cycle. [1]
(b) Coleoptile provides protection of emerging
10. (a) (i) Leydig cells are located in the
shoot in monocotyledons. [1]
seminiferous tubule of human
(c) Oxytocin helps in milk ejection during
male and its function is to secrete
lactation period and in parturition. [1]
testosterone under the effect of LH
from the pituitary gland. [1]
(ii) Sertoli cells are present in the membrane of seminiferous tubule and its function is to provide
nourishment to the male gamete under the effect of FSH from pituitary gland. [1]
(iii) Primary spermatocytes are present in the inner lining of seminiferous tubule and undergo meiosis
to form sperms. [1]
(b) The accessory glands of the male reproductive system are the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and
the bulbourethral glands. Prostate gland helps in the secretion of semen and seminal vesicles helps
in providing nourishment to the sperm. [2]
11. (a) Figure (g) is representing corpus luteum and LH hormone that influences its formation. [1]
(b) Secretion of progesterone is the endocrine function of corpus luteum which is necessary for the
maintenance of uterus endometrium. This endometrium is required for the implantation of the
fertilized ovum. [1]
(c) D is showing developing secondary follicle and E is showing developing tertiary follicle [1]
(d)

Fig.: Graafian follicle [2]
12. (a) 13. (a)

Fig.: Diagrammatic sectional view of a
human seminiferous tubule [3]
(b) Hormonal regulation of the process of
Fig.: Female reproductive system [2] spermatogenesis in humans are:
(b) Soon after the menstrual phase, pituitary (i) Hypothalamus secrete gonadotropins
secrete two hormone LH and FSH. releasing hormone during puberty.
During follicular phase, their secretion (ii) Further, gonadotropins releasing
increases and enhance the development hormone stimulates the anterior
of follicles. The follicles start secreting pituitary to secrete LH and FSH.
estrogen hormone. On the 13th and 14th (iii) L H s t i m u l a t e t h e s e c r e t i o n o f
day of mensturation cycle, LH and FSH
androgens from the leydig cells.
secretion reaches the maximum value.
Androgens stimulates the process of
This eventually result in the ovulation due
to secretion of LH. During luteal phase, spermatogenesis.
graafian follicle, changes to corpus luteum (iv) Follicle stimulating hormone stimulate
that secrete progesterone which helps in the the secretion of factors responsible for
implantation, (if fertilisation of ovum occurs) spermiogenesis (sperm maturation)
by maintaining the endometrium. [3] from the sertoli cells. [1+1]
[Topic 2] Gametogenesis
Gametogenesis
• The process in which the sex cells are produced is
being coined as gametogenesis.
• Gametogenesis is classified in following
components:
Spermatogenesis
Oogenesis
Spermatogenesis
At Puberty
Spermatogonia
Mitosis
differentiation
Primary spermatocytes
1st meiotic
division Fig.: Structure & various parts of Sperm
Secondary spermatocytes (b) Neck: Distal and proximal centrioles is the basic
part of neck. Neck is followed by the head.
2nd meiotic
division (c) Middle Part: The power house or mitochondria
and cytoplasm comprises to make the middle
Spermatids part.
(d) Tail: It is a filament that is axial in nature. Tail
Differentiation is used for the movement by sperms. Accessory
ducts are used to transport sperms.
Spermatozoa
• Oogenesis
Fig.: Spermatogenesis mechanism Oogonia
• The process which results in formation of sperms
is called as spermatogenesis. Mitosis
differentiation
• It comprises of two stages:
Fetal life Primary oocyte
Spermatids formation: In this process the mother
sperm cell results in formation of spermatids. 1st meiotic
division
Spermiogenesis: The spermatids formed in the (completed
Birth
above step results into formation of sperms. Childhood prior to
• Meosis-I is undergone by spermatocyte to produce Puberty ovulation)
secondary spermatocytes. First Secondary oocyte
poler body
• Now Meosis-II is undergone by spermatocyte to
Adult
produce haploid spermatids. reproductive Ovum
• Now using the process of spermiogenesis, the life Second
spermatids produced in the above step transforms polar body
into spermatozoa.
Fig.: Oogenesis mechanism
Structure of Sperm  The process which results in formation of ovum is
• The length of a sperm is around 0.06 mm. termed as oogenesis.
• The plasma encloses the sperm.  A Graafian follicle is the site where the above
• The four basic parts of sperms are: process takes place.
(a) Head: The shape of the head is oval and the  During the onset of embryo stage, oogenesis
constituent part is acrosome and nucleus. process initiates.
 During this process multiple of egg cells are • This ongoing secretion due to such high increased
produces in each ovary. level of gonadotropins is the sole reason which
 Prophase I meiosis is undergone by these egg cells results in to the puncturing of the uterus lining.
obtained in the above step and the result into • Now a third phase occurs after follicular is luteal
several multiplied cells. phase. In this after the ovulation, the Graffian
 The granulose cells surround the egg cell to result follicle results in to corpus luteum.
into an primary follicle. • There is no menstrual cycle taking place at the
 As the ovary reaches the age of puberty, only time of pregnancy.
around 70,000 primary follicles are left out which
PREVIOUS YEARS’
again are surrounded by granulose cells to form
secondary follicles.
 This process continues to form tertiary follicles.
 Unequal meiosis division is undergone by the egg EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
cells inside the tertiary follicle and this results in
to secondary egg cells and body. TOPIC 2
 Now this polar body obtained in the above step 1 Mark Questions
either withers or survives by dividing itself. 1. Name the embryonic stage that gets implanted
 Now this secondary egg cell is released outside in the uterine wall of a human female.
when it is being punctured by Graafian follicle. [ALL INDIA 2011]
 This releasing process is also termed as ovulation. 3 Marks Questions
Structure of Ovum 2. Draw a diagram of a mature human sperm. Label
• The shape is oval or it can be spherical. any three parts and write their functions.
[DELHI 2018]
• The radius of an ovum is around 0.1mm.
3. Draw a diagram of the microscopic structure of
• It has got several membranes which are as follows:
human sperm. Label the following parts in it
Zona pellucid Corona Radiata
and write their functions.
Vitelline membrane Plasma Membrane (a) Acrosome
Menstrual Cycle (b) Nucleus
• Human females undergo a reproductive cycle (c) Middle piece [DELHI 2013]
every month, this reproductive cycle is being 4. Explain the steps in the formation of an ovum
termed as menstrual cycle. from an oogonium in humans.
[ALL INDIA 2013]
• This cycle usually an onset at the age of 10
years and this onset process is being termed as 5 Marks Questions
menarche. 5. The following is the illustrations of the sequence
• This above cycle takes around 28 days. of ovarian events (a-i) in a human female.
• In each cycle a release of ovum takes place and is
termed as menstrual flow. This flow occurs in between
of a cycle and goes on for around three to five days.
• This cycle only takes place when the egg is not
being fertilized yet. If this cycle does not takes
place, that means an onset of pregnancy.
• The menstrual flow begins when the lining of
the uterus breaks itself as a result of the egg not
getting fertilized.
• The next phase that is being followed by the
menstrual cycle is follicular. In this phase all the (i) Identify the figure that illustrates ovulation
follicles become mature and results into Graafian and mention the stage of oogenesis it
follicles. represents.
• During this phase the secretion of estrogen (ii) Name the ovarian hormone and the pituitary
also increases as a result of increased levels of hormone that have caused the above
gonadotropins. mentioned event.
• These gonadotropinsattain their highest level on (iii) Explain the changes that occur in the uterus
around 13th day of the cycle. simultaneously in anticipation.
(iv) Write the difference between “c” and “h”. 3.

(v) Draw a labelled sketch of the structure of
human ovum prior to fertilization.
[ALL INDIA 2012]
6. (a) How is oogenesis markedly different from
spermatogenesis with respect to the growth
till puberty in humans?
(b) Draw a sectional view of human ovary and
label the different follicular stages, ovum
and corpus luteum? [DELHI 2014]
7. (a) Where does fertilization occur in humans?
Explain the events that occur during this
process.
(b) A couple where both husband and wife are
producing functional gametes, but the wife
is still unable to conceive, is seeking medical [3]
aid. Describe any one method that you can Fig.: Diagram of the microscopic
suggest to this couple to become happy structure of human sperm
parents. [ALL INDIA 2014] 4. Three steps: (a) Multiplication phase (b) Growth
8. (a) Briefly explain the events of fertilization and phase (c) Maturation phase
implantation in an adult human female. (a) Multiplication phase: In this step, ovum
(b) Comment on the role of placenta as an mother cell divides repeatedly by mitosis to
endocrine gland. [DELHI 2016] form many diploid oogonia. [1]
(b) Growth phase: This is the longest phase.
Oogonia grow in size and develop into
Solutions primary oocyte. In this step, egg size
1. The embryonic stage that gets implanted in the increases multiple times. [1]
uterine wall of a human female is blastocyst.[1] (c) Maturation phase: In this stage, primary
2. oocyte grows in size and enters in the
meiosis I division to form the secondary
oocyte and polar body. Secondary oocyte is
big in size, whereas polar body is small in
size. [1]
5. (i) Figure F illustrates ovulation and it
represents oogenesis ovulatory stage. [1]
(ii) Oesterogen is the ovarian hormone and the
pituitary hormone is Leutinizing Hormone
[1]
(iii) Uterus endometrium get thickened and
receives more blood supply for implantation
of the fertilized egg. [2]
(iv) “C” is representing secondary follicle and
“h” is representing corpus luteum which is
degenerate. [1]
6. (a) Spermatogenesis: It takes place in the
Fig.: Diagram of the microscopic structure of human males and start from the puberty
human sperm [2] till complete life cycle. Four haploid
I. Acrosome: It is a cap like structure, spermatids are developed from single
filled with hydrolytic enzymes that help spermatogonium after second meiotic
fertilisation of the ovum. division. Spermatogenesis takes place in
II. M i d d l e p i e c e : P o s s e s s e s n u m e r o u s testis and releases mature sperm. [1]
mitochondria, which produces energy for Oogenesis takes places in human female
the movement of tail. and starts before the birth during embryonic
III. Tail: helps in sperm motility, essential for development and ends at menopause.
fertilisation. [1]
A single oogonium, after second meiotic fertilization outside of the body. It is the
division result in the formation of one most common type of ART. It is preferred
ovum and two non-functional polar bodies. in the situation where few sperms are
Oogenesis is followed by ovulation in produced by male and blockage in female
fallopian tubes when sperm enters to fallopian tubes. In this situation, drug is
fertilise the ovum. [2] given to female that aid in the production
(b) of multiple eggs. Once, the eggs mature,
they are removed from female ovary and
placed in a dish along with men’s sperm
for fertilization. After few days, that is 3- 5
days, embryo is implanted in uterus of the
female. [2]
8. (a) Fusion of sperm and ova is called fertilization.
It takes place in the fallopian tube of the
human female. In the process, one sperm
comes in contact with the zona pellucida
layer of ovum and induces changes to block
entry of additional sperms. The entry of
Fig.: Sectional view of human ovary [2] sperm induces completion of meiosis II
7. (a) Fertilization occur in humans in the leading to the formation of anootid and
fallopian tubes that connect ovary to the uterus. second polar body. The haploid nucleus of
The events that occur during this process are: the sperm and that of the ovum fuse to form
(i) The sperm crosses the outermost layer a diploid zygote. Implantation is the process
of egg known as corona radiata. of the attachment of the fertilized egg (the
(ii) Then, sperm breaks the wall of zona blastocyst) to the lining of the uterus to grow
pellucida. and develop. It is an entirely natural process
(iii) The membrane of egg and sperm fuses. that happens a week after ovulation and is
(iv) The female egg mature into mature an early stage of pregnancy. The trophoblast
ovum. layer of the blastocyst attaches to the
(v) The sperm tail and mitochondria endometrium of the uterus. The uterine cells
degenerate that result in the formation divide rapidly and cover the blastocyst which
of male pronucleus. becomes embedded in the endometrium to
(vi) The male and female pronuclei fuse to complete implantation. [3]
form a new nucleus that is combination (b) Placenta acts as an endocrine tissue
of egg and sperm. and produces hormones such as human
(vii) Semen is ejaculated deep within the chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), human
cavity in vagina to allow passage of placental lactogen (hPL), estrogens, and
sperms. [3] progestogens. The hormones hCG, hPL and
(b) Couples can take the help of IVF, GIFT, relaxin are produced in women only during
ZIFT. In vitro fertilization (IVF) that include pregnancy. [2]
[Topic 3] Fertilization, Pregnancy and Embryonic

development
Fertilization • As soon as the sperms enter the vagina, they swim
towards the uterus. Then a fusion takes place at
• The process in which male and female gamete the oviduct on ampullaryisthmic junction.
fuse together is termed as fertilization. • Now the sperms and ova fuse together to form
• The male gametes are sperms and the female zygote and hence leads to pregnancy.
gametes is ova. The sperms are being released in • For the formation of zygote the ova and sperms
the vagina with the help of penis. have to travel together.
• Now the sperms are ample, so when a sperm

makes a contact with the zona pellucid, there are
Lactation
• After the baby is being delivered, the mammary
some changes being done to the membrance which
glands starts producing milk. This process as a
results in no extra sperms entering in.
whole is called as lactation.
Implantation • During the first few days after the onset of milk
• The process in which the zygote just after production, we find the milk to be yellow and is
fertilization moves and reaches the uterus is termed as colostrums.
called as implantation. • Several antibodies in order to develop the immune
• Reaching the uterus, the zygote forms blastomeres system is the essential part of the colostrums.
i.e. daughter cells in group of powers of 2 • This helps in providing the appropriate nutrition
(2,4,8,16,32). to the newly born child.
• Morula is an embryo that has eight to sixteen
blastomeres. This morula obtained keeps on
getting divided to form blastocyst which is a group
of so many cells together.
PREVIOUS YEARS’
• Thropblast is the outer layer in which the
blastomers are being arranged.
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
• The inner cells now gets differentiated in to the TOPIC 3
following germ layers:
Inner endoderm
2 Marks Questions
1. (a) Where do the signals for parturition
Middle mesoderm
originate from in human?
Outer ectoderm (b) Why is it important to feed the new born
• Conclusively in the process of implantation the babies on colostrum? [DELHI 2012]
blastocyst discussed above settles in uterus at 2. (a) State the difference between meiocyte and
endometrium.
gamete with respect to chromosome number.
Pregnancy and Embryo (b) Why is a whiptail lizard referred to as
parthenogenetic? [ALL INDIA 2012]
Development
• After the implantation of zygote in uterus, the 3 Marks Questions
female is said to be having pregnancy. 3. Describe the process of parturition in humans.
• The chorionic villi which is a finger like projection [DELHI 2015]
starts developing on the thropblast. 4. Medically it is advised to all young mothers
• This is also being surrounded by maternal blood that breastfeeding is the best for their new-born
and tissue. Placenta is also being developed in babies. Do you agree? Give reasons in support
this stage. of your answer. [DELHI 2018]
• Placenta acts as a point of link in between the
mother’s body and the developing fetus which 4 Marks Questions
provides the required nutrition for the growth. 5. It is commonly observed that parents feel
Parturition embarrassed to discuss freely with their
• Pasturation is defined as a process in which a adolescent children about sexuality and
female delivers a baby after 9 months of gestation reproduction. The result of this parental
period. inhibition is that the children go astray
• Neuroendocrine is the main principle on which sometimes.
parturition is based. (a) Explain the reasons that you feel are behind
• When it is the time to deliver a child, the foetus such embarrassment amongst some parents
and placenta sends a few signals in the form of to freely discuss such issues with their
uterine contractions. growing children.
• As a result oxytocin hormone is released, uterine (b) By taking one example of a local plant
wall starts to contract which results in the baby and animal, how would you help these
coming out of the baby. parents to overcome such inhibitions about
• As the baby comes out, the placenta and the reproduction and sexuality?
umbilical chord is being taken off the body. [ALL INDIA 2017]
5 Marks Questions release of oxytocin from maternal pituitary.

6. During the reproductive cycle of a human female, Oxytocin causes stronger uterine contractions.
when, where and how does a placenta develop? This stimulates further release of oxytocin
What is function of placenta during pregnancy from maternal pituitary. Parturition involves
and embryo development? [DELHI 2015] forceful muscular contraction of uterine wall
7. Describe the role of pituitary and ovarian called labour. The entire process of parturition
hormones during the menstrual cycle in a is stimulated by complex neuroendocrine
human female. [ALL INDIA 2015] mechanism. The process of parturition involves
8. (a) Explain the menstrual phase in a human cortisol, estrogen and oxytocin. [2]
female. State the levels of ovarian and There are three stages of parturition
pituitary hormones during this phase. (i) 1st stage: Dilation of cervix
(b) Why is follicular phase in the menstrual (ii) 2nd Stage: Delivery of baby
cycle also referred as proliferative phase? (iii) 3rd stage: Delivery of placenta and umbilical
Explain. cord. [1]
(c) Explain the events that occur in a Graafian 4. Yes, I agree with the fact that breast milk is
follicle at the time of ovulation and thereafter. the best for new-born babies. Mammary glands
(d) Draw a Graafian follicle and label antrum of the young mother start producing milk
and secondary oocyte. Explain. at the end of pregnancy. The milk produced
[ALL INDIA 2016]. during the initial few days is called colostrum
9. (a) Arrange the following hormones in sequence which contains several antibodies. It helps in
of their secretion in a pregnant woman. developing resistance for new-born baby. It
(b) Mention their source and the function they helps the baby fight with viruses and bacteria.
perform: Thus breast milk is packed with disease-fighting
hcG ; LH ; FSH ; Relaxin [DELHI 2017] antibodies that protect your baby from microbial
10. (a) Explain the following phases in the infections Breast milk also naturally contains
menstrual cycle of a human female: many of the vitamins and minerals that a new-
(i) Menstrual phase born requires. Breast milk is easily digested
(ii) Follicular phase therefore, no constipation, diarrhoea and upset
stomach. [3]
(iii) Luteal phase
5. (a) The parents in our society feel embarrassed
(b) A proper understanding of menstrual cycle
to discuss sexuality and reproduction related
can help immensely in family planning.
issues with their adolescent children due to
Do you agree with the statement? Provide
the following reasons:
reasons for your answer. [ALL INDIA 2017]
(i) The parents feel that discussing
sexuality and reproduction will have
Solutions a negative impact on children.
1. (a) The signals of parturition originates from (ii) Taking about sex-related issues are
fully developed foetus and placenta and is considered as taboo in our society, so
called foetal ejection reflex. [1] people feel uncomfortable to discuss
(b) It is very important to feed the new born these issues.
babies with colostrum because it consists (iii) Illiteracy, conservative mind set and
of ample antibodies like IgA essential to social barrier are the other reasons.[2]
protect the infant against infections. [1] (b) To overcome inhibitions about reproduction
2. (a) Difference include in the chromosome and sexuality, parents can explain about
number. Gamete have single set of sexuality and reproduction with one or two
chromosome (n) and meiocyte are diploid examples of plants or animals. In papaya,
(2n). [1] palm plants, male and female reproductive
(b) As, new whiptail lizard individual can structures are present on the different plant
develop from an unfertilized egg it is known like humans. Similarly in animals such as
as parthenogenetic. [1] earthworm both male and female organs are
3. Parturition is a process of childbirth in which present in one individual. [2]
there is expulsion of the fully developed foetus 6. Placenta is a tissue connection between foetus
from mother’s uterus at the end of the gestation and endometrium layer of uterus of mother. It
period. A fully developed foetus triggers supports the foetus during its development.
The foetus is connected to the placenta by a long, flexible tube called umbilical cord. After fertilisation,
the zygote divides and leads to the formation of blastocyst. The blastocyst comes into contact with the
endometrium. The outer layer of blastocyst, trophoblast secrete lytic enzymes which encroach into the
endometrial lining. This give rise to finger-like projections called chorionic villi. This forms the foetal part
of placenta. These villi extend into the maternal part of placenta called- Decidua. The villi are immersed
into the blood sinuses found in decidua region which is divided into three distinct regions. These regions
are decidua basalis, decidua capsularies and decidua parietalis. [2]
The functions of placenta are:
1. The placenta facilitates the supply of oxygen and nutrients to the embryo and also removes carbon
dioxide and excretory or waste materials produced by the embryo. [1]
2. Placenta also acts as an endocrine tissue as it secretes several hormones like human chorionic
gonadotropin (hCG), human placental lactogen (hPL), estrogens, progesterone, etc., that are essential
for maintaining maternal physiological conditions appropriate for continued development of foetus.
[1]
Fig.: (a) Location of the placenta in the uterus (b) Details view of the placenta [1]
7. At the start of the menstrual cycle, the prepares the lining of the uterus for pregnancy.
hypothalamus signals (by GnRH) the pituitary If the egg is fertilized and implanted, the body
gland to produce the follicle-stimulating continues to produce progesterone and if not,
hormone (FSH), which in turn signals the then progesterone levels fall, and that month’s
ovaries to begin forming and maturing eggs. On menstrual period begins. [3]
the maturation of follicles, the level of estrogen
in the body rises, indicating that an egg is
ready. This first half of the menstrual cycle is
called the follicular phase. When high estrogen
levels signal an egg is ready, the pituitary gland
then produces a luteinizing hormone (LH),
triggering the ovary to release the mature egg
by the process of ovulation. The day ovulation
happens is the first day of the second half of
the cycle, the luteal phase. During the luteal
phase of the menstrual cycle the ovaries (the
corpus luteum) begin to increase the levels of
progesterone in the body. Progesterone, secreted
by ovary regulates and maintains the inner
lining of the uterus both during menstrual cycle
and gestation. Progesterone is a hormone that Fig.: Menstrual cycle & harmones level [2]
8. (a) If fertilisation fails to occur menstrual phase Maintains the

starts. The endometrium (the lining of the Chorionic corpus luteum
uterus) breaks and its blood vessels form the hCG cells of and stimulates
liquid that comes out through the vagina, placenta it to secrete
and is called menstrual flow. It lasts for 3 to progesterone.
5 days. During menstrual phase, the levels
Helps during
of hormones secreted by corpus luteum and
child birth by
hormones secreted by pituitary gland are relaxing the
low. [1] Relaxin. Ovary pelvic mus-
Anterior cles as well a
Pituitary smuscles of the
FSH
LH cervix.
Ovary [1+1+1+1]
Estrogen 1 10. (a) (i) Menstrual phase: This phase is
Progesterone characterised by bleeding. Bleeding
Ovulation
occurs due to breakdown of the soft
tissue of endometrial lining of the
1 7 14 21 28
uterus. The unfertilised egg and soft
Menstrual flow
tissues are discharged in the bleeding.
Fig.: Level of pituitary andovarian It lasts for 3 to 5 days. [1]
hormones [1] (ii) Follicular phase: it is also known as
(b) The follicular phase begins just after proliferative Phase. In this phase the
menstrual phase. In this phase the primary primary follicles in the ovary grow and
follicles mature into the Graafian follicle mature to become Graafian follicle. The
under the influence of follicle stimulating secretion of gonadotropins (LH and
hormone (FSH) and Luteinising hormone FSH) increases gradually during the
(LH). As the follicles and the endometrium follicular phase. It lasts for about 10
proliferate during the follicular phase, it is to 14 days. [1]
also known as the proliferative phase. [1] (iii) Luteal phase: In this phase the
(c) The LH and FSH are at their peak in the ruptured follicle changes into corpus
middle of the cycle (14th day) this causes luteum in the ovary and it begins to
the rupturing of the Graafian follicle to secrete hormone progesterone. If ovum
release the ovum (secondary oocyte) and is not fertilised, the corpus luteum
the remaining parts of the Graafian follicle undergoes degeneration and this
changed to the corpus luteum. [1] causes disintegration of endometrium
(d) Structure of a Graafian follicle: [1] leading to menstruation. It lasts 15
9. (a) The correct sequence of hormones is FSH – days to 28 days. [1]
LH – hCG – Relaxin. [1] (b) Yes, a proper understanding of menstrual
(b) Sources and functions of the hormones: cycle can help greatly in family planning. It
Hormones Source Function is obvious from the menstrual cycle is that
Stimulates the in between 10th to 17th day of the cycle, the
growth of chances of fertilisation is high. If copulation
Anterior is done during this period, it increases the
ovarian
FSH lobe of chances of pregnancy Also abstaining from
follicles and
Pituitary copulation during this period, pregnancy can
maturation of
primary oocyte be avoided. [2]
Induces ovula-
Anterior
tion and main-
LH lobe of
tains corpus
pituitary
luteum
CHAPTER 4
Reproductive Health

Need for reproductive
health and prevention
of sexually transmitted
diseases (STD)
Birth control – Need and 1Q 1Q
Methods, Contraception (3 marks), (2 marks)
and Medical Termination 1Q
of Pregnancy (MTP), (4 marks)
Amniocentesis
Infertility and assisted 1Q
reproductive technologies (4 marks)
- IVF, ZIFT, GIFT
On the basis of above analysis, it can be said that front exam point of view the concepts
of Birth Control Measures, Practical Relevance of Reproductive system, Child Healthcare
Programs and Infertility are the most important concepts of the chapter.
4.36 CHAPTER 4 : Reproductive Health
[Topic 1] Reproductive Health-Problems and Strategies
Summary  Withdrawal or coitus interrupts: Method in

which the male partner removes the penis before
Reproductive Health: The physical, emotional, ejaculating inside the women’s vagina to avoid
behavioral and social well-being of reproduction is insemination.
referred as reproductive health. To accomplish the  Barrier method helps to prevent the physical
social goal of total reproductive health, India has meeting of ovum and sperm. Condoms,
initiated ‘family planning’ programs in 1951. diaphragms, cervical caps and vaults are the
• In present time, ‘Reproductive and Child Health examples of barriers.
Care (RCH) programmers’ are being operated  IUDs (Intra Uterine Devices) are the devices
as improved programs which cover wide which are inserted in the uterus of female through
reproduction-related areas. vagina which helps to prevent unwanted pregnancy.
• The primary steps to achieve the goal of  Pills are taken orally in order to prevent pregnancy.
reproductive health is counselling the people These are the small doses of progestogens or
progestogen-estrogen combinations.
and aware them about adolescence, reproductive
organs, changes associated with adolescence, safe  Sterilization is a surgical method to prevent
and hygienic sexual practices, STDs (sexually any more pregnancies. It is a terminal method
which blocks gamete transport. In males, it is
transmitted disease) as AIDS etc.
Vasectomy and in females it is Tubectomy.
• Some of the other facets of RCH programs are to
provide care and medical facilities for the problems Medical Termination of Pregnancy: Our country
related to pregnancy, menstrual irregularities, has legalized the medical termination of pregnancy
delivery, STDs, birth control, post-natal child and (MTP). Casual relationships, rapes can cause
maternal management, etc. unwanted pregnancy. To get rid of such types of
pregnancy, MTP is performed. It is also performed
Population explosion and Birth in some cases where the need to discontinue the
control pregnancy is necessary as it could be harmful or fatal
• Reduction of maternal and infant mortality rates, to either the mother, or the foetus or both.
assistance to infertile couples, early identification Sexually Transmitted Diseases and
and cure of STDs, etc. indicate that reproductive
health is improved in our country. Infertility
• A volatile population growth has been promoted Sexually transmitted diseases or STDs are
by better living conditions and improved health transferred through the sexual interactions. These
facilities. That is why the intense propagation are also called as VD (Venereal Diseases) or
of contraceptive methods became necessary. RTI (Reproductive Tract Infections). Some
Some natural as well as traditional, IUDs, complications of STDs are still birth, infertility,
pills, injectable, implants, surgical, barrier Pelvic Inflammatory diseases (PIDs). In order to cure
contraceptive options are available nowadays. these diseases in a better way, their early detection is
These methods are useful to delay or avoid the
necessary. Some precautions can be adopted to avoid
pregnancy.
STDs like use of condoms during sexual intercourse
 In natural methods the chances of meeting the
and avoiding it with multiple or unknown partners.
ovum and sperms are avoided by taking care of
the period of menstrual cycle. In this method, Some of the common STDs are syphilis, gonorrhoea,
the sexual intercourse from day 10 to 17 of the chlamydiasis, genital herpes, genital warts,
menstrual cycle is avoided as this is called the hepatitis-B, trichomoniasis and HIV which leads to
fertile period and this method is called Periodic AIDS. Few principles to be free from such infections:
abstinence. Withdrawal or coitus interrupts and • Use of condoms during coitus.
lactational amenorrhea are the other natural • Avoiding sex with unknown partners/multiple
methods. partners.
CHAPTER 4 : Reproductive Health 4.37
• Visiting a qualified doctor for early detection of involved that you can suggest to them to help
the disease and to get full treatment, if diagnosed them bear a child. [DELHI 2015]
with one. 2. Why is CuT considered a good contraceptive
Infertility: Infertility is the inability to conceive even device to space children? [DELHI 2011]
when the sexual interaction is unprotected. Physical 3. Describe the Lactational Amenorrhea method
diseases, psychological reasons, drugs etc can be of birth control. [ALL INDIA 2011]
responsible for infertility. In present time, there 4. Our government has intentionally imposed strict
are some methods and techniques available to help conditions for M.T.P. in our country. Justify
the couples who are dealing with infertility. These giving a reason. [DELHI 2017]
certain techniques are called assisted reproductive
technologies (ART). 3 Marks Questions
In vitro fertilization (IVF): In one of such methods, 5. (a) Mention the problems that are taken care
embryo is transferred into the female genital tract of by Reproduction and Child Health Care
and is known as In vitro fertilization (IVF) and this programme.
program is called the ‘Test Tube Baby’ program. (b) What is amniocentesis and why there is a
ZIFT (Zygote intra fallopian transfer): Another statutory ban on it? [ALL INDIA 2016].
method is ZIFT (Zygote intra fallopian transfer) 6. Suggest and explain any three Assisted
in which a donor provides the ovum and it is then Reproductive Technologies (ART) to an infertile
transferred into the fallopian tube of the female who couple? [ALL INDIA 2013].
cannot produce it but can give suitable environment 4 Marks Questions
for the fertilization and development process. 7. Your school has been selected by the Department
Intra cytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI): of Education to organize and host an interschool
is another technique to help the couples who are seminar on “Reproductive Health – Problems
unable to produce a child because of infertility. In and Practices”. However, many parents are
this technique an embryo is formed in the laboratory reluctant to permit their wards to attend
in which a sperm is directly injected into the ovum. it. Their argument is that the topic is “too
embarrassing.” Put forth four arguments with
Artificial insemination (AI): Intra cytoplasmic
appropriate reasons and explanation to justify
sperm injection could be corrected by this technique,
the topic to be very essential and timely.
the semen is collected from either the husband or a
[ALL INDIA 2015].
healthy donor and is artificially introduced either
8. Reproductive and Child Healthcare (RCH)
into the vagina or into the uterus of the female also programmes are currently in operation. One
known as IUI (intra-uterine insemination). of the major tasks of these programmes is to
There are many methods to help the couples dealing create awareness amongst people about the
with infertility but they are not reachable to every wide range of reproduction related aspects. As
class as not everyone can adopt these methods this is important and essential for building a
because of financial or some emotional and religious reproductively healthy society.
facts. So another method is adoption which is legal in (a) “Providing sex education in schools is one of
our country now. the ways to meet this goal.” Give four points
in support of your opinion regarding this
statement.
PREVIOUS YEARS’ (b) List any two ‘indicators’ that indicate a
reproductively healthy society.
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS [DELHI 2016]
9. A large number of married couples the world
TOPIC 1 over are childless. It is shocking to know that
2 Marks Questions in India the female partner is often blamed for
1. After a brief medical examination a healthy the couple being childless
couple came to know that both of them are (a) Why in your opinion the female partner is
unable to produce functional gametes and often blamed for such situations in India?
should look for an ‘ART’ (Assisted Reproductive Mention any two values that can promote
Technique). Name the ‘ART’ and the procedure to check this social evil.
(b) State any two reasons responsible for the sex abuse, sex related crimes and sexually
cause of infertility. transmitted diseases (STDs). [1½]
(c) Suggest a technique that can help the couple (b) Amniocentesis is a process of diagnosis
to have a child where the problem is with of chromosomal abnormalities and foetal
male partner. [ALL INDIA 2016] infections by analysing a small amount of
amniotic fluid. But this process is misused
for detecting gender of the foetus. Therefore,
5 Marks Questions there is a statutory ban on amniocentesis to
10. A pregnant human female was advised to
avoid female foeticides. [1½]
undergo M.T.P. It was diagnosed by her doctor
6. Three Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART)
that the foetus she is carrying has developed
to an infertile couple are:
from a zygote formed by an XX egg fertilized
(a) In vitro fertilization (IVF) that include
by Y carrying sperm. Why she was advised to
fertilization outside of the female body.
undergo M.T.P? [ALL INDIA 2011]
It is the most common type of ART. It is
preferred in the situation where few sperms
Solutions are produced by male or if there is a blockage
1. Assisted reproductive technology (ART) in female fallopian tubes. In this situation,
is fertility treatment technique. One such drug is given to female that aid in the
technique is called ZIFT (Zygote intra fallopian production of multiple eggs. Once, the eggs
transfer). In this technique, the sperm and ovum are mature, they are removed from female
are collected from the donor male and the donor ovary and placed in a dish along with men’s
female respectively. The sperm and the ovum sperm for fertilization. After few days, that
are fused in the laboratory and allowed zygote is 3- 5 days, embryo at 8-blastomere stage
to develop till the 8-blastomere stage, then is is implanted in uterus of the female. [1]
transferred to the fallopian tube of the mother (b) ZIFT or Zygote intrafallopian transfer or
for further development. GIFT (gamete intra tubal embryo transfer is the fertilization
fallopian transfer) is another such technique. outside of the female body. It is similar to
[2] the IVF except the embryo is implanted in
2. CuT or copper T is an intrauterine device. CuT is fallopian tubes of the female. [1]
inserted into the uterus through vagina by expert (c) GIFT or Gamete intrafallopian transfer
doctors. The copper ion released by this device include transferring of egg and sperm
decreases the motility and fertilizing capacity into fallopian tubes of the female. Hence,
of sperms. At the same time, it increases the fertilization takes place inside female
phagocytosis of the sperms. Hence, in this way, body. [1]
CuT is considered a good contraceptive device 7. Reproductive health is very important aspect
to space children. [2] of human life. It is very important for one
3. Lactational Amenorrhea is characterized must attend seminar on ‘Reproductive Health
by absence of menstruation during intense Problems and Practices’ as it deals with
lactation. It is a method of birth control because: the problems and strategies of reproductive
(a) In this period, ovulation and other health. In the seminar, following topics about
physiological processes ovulation are reproductive health that should be discussed
stopped. [1] with the students:
(b) The period where child is fed by the mother, I. Lack of proper knowledge or too little
there is no chance of conception. [1] understanding about the safe reproductive
4. M.T.P. stand for Medical Termination of process may lead to unwanted pregnancies.
Pregnancy. It also called induced abortion. Our Therefore, it is necessary to create awareness
government has intentionally strict conditions among youth to know about reproductive
for M.T.P. to prevent female foeticide. By process. [1]
imposing such regulations on MTP, sex ratio II. Make adolescents aware about one’s
may be maintained and also avoid any danger sexuality at a proper age that may help
for (young) mother (and foetus) [1] them to know about the different changes
5. (a) Reproduction and child health care happening in their body; thereby, leading
programme addresses problems such as to a better mental and physical state of
uncontrolled population growth, problems of health. [1]
CHAPTER 4 : Reproductive Health 4.39
III. Counselling and creating awareness about 9. (a) Due to improper knowledge on reproduction
reproductive health also helps to curb related issues, lack of moral values and also
the problems of infertility, birth control, due to the orthodox male dominant nature of
mortality, etc. [1] society in India. Female partner is blamed.
IV. It prevents sex abuse and sex related crime. For not being able to produce babies. As a
People should think and take up necessary biology student awareness can be created
steps to prevent sex abuse and build up a that Abnormality can be in any of the
reproductively healthy society. [1] partners in the couple. Only proper diagnosis
8. (a) Reproductive and Child Healthcare (RCH) of both the partners can help in detecting
programmes Provides education on sex the reason for infertility. Awareness can
and reproduction related issue. It is one be created to bring about respect towards
of the best ways to lay the foundation of both the partners in case of such a problem
reproductively healthy society. Sex education and to find a remedy from medical experts
may help in achieving goal by. [½] rather than consulting baba and ojhas.
I. This type of program give proper Awareness can be created not to believe in
information to adolescents and superstitions. [2]
preventing them from believing in (b) The reasons for infertility may be abnormality
myths about sex-related aspects. [½] in reproductive system, congenital (by birth)
II. Creates awareness about sexually and may be due to immunity. [1]
transmitted diseases (STDs) such (c) Intra cytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI)
as syphilis, gonorrhoea and ways to or artificial insemination (AI) can help the
prevent them. [½] couple to have a child in case the problem is
III. Provides proper information about with the male partner. [1]
reproductive organs and various 10. MTP is medical terminal of pregnancy. Another
adolescents and related changes. [½] name of MTP is abortion. It is medical procedure
IV. Proper information about safe and of getting rid of unwanted pregnancy. As in
hygienic sexual practices. [½] this case, pregnant human female have XX egg
(b) Two indicators of a reproductively healthy chromosome that is going to be fertilized with Y
society may be: chromosome of male will result in the formation
(i) When there will be no discrimination of foetus having XXY chromosome. This is the
between male and female child by their situation, where foetus is carrying an abnormal
parents. I would be the biggest indicator sex chromosome from the egg. This condition is
of reproductively healthy society. [½] known as trisomy condition. In this condition,
(ii) If there is decrease in IMR (Infant foetus is having extra X chromosome and result
Mortality Rate) and MMR (Maternal in the occurrence of a disorder in foetus such as
Mortality Rate). [½] Klinefelter’s syndrome and hence, female was
(iii) Less evidence of occurrence of sexually advised to terminate the pregnancy. [5]
transmitted diseases. [½]
CHAPTER 5
Principles of
Inheritance and Variation

Mendelian Inheritance, 1Q 1Q 1Q
Deviations from Mendel- (1 mark) (5 marks) (1 mark),
ism-Incomplete domi- 1Q
nance, Co-dominance (5 marks)
Multiple alleles and
Inheritance of blood
groups, Pleiotropy
Elementary idea of
polygenic inheritance,
Chromosome theory of
inheritance, Chromo-
somes and genes
Sex determination - in 1Q 1Q
humans, birds, honey (3 marks) (3 marks)
bee, Linkage and cross-
ing over
Sex linked inheritance
- Haemophilia, Colour
blindness, Mendelian dis-
order in humans – Thal-
assemia, chromosomal
disorders in humans,
Down's syndrome, Turn-
er's and Klinefelter's
syndromes.
On the basis of above analysis, it can be clearly inferred that from exam point of view
the concepts Law of Independent Assortment, Genetics, Application of Crosses, Human
Genetically Disorders, Monohybrid & Dihybrid types and Sex determination are most
important concepts of the chapter.
5.42 CHAPTER 5 : Principles of Inheritance and Variation
[Topic 1] Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance

Summary • Monohybrid Cross:
 Monohybrid cross is a cross involving two plants
• Genetics: The inheritance and the variation of
differing in one pair of contrasting characters.
characters from parents to progeny are dealt in
the branch of biology known as Genetics.  A tall and a dwarf pea plant were crossed to study
the inheritance of one gene
• Inheritance: The process of passing the
characters from parents to offspring is called the • Steps in making a cross in pea
inheritance which is the basis of heredity.  Two pea plants were contrasting characters were
• Variation: The degree of difference of offspring selected.
from its parents is called the variation.  Emasculation: Anthers on one plant were removed
in order to avoid self-pollination. This is called
Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance female parent.
Mendel performed experiments on garden pea for  Pollination: It involves collecting pollen grains
7 years in order to study the inheritance and gave from male and transferring it to female parent.
the inheritance laws in living organisms. According  The pollen grains were collected and offspring
to Mendel, the ‘factors’ (presently known as genes) was produced.
are always found in pairs (called alleles) and they are  Some factors were inherited from parent to
responsible for regulating the characters. A definite offspring which were called as genes.
pattern is followed in different generations by the  The production of gametes by the parents, the
expression of the characters in the progeny. formation of the zygotes, the F1 and F2 plants is
• Principles or Laws of Inheritance: It understood from a diagram called Punnett Square.
comprises two laws as follows:  Following is the representation for monohybrid
 Law of Dominance: cross
- Discrete units called factors control the P generation Tall x dwarf
characters. TT tt
- Factors occur in pairs. Meiosis
- One member of the pair dominates the other Gametes T t
member in a dissimilar pair of factors.
- Dominative member is called dominants while F1 generation Tt Tall (hybrid)
the other called recessive. Tt x Tt (inbred)
 Law of Segregation: The alleles or factors of a
Meiosis
pair segregate from each other such that a gamete Gametes T t T t
receives only one of the two factors.
T t
A parent which produces all similar gametes is called
a homozygous parent while the one producing two TT Tt
Gametes (tall) (tall)
kinds of gametes each having one allele with equal
proportion is called heterozygous. Tt tt
F2 generation (tall) (dwarf)
All the characters do not show true dominance. Some
of the characters show incomplete dominance while Fig.: Monohybrid cross
the others may show co-dominance. Dominance is  Gametes T and t are produced in equal production
dependent on the gene product, particular phenotype when F1 is self-pollinated.
chosen to examine and the production of the  Monohybrid Genotypic ratio is
particular phenotype. Homozygous Tall : Heterozygous Tall : Homozygous
Dwarf = 1 : 2 : 1
Inheritance of one gene:
 Monohybrid Phenotypic ratio is Tall : Dwarf = 3 : 1
Mendel proposed that the units of inheritance are
called factors (known as genes now) and they carry Non Mendelian Inheritance
the required information in order to express a • Incomplete Dominance:
particular attribute. The genes which code for a pair  It refers to the inheritance in which heterozygous
of contrasting attributes are called alleles. offspring shows intermediate character between
CHAPTER 5 : Principles of Inheritance and Variation 5.43
to parental characteristics. Example: Flower color

in snapdragon and Mirabilis Jalapa.
Inheritance of two genes
• Dihybrid Cross:
 It refers to a cross between two parents who have
two pairs of contrasting characters.
 Dihybrid cross between round pea plant with
yellow seeds and wrinkled shaped pea plant with
green seeds was studied by Mendel.
 The Punnett square is shown below:
Round Yellow Wrinkled Green
P RRYY rryy
Gametes RY ry
F1 RrYy (Dihybrid)
Round Yellow (selfed)
Gametes RY Ry rY ry
F2
RY Ry rY ry
RRYY RRYy RrYY RrYy
RY Round Round Round Round
Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow
RRYy RRyy RrYy Rryy
Ry Round Round Round Round
Yellow Green Yellow Green
RyYY RrYy rrYY rrYy
rY Round Round Wrinked Wrinked
Fig.: Non Mendelian inheritance Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow
 Genotypic Ratio = RR : Rr : rr = 1 : 2 : 1
 Phenotypic Ratio = Red : Pink : White = 1 : 2 : 1 RrYy Rryy rrYy rryy
ry Round Round Wrinkled Wrinkled
• Co Dominance: Yellow Green Yellow Green
 It is the dominance in which both the alleles of
a gene are expressed independently and equally Fig.: Dihybrid cross (Punnett square)
in a hybrid that is both the alleles are dominant.  Dihybrid Phenotypic ratio is
Example: ABO blood group in humans. Round yellow: Round green : Wrinkled yellow :
 A gene I has three alleles IA, IB (the dominant Wrinkled green = 9: 3 : 3 :1
alleles) and i (recessive allele)
 Dihybrid genotypic ratio is
 Antigen A and B are produced by IA, IB respectively
RRYY : RRYy :RrYY : RrYy : RRyy : Rryy :
and no antigen is produced by the recessive allele.
rrYY : rrYY : rrYy : rryy = 1:2:1:2:4:2:1:2:1
Allele Allele Genotype Blood
from from of group of After this study, the Law of Independent Assortment
parent 1 parent 2 offspring offspring was give which says that the factors are independently
IA IA I AI A A assorted and they combine in all permutations and
combinations.
IA IB I AI B AB
• Chromosomes: Chromosomes are the structures
IA i I Ai A found in the nucleus. They double and divide just
before each cell division. They also occur in pairs.
IB IA I AI B AB
• Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance: Both
IB IB I BI B B gene and chromosome are found in pair. The two
alleles of a gene pair are located on the same locus
IB i I Bi B on homologous chromosomes. According to the
O argument of Sutton and Boveri that the pairing
i i ii and segregation of a pair of chromosomes would
lead to the separation of a pair of genes or factors 2 Marks Questions

they carried. The knowledge of chromosomal 8. Differentiate between male and female
segregation was united with mendelian principles heterogamety. [DELHI 2015]
by Sutton and named as the chromosomal theory 9. In a cross between two tall pea plants some of the
of inheritance. offsprings produced were dwarf. Show with the
Pleiotropy help of Punett square. How this is possible.
[DELHI 2013]
• A single gene exhibiting multiple phenotypic
10. A cross between a red flower bearing plant and
expression is called as pleiotropic gene.
a white flower bearing plant of Antirrhinum
• Dominance depends on the production of a produced all plants having pink flowers. Work
particular prototype and the gene product. out a cross to explain how this is possible.
Example: Gene in pea plant which controls the [ALL INDIA 2013]
wrinkled texture and roundness of the seeds 11. A cross was carried out between two pea plants
influences the phenotype expression of the grain size showing the contrasting traits of height of the
plant. The result of the cross showed 50% of
of starch.
parental characters.
• Linkage and Recombination: (i) Work out the cross with the help of a punnett
The physical association of genes on a chromosome is square.
termed as linkage and the generation of non-parental (ii) Name the type of the cross carried out.
[DELHI 2014]
gene combinations is termed as recombination. The
12. How does the gene ‘I’ control ABO blood groups
genes are tightly linked when they are located on the
in humans? Write the effect the gene has on the
same chromosome and show very low recombination. structure of red blood cells. [DELHI 2014]
13. In Snapdragon, a cross between true-breeding
PREVIOUS YEARS’
red flowered (RR) plants and true breeding white
flowered (rr) plants showed a progeny of plants
with all pink flowers.
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS (a) The appearance of pink flowers is not known
as blending. Why?
TOPIC 1 (b) What is this phenomenon known as?
1 Mark Questions [ALL INDIA 2014]
14. With the help of one example, explain the
1. Name the event during cell division cycle that
phenomena of co-dominance and multiple
results in the gain or loss of chromosome.
allelism in human population.
[DELHI 2011] [ALL INDIA 2014]
2. Mention the contribution of genetic maps in 15. Write the scientific name of the fruit-fly. Why
human genome project. [ALL INDIA 2011] did Morgan prefer to work with fruit-flies for
3. A garden pea plant produced axial white flowers. his experiments? State any three reasons.
Another of the same species produced terminal [ALL INDIA 2014]
violet flowers. Identify the dominant traits. 16. Linkage and crossing-over of genes are
[DELHI 2012] alternatives of each other. Justify with the help
4. A garden pea plant (A) produced yellow inflated of an example. [ALL INDIA 2014]
pod, and another plant (B) of the same species
produced constricted green pods. Identify the 3 Marks Questions
dominant traits. [ALL INDIA 2012] 17. How are dominance, co-dominance and
incomplete dominance patterns of inheritance
5. Mention any two contrasting traits with respect
different from each other? [DELHI 2011]
to seeds in pea plant that were studied by
18. (a) Why is human ABO blood group gene
Mendel. [ALL INDIA 2014] considered a good example of multiple alleles?
6. State a difference between a gene and an (b) Work out a cross upto F1 generation only,
allele. [DELHI 2016] between a mother with blood group A
7. Name the type of cross that would help to (homozygous) and the father with blood
find the genotype of a pea plant bearing violet group B (homozygous). Explain the pattern
flowers. [ALL INDIA 2017] of inheritance exhibited. [DELHI 2013]
19. Mendel published his work on inheritance of 30. (a) Explain a monohybrid cross taking seed coat
characters in 1865, but it remained unrecognized colour as a trait in Pisum sativum. Work out
till 1900. Give three reasons for the delay in the cross upto F2 generation.
accepting his work. [DELHI 2014] (b) State the laws of inheritance that can be
20. Women are often blamed for producing female derived from such a cross.
children. Consequently, they are ill-treated (c) How is the phenotypic ratio of F2 generation
and Critisized. How will you address this different in a dihybrid cross?
issue scientifically if you were to conduct an [DELHI 2012]
awareness programme to highlight the values 31. What is the inheritance pattern observed in
involved? [DELHI 2014] the size of the starch grains and seed shape of
21. Why is pedigree analysis done in the study of Pisum sativum? Workout the monohybrid cross
human genetics? State the conclusions that can showing the above traits. How does this pattern
be drawn from it. [ALL INDIA 2014] of inheritance deviate from that of Mendelian
22. A teacher wants his/her students to find the law of dominance? [ALL INDIA 2012]
genotype of pea plants bearing purple coloured 32. (a) Explain the phenomena of multiple allelism
flowers in their school garden. Name and explain and co-dominance taking ABO blood group
the cross that will make it possible. as an example.
[DELHI 2015] (b) What is the phenotype of the following:
23. During a monohybrid cross involving a tall (i) IAi (ii) ii [DELHI 2012]
pea plant with a dwarf pea plant, the offspring
populations were tall and dwarf in equal ratio. Solutions
Work out a cross to show how it is possible.
1. Aneuploidy is the event during cell division cycle
[ALL INDIA 2015]
that results in the gain or loss of chromosome.[1]
24. Give an example of an autosomal recessive trait
2. Genetic maps are used in sequencing the whole
in humans. Explain its pattern of inheritance
genome of an organism, to find out the location
with the help of a cross. [DELHI 2016]
of a gene on a chromosome. [1]
3. The Dominant Characters are axial and violet
5 Marks Questions flower. [1]
25. Explain the genetic basis of blood grouping in 4. Dominant trait is green inflated pod of the
human population. [DELHI 2015] garden pea plant (A) [1]
26. (a) Why are thalassemia and haemophilia 5. Two contrasting traits with respect to seeds
categorized as Mendelian disorders? Write in pea plant are: seed colour in which yellow
the symptoms of these diseases. Explain is dominant over green and second is shape of
their pattern of inheritance in humans. the seed where round seed is dominant over
(b) Write the genotypes of the normal parents wrinkled seed. [1]
producing a haemophilic son. 6. Alternate form of the same gene is called an
[ALL INDIA 2015] allele. For example T is a gene which determines
27. State and explain the “law of independent length of a plant. An allele of T is t hence, t is
assortment” in a typical Mendelian dihybrid an allele of T or vice-versa. [1]
cross. [DELHI 2017] 7. To find genotype of a pea plant bearing violet
28. (a) Write the scientific name of the organism flower, test cross technique is used. [1]
Thomas Hunt Morgan and his colleagues 8.
worked with for their experiments. Explain
the correlation between linkage and Male heterogamety Female heterogamety
recombination with respect to genes as It is condition in It is condition in
studied by them. which males produce which females of some
(b) How did Sturtevant explain gene mapping two different types of organisms produce
while working with Morgan?
gametes- gamete with two different types of
[ALL INDIA 2017]
29. Describe the mechanism of pattern of inheritance X-chromosome and gametes- gamete with
of ABO blood groups in humans. gametes withY-chro- Z-chromosome and
[ALL INDIA 2011] mosome. gametes with W-chro-
mosome.
blood cells whereas IA, IB code for sugar A and

Examples are human Examples are bird
sugar B of the plasma membrane respectively.
males. females.
[1+1]
13. (a) The appearance of pink flowers is not
known as blending because pink it is not
the mixture of red and white color but
because of the fact that dominant allele is
not completely dominant over the recessive
trait. [1]
[½x4=2] (b) This phenomenon known as incomplete
9. TT tt [1+1] dominance. [1]
(Tall plant) (Dwarf plant) 14. The best example of both to explain the
T T t t phenomena of co-dominance and multiple
allelism in human population is ABO blood
T T group. In human gene ‘I’ control ABO blood
t Tt Tt groups in humans. Gene ‘I’ consist of three allele
t Tt Tt
:i, IA, IB,( example of multiple allelism), in which
F1 generation
Sclfing IA, IB are dominant over i. At the same time,
T t IA, IB are co-dominant means both expressed
T TT Tt in the presence of each other(example of co-
t Tt tt dominance). [1+1]
10. It is an example of incomplete determinant. [2] 15. The scientific name of the fruit-fly is Drosophila
Parents Red flower White flower melanogaster. Three reasons Morgan prefer to
Genotypes RR rr work with fruit-flies for his experiments are:
(i) Fruitfly have short life cycle of two weeks
Gametes R r (ii) Easy to grow in laboratory.
(iii) Single mating produce multiple progeny.
F1 generation Rr (All pink [1+1]
colour flowers) 16. Linkage is the phenomenon where two or more
11. (i) genes are so close to each other that they are
Tt tt. inherited together whereas crossing over is
T t the phenomenon where two or more genes
get separated from each other during meiosis
t Tt tt
– I by exchange of chromosomal material. In
t Tt tt Drosophila, yellow bodied white eyed female
[1] was crossed with brown bodies red eyed male, F2
(ii) Test cross is carried out in this question [1] generation does not have Mendel 9:3:3:1 ratio as
12. In human gene ‘I’ controls ABO blood group.
eye color and body color genes are closely present
Gene ‘I’ consist of three alleles :i, IA, IB, in which
on the X chromosome and inherited together due
IA, IB are dominant over i. At the same time,
to linkage. [1+1]
IA, IB are co-dominant implying that both are
expressed in the presence of each other. If the 17. In dominance, one trait is completely dominant
genotype of the person is IAIB, then the blood over other trait which is recessive trait whereas
group of the offspring will be AB, whereas if the in co-dominance, both the traits are dominant
genotype of the person is IA, IA, then the blood no one is recessive trait. Incomplete dominance
group of the off spring will be A, If the genotype is the condition where trait is not completely
of the person is IB, IB then the blood group of the dominant over the other trait. [3]
off spring will be B, If the genotype of the person 18. (a) In human gene ‘I’ control ABO blood groups.
is ii, then the blood group of the off spring will be Gene ‘I’ consist of three allele :i, IA, IB, in
O. Human gene ‘I’ controls the structure of red which IA, IB are dominant over i. That is why
blood cells is this way: allele i does not code for human ABO blood group is an example of
any sugar of the plasma membrane of the red multiple alleles. [1]
(b) white (w) is recessive trait. In a test cross,

Parents Father Mother the unknown dominant genotype is crossed
IB IB IA IA with recessive parent. Test cross determines
whether the dominant character is inherited
B A from homozygous dominant genotype (PP) or
Gametes I I
heterozygous genotype (Pw). [½]
1. When an F1 hybrid is crossed with its
F1 generation A
I I
B
homozygous recessive parent. (Pw X ww).
Blood Group AB P w
[1]
As, I , I are both dominant over i. This pattern
A B
of inheritance is called as co-dominance. [1] w Pw ww

19. Three reasons for the delay in accepting his work
are:
(i) Mendel’s concept of “gene” as discrete units
were not accepted by the scientist of that w Pw ww
time. [1]
(ii) Lack of communication of Mendel’s work to [1]
other part of the World. [1] If the progeny obtained consist of 50% purple
(iii) As, Mendel explained all the biological and 50% white means the purple flower is
inheritance pattern and concept with the heterozygous.
help of Maths, this thing was not accepted 2. Dominant purple is crossed with recessive
by the scientist of that time. [1] white flower. (PP X ww).
20. Women are not responsible for producing female P P
children. Both girl and boy child should be equally
important for the family. Women have 22 pairs
of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosome. w Pw Pw
Human female have one pair of X chromosome.
Human males have 22 pairs of autosomes and
one pair of sex chromosome. Human male have
w Pw Pw
one X chromosome and one Y chromosome. The
sex of an individual is determined by the type of
[1]
chromosome present in the child. If the children
If all flower (100%) obtained are purple, it
is carrying XX , then the child is female whereas
means the purple flower Plant is homozygous
if the children is carrying XY, then the child is
for dominant allele.
male. As, Y chromosome is always given by male
23. Pea plants with similar alleles are homozygotes.
gamete, hence, Women should not be blamed for
For tall plant (TT) and for dwarf plant (tt). Pea
producing female children. [3]
plant with dissimilar alleles are heterozygote
21. Pedigree analysis done in the study of human
(Tt) tall plant. The given condition is possible
genetics because it provides a method through
only when a heterozygous pea plant is crossed
which one can study the inheritance of a specific
with dwarf pea plant. This cross can be
trait. Since central crosses are not possible in
represented as follows: [1]
humans. So only way to final out the inheritance
T t
pattern is by studying existing families. As,
some diseases are inherited from the parents,
t Tt tt
pedigree analysis is very important to find out
Female
such disease inheritance pattern. [1½] gametes
(i) It is used to find sex linked disorder. [½]
t Tt tt
(ii) It is used to find whether the trait is
dominant or recessive. [½] [1]
(iii) It is used to find Mendelian pattern of Tall plants (Tt) =2 and Dwarf pea plants = 2.
inheritance. [½] Hence tall and dwarf plant in equal ratio. [1]
22. The cross which will help find the genotype 24. Sickle cell anaemia is an autosomal recessive trait
of given pea plants is the Test cross. In disease than can be transmitted from parents to
this case purple flower (P) is dominant and the offspring when both the partners are carrier
for the gene. The disease is controlled by a single Inheritance pattern of thalassemia: It is an
pair of allele which are HbA and HbS. Out of three autosomal, recessively inherited blood disorder.
possible genotypes only homozygous individuals
It can be transmitted to the offspring when both
(HbSHbS) show the diseased phenotype while
heterozygous (HbAHbS) individuals are carrier parents are heterozygous.
of the disease. [2] Carrier Carrier
A father mother
Hb Hb
B
R r R r
A A A B
Hb
A
Hb Hb Hb Hb
gametes
Female
Normal Carrier R R R r R r r r
Unaffected Carrier Carrier Affected
B
Hb A
Hb HbB
B
Hb Hb
B
son daughter son daughter [1]
Carrier Affected [1] Inheritance pattern of haemophilia: This is a
25. The genetic basis of blood grouping in human sex-linked recessive disease. Gene is present
is done by codominance in which two genes
on the X-chromosome. It shows criss-cross
expressed together for a particular character
in F1 hybrid progeny. There is no blending of inheritance. The carrier female transmit
characters. In humans blood is ABO type. Blood the disease to sons. The haemophilic father
groups are determined by gene called ’I’. It has
transmits the haemophilic gene to daughter.
three alleles, namely IA, IB and i. IA and IB are
dominant alleles and i is recessive allele. Then But the possibility of a female becoming a
the possible phenotypes are: A, B, AB, and O. [2] haemophilic is extremely rare.
Table Showing the Genetic Basis of Blood
Grouping in Human Population:
Blood Antigen(s) Anti- Genotype
group present on body(s) (s)
the red blood in the
cells serum
A A antigen Anti-B IAIA or IAi
B B antigen Anti-A IBIB or IBi
AB A antigen None IA IB
and B anti-
gen
O None Anti-A ii [1]
and
Anti-B
[1+1+1]
26. (a) Thalassemia and haemophilia are Mendelian
disorders which is caused by alteration
or mutation in the single gene. Their
transmission to the offspring follows the
principle of inheritance. Thalassemia is an
autosomal linked recessive blood disorder
characterised by defect in α or β chain
of haemoglobin resulting in abnormal
haemoglobin molecule. Symptoms of
thalassemia are anaemia, jaundice, cardiac
[1]
enlargement and skeletal deformities.
Haemophilia is a sex-linked recessive (b) The genotype of the parents producing
disorder and the recessive gene present a haemophilic son should be a carrier
on X-chromosome. Symptoms include
mother (XhX) and normal father (XY) for
symptoms includes increased clotting time,
non stop bleeding, non-stop bleeding on a haemophilic gene. [1]
minor cut or injury. [1]
Carrier female
h
Normal male 28. (a) Thomas Hunt Morgan and his colleagues
XY XY
worked on Drosophila, a fruit fly. The
Segregation
scientific name is Drosophila melanogaster.
X Xh X Y
Fertilization Morgan did several experiments on
XX Xh X XY XhY
Normal Carrier Normal Haemophiliac Drosophila to study the sex-linked genes.
daughter daughter son son
In one such experiment, he crossed yellow-
Fig.: Haemophilic son of normal parents
bodied, white-eyed flies with brown-bodied,
27. Mendel’s law of independent assortment states
that allele pairs separate independently during red-eyed ones. The resultant F2 ratio he
the gamete formation. This means that traits are got was the deviation from the typical
transmitted to offspring independently of one
Mendelian dihybrid ratio of 9:3:3:1. From
another. Alleles do not mix or blend. A typical
dihybrid cross between tall plant with round the result Morgan suggested that this was
seeds (TTRR) and dwarf plant with wrinkled due to the phenomenon called linkage. He
seeds (ttrr). Tall plant with round seeds is found that the genes for both characters
dominant over dwarf plant with wrinkle seeds.
In F2 generation four types of phenotypes are were present on the X- chromosome. When
formed. Tall plant with round seeds, tall plants two genes are present close to each other on
with wrinkled seeds, dwarf plants with round the same chromosome, then they tend to get
seeds and dwarf plants with wrinkled seeds
inherited together. The chances of formation
in the ratio 9:3:3:1 respectively. Appearance
of tall plants with wrinkled seeds and dwarf of new recombination are very less. Morgan
plants with round seeds proves that allele pairs named this phenomenon ‘linkage’. Thus,
separate independently. [3]
Tall plant with Dwarf plant with it can be stated that higher the linkage
round seeds wrinkle seeds between two genes, lesser are the chances
Parent TTRR ttrr
of recombination [3]
(b) Alfred Sturtevant was the student of Morgan.
TR
He studied The frequency of recombination
Gametes tr
between gene pairs on the same chromosome
and used it as a measurement of the distance
F1 Offspring TtRr
between genes and ‘mapped’ their position
All tall plants with round seeds on the chromosome. Today genetic maps are
extensively used as a starting point in the
Selfing [1]
sequencing of whole genomes. [2]
Female gametes
Male gametes 29. In human gene ‘I’ control ABO blood groups in
TR Tr tR tr
humans. Gene ‘I’ consists of three allele :i, IAIB,
TTRR TTRr TtRr TtRr
TR Talk round Talk round Talk round Talk round in which IA and IB are dominant over i. At the
TTRr TTrr TtRr Ttrr same time, IA, IB are co-dominant means both
Tr
Talk round Talk wrinkled Talk round Talk wrinkled
expressed in the presence of each other. If the
TtRR TtRr ttRR ttRr
tR
Talk round Talk round Dwarf round Dwarf round genotype of the person is IAIB, then the blood
TtRr Ttrr ttRr ttrr group of the off spring will be AB, If the genotype
tr Talk round Talk wrinkled Dwarf round Dwarf wrinkled
of the person is IAIA, then the blood group of the
[1] off spring will be A, If the genotype of the person
Phenotypes plants: is IB, IB then the blood group of the off spring will
Tall round : Tall wrinkle : Dwarf Round : Dwarf
wrinkle be B, If the genotype of the person is ii, then the
9 : 3 : 3 : 1 blood group of the off spring will be O. [5]
30. (a) 31. Single gene controls the size of starch grain and
YY X YY seed shape of Pisum sativum.
yellow green Parents BB X bb
Big Round Small Wrinkled
Gametes B b
Yy – F1 Bb x Bb (selfed)
yellow F1
Gametes B b B b
selfed
Y y
BB Bb Bb bb
BB Intermediate Small
Round size + round Wrinkled
YY Yy
Y yellow yellow Fig.: Monohybrid cross between Pisum sativum
starch grains [3]
F2 In this monohybrid cross, we can see trait of
seed size is not following Mendel law as Bb is
Yy yy coding for intermediate trait. As, the cross is not
y yellow green following Mendel’s law of dominance, where one
trait is completely dominant over the recessive
trait. [2]
Fig.: Monohybrid cross [3] 32. (a) In human gene ‘I’ control ABO blood groups
(b) Law of dominance and law of segregation in humans. Gene ‘I’ consist of three allele :i,
can be derived from such a cross. [1] IA, IB, in which IA, IB are dominant over i.[2]
(b) (i) As, IA is dominant over i, the blood of
(c) Phenotypic ratio of monohybrid cross is
this person would be A
3 : 1. Dihybrid cross the phenotypic ratio is (ii) As, ii is present, this individual will
9 : 3 : 3 : 1. [1] have O blood group. [3]
[Topic 2] Sex-Determination and Genetic Disorders

Summary • 50% of them carry X chromosome while the other
50% carry Y chromosome. In female, only one
Sex Determination kind of gamete or ovum carrying X chromosome
only is produced.
The genes which were linked to sexes named as sex-
• If the sperm which carry X chromosome fertilizes
linked genes. It was found out that both the sexes have
the egg, then the sex of the baby is female while if
a set of common chromosomes and a set of different the one carrying Y chromosome fertilizes the egg,
chromosomes. The different chromosomes were called the sex of the baby is male.
the sex chromosomes and the other set as autosomes. Sex determination in Human beings
In many insects mammals (including man) XY type PARENTS: FATHER MOTHER
XY XX
of sex determination is observed in which both the
sexes carry same number of chromosomes.
GAMETE X Y X X
Sex Determination in Humans (Reproductive cells)
• There are total 23 pairs of chromosomes in Zygote

humans and 22 of them are exactly same and formed
after fusion XX XX XY XY
known as autosomes. In females, a pair of X of gametes FEMALE FEMALE MALE MALE
chromosomes is present while XY in male. Two 50% probability 50% probability
offspring
types of gametes or sperms are produced by male of a female child of a male child
during spermatogenesis. Fig.: Sex determination in human beings
Sex Determination in honey-bee  Sickle-cell anaemia: It is a recessive trait that

can be transmitted from parents to the offspring
(Haplodiploid sex-determination when both the partners are carrier for the gene
 Phenylketunuria: In this, the affected individual
system) lacks an enzyme responsible for converting amino
• The males possess half the number of chromosomes acid phenylalanine into tyrosine.
than that of a female. The females are diploid  Thalassemia: It is an autosome linked recessive
having 32 chromosomes and males are haploid
blood disease inherited by the offspring when
having 16 chromosomes.
both the parents are unaffected carrier for the
• The sex determination in a honey bee is based on gene. The defect is due to deletion or mutation.
the number of sets an individual gets. Abnormal haemoglobin is formed which results
• A female is developed when there is a union of a into anaemia.
sperm and an egg.  Color blindness: The defect is due to mutation
• A male is formed by parthenogenesis from an in certain genes present in the X chromosome. It
unfertilized egg. is a sex-linked recessive disorder which is due to
Female Male defect in either red or green cone of eye resulting
Parents 32 16
in failure to discriminate between red and green
Meiosis Mitosis color.
• Chromosomal Disorders: The absence or
Gametes: 16 16 16 excess of one or more than one chromosomes or
their abnormal arrangement is the cause of this
F1 : Male Female disorder. They are transmitted as the affected
16 32 individual is sterile. Their nature is always
Fig.: Haplodiploid sex determination system dominant. The loss or gain of chromosome due to
the failure of segregation of chromatids during
Mutation: A change in the genetic material is known
cell division is known as aneuploidy. Two sets of
as mutation. The result of this phenomenon is that chromosome called polyploidy are led due to the
it alters the DNA sequence and thus the change in failure of cytokinesis.
the genotype and phenotype of an organism. If the
Down’s syndrome, Klinefleter’s syndrome and
mutation is due to the change in single base pair of
Turner’s syndrome are examples of chromosomal
DNA, then it is called the point mutation.
disorders.
Genetic Disorders: Genetic disorders may be  Down syndrome: The retardation in mental
grouped into Mendelian disorders and Chromosomal development is the result of Down’s syndrome.
disorders. The presence of additional copy of the chromosome
• Pedigree Analysis: The attribute analysis in number 21 is the cause of it.
a several of generations of a family is known as  Klinefleter’s syndrome: The reason of
pedigree analysis. In this analysis, family tree Klinefleter’s syndrome is the presence of an
over generations represents the inheritance of additional copy of X-chromosome. Persons affected
particular trait. It is useful in tracing the inheritance from it are sterile.
of a particular trait, disease and abnormality.  Turner’s syndrome: The person’s having Turner’s
• Mendelian Disorders: Alteration in a single syndrome lack secondary sexual characters. The
gene is responsible for Mendelian disorders. absence of one of the X chromosome is the cause
Through the Mendelian principles of inheritance, of Turner’s syndrome.
these are transmitted into generations. Their
nature may be either dominant or recessive. Color
blindness and pheffykenonia are the examples of
Mendelian disorders. It also includes haemophilia PREVIOUS YEARS’
(sex linked recessive disease), sickle cell anemia
(an autosome linked recessive trait) and EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
phenylketonuria (an inborn error of metabolism
inherited as autosomal recessive trait).
TOPIC 2
 Haemophilia: In this, a single protein that 1 Mark Questions
is a part of the cascade of proteins involved in 1. Indiscrimate diagnostic practices using X-rays
the clotting of blood is affected which results in etc., should be avoided. Give one reason.
nonstop bleeding in case of a simple cut. [DELHI 2015]
2 Marks Questions 3. Female as have two X chromosomes, so it is

2. Write the types of sex-determination mechanisms very unlikely that mutation takes place in both
the following crosses show? Give an example of the alleles on both X chromosome. i.e., this is
each controlled by repressive genes. Hence it has to
(i) Female XX with Male XO be homozygous for its expression. Hence, human
(ii) Female ZW with Male ZZ [DELHI 2014] females rarely haemophilic. The individuals
suffering from this disorder face the problem of
3 Marks Questions blood clotting and coagulation. [3]
3. Why are human females rarely haemophilic? 4. Color blindness is a sex linked disorder. The gene
Explain. How do haemophilic patients suffer? for this disease is present on X chromosome.
[ALL INDIA 2013] Hence, if a colour blind child is born to a normal
4. A colour blind child is born to a normal couple. couple, then the mother should be a carrier. [1]
Work out a cross to show how it is possible. Parents XX
c
XY
Mention the sex of this child. [DELHI 2014] Carrier Normal
5. Explain the mechanism of ‘sex determination’
Gametes Xc X X Y
in birds. How does it differ from that of human
beings? [DELHI 2018]
5 Marks Questions
c
F1 Generation X X XY XcY XX
Carrier Normal Colour Normal
6. A child suffering from Thalassemia is born to be Female Female blind Female [2]
a normal couple. But the mother is being blamed 5. The sex chromosomes in birds are denoted as Z
by the family for delivering a sick baby.
and W. In birds, males are homogametic having
(a) What is Thalassemia?
a pair of ZZ chromosomes besides autosomes
(b) How would you counsel the family not to
(AA). Whereas female birds are heterogametic.
blame the mother for delivering a child
One Z chromosome and one W chromosome
suffering from this disease? Explain.
(c) List the values your counselling can besides autosomes. Therefore, in case of birds,
propogate in the families. [DELHI 2013] the sex is determined by the egg and not by the
7. (a) Explain the mechanism of sex-determination sperm. [1]
Male Female
in humans. Parents AA+ZZ AA+ZW
(b) Differentiate between male heterogamety
and female heterogamety with the help of
Gametes A+Z A+Z A+Z A+W
an example of each. [ALL INDIA 2013]
8. Why is haemophilia generally observed in
Offspring AA+ZZ AA+ZZ AA+ZW AA+ZW
human males? Explain the conditions under
which a human female can be haemophilic. Male Male Female [1]
Female
[ALL INDIA 2011] In humans, sex are determined by XX and XY

chromosomes. Males are heterogametic having
Solutions
X and Y sex chromosomes and females are
1. X-rays are electromagnetic radiations that
homogametic having XX sex chromosomes.
may cause mutation. The mutations can
Therefore, sex in humans is determined by
alter the genetic make-up of an organisation.
sperm unlike as in birds. [1]
Therefore, indiscriminate use of X-rays should
6. (a) Thalassemia occurs due to the gene deletion
be avoided. [1]
2. (i) Female XX with Male XO: this is the sex responsible for the formation of alpha and
determination found in grasshopper and beta chain of hemoglobin. It is an autosomal
known as heterogamety as females have two recessive disorder. [2]
pairs of X chromosome and male have only (b) The mother is blamed for delivering a child
one X chromosome. [1] suffering from this disease, should not be
(ii) Female ZW with Male ZZ: this is the sex so blamed because as Thalassemia is a
determination found in birds and known autosomal recessive disorder, and the gene
as heterogamety as female have one Z responsible for the formation of alpha nad
chromosome and one W chromosome and beta chain of hemoglobin is not present on
male have two pairs of Z chromosome. [1] the sex chromosome. [2]
(c) Values propagated are awareness, respect chromosome is same inboth males and
towards women and deeper understanding females. But two different types of gametes in
of Biology. [1] terms of the sex chromosomes, are produced
7. (a) Women have 22 pairs of autosomes and one by females, i.e., female heterogamety (ZW).
pair of sex chromosome. Human female have In these organisms the females have one
one pair of X chromosome. Human males Z and one W chromosome, whereas males
have 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of have a pair of Z-chromosomes besides the
sex chromosome. Human males have one X autosomes. [2]
chromosome and one Y chromosome. The 8. Haemophilia is a defect of the blood that prevent
sex of an individual is determined by the it from the clotting. The affected person bleed
type of chromosome present in the child. If excessively at the time of injury. Haemophilia
the child is carrying XX , then the child is is generally observed in human males because
female whereas if the child is carrying XY, it is a sex linked recessive disorder as it is
then the child is male. As, Y chromosome is caused due to the presence of recessive gene on
always given by male gamete. [3] X chromosome. Man has one X chromosome. The
(b) There are two types of sex determining gene responsible for causing haemophilia, being
mechanisms, i.e., XO type and XY type. In located on X chromosome, produces this defect
both mechanism, males produce two gametes, because there is no homologue of this gene on
(a) either with or without X-chromosome the Y chromosome to check its expression.
or (b) some gametes with X-chromosome Women have 2 X chromosome. Hence, for
and some with Y-chromosome. Such types human females to be haemophilic, it is required
of sex determination is called as male that both X chromosomes have a gene for
heterogamety. In other mechanism, of haemophilia. [5]
sex determination the total number of
CHAPTER 6
Molecular Basis of
Inheritance

Search for genetic 1Q
material and DNA as (5 marks),
genetic material
Structure of DNA and 1Q 1Q 1Q 1Q 1Q
RNA; DNA packaging, (2 marks), (2 marks), (2 marks) (5 marks) (1 marks)
DNA replication 1Q 1Q
(3 marks) (5 marks),
Central dogma, 1Q 1Q 1Q
Transcription, genetic (3 marks) (2 marks) (2 marks)
code, translation
Gene expression and 1Q 1Q
regulation - Lac Operon (3 marks) (5 marks)
Genome and human 1Q 1Q
ganeome project, DNA (5 marks) (3 marks)
fingerprinting
On the basis of above analysis, it can he said that from exam point of view the concepts
DNA Fingerprinting, Genetic Code, Human Genome Project , Transcription, Recombinant
DNA Technology are most important concepts of the chapter.
6.56 CHAPTER 6 : Molecular Basis of Inheritance
[Topic 1] The DNA & RNA World
Summary structure of DNA given by James Watson and

Francis Crick. In the model two polynucleotide
There are two types of nucleic acids found in living chains are coiled together in a right-handed
organisms, DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA fashion. The model is known as Double Helix model.
(Ribonucleic acid). They are the building blocks of
 Links of sugar and phosphate together acts like a
genetic material. Apart from some viruses, whose
backbone.
RNA is the genetic material; mostly DNA is the
 Hydrogen bonds between Adenine (A) and
genetic material in all the organisms. RNA functions
Thymine (T) & Guanine (G) and Cytosine (C)
as a messenger.
keeps the two strands together.
DNA  A and T are linked by two hydrogen bonds (A = T)
Deoxyribonucleic acid also called as DNA is a long whereas G and C are linked by three hydrogen
polymer of deoxyribonucleotides. The number of bonds (G ≡ C).
nucleotides define the length of DNA.  One chain has polarity of 5’ → 3’ and the other
• Structure of Polynucleotide Chain: chain has polarity of 3’ → 5’ which means the two
 Polymers of nucleotides are called as Polynucle- chains have anti-parallel polarity.
H
otides. DNA and RNA are polynucleotides. 5' P
| H
| H H
C C |
P |
 Nucleotide comprises of – a nitrogenous base, a |
H |
H
P C
| P C
OH
3'
H |
pentose sugar (ribose in RNA, and deoxyribose in H
A T
DNA) and a phosphate group. G C
 Types of nitrogenous bases are- Purines and py- hydrogen

rimidines. T A
C G
bonds
 Purine comprises of Adenine (A) and Guanine (G). HO

H
| H
| H
C P | H
Cytosine (C), Thymine (T) and Uracil (U) comprise 3' |
H
C
|
P C
|
P |
C P
H | 5'
Pyrimidine. H H
 N- glycosidic linkage links pentose sugar to a ni- Fig.: Double stranded polynucleotide chain
trogenous base to form a nucleoside.  There are approximately 10 base pairs in each
 Nucleosides in RNA-Adenosine, Gua- turn and the pitch of the helix is 3.4 nm. So, the
nosine, Cytidine and Uridine. distance between a base pair is approximately
Nucleosides in DNA-Deoxyadenosine, Deoxygua- 0.34 nm.
nosine, Deoxycytidine and Deoxythymidine.
 The ratio of Adenine-Thymine & Guanine-
 Nucleoside along with phosphate group, which
Cytosine is constant for a given species.
gets attached at 5’-OH, forms corresponding Nu-
cleotide. • Packaging of DNA Helix:
 3’-5’ Phosphodiester bond links two nucleotides  As DNA is negatively charged, so it is held in
and forms dinucleotide. Similarly other nucleo- region called ‘nucleoid’ with some proteins which
tides can be joined to form polynucleotide chain. are positively charged, in prokaryotes, like E. coli.
5' phosphate
H
| H H
 In eukaryotes, the positively charged protein is
C | H 3' hydroxyl
P
| P C
| P
|
C |
C | basic in nature and is called as Histones. It is
H | P OH
H |
H H rich in amino acid residues, lysines and arginines.
T
A
A T They both carry positive charge in their side
Fig.: 5’ phosphate chains.
• Structure of DNA:  Histone octamer is a complex formed when
 DNA was identified in 1869 by Friedrich Meischer histones organize to form a unit of eight molecules.
who called it “Nuclein”.  The structure formed when a negatively charged
 On the basis of X-ray diffraction data given by DNA is wrapped around histone octamer is called
Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin, the nucleosome.
CHAPTER 6 : Molecular Basis of Inheritance 6.57
DNA H1 histone biochemicals, such as proteins, DNA, RNA etc.

from the heat killed S cells.
 The discovery made from their experiment
involved that:
Histone - Proteins and RNA were digested using
octamer proteases and RNases, but this did not affect
transformation. They inferred that transforming
substance was not a protein or RNA.
- DNA was digested with help of DNases and
Core of histone molecules this inhibited transformation. From this they
Fig.: Nucleosome concluded that DNA was the reason behind
• Nucleosome: transformation of R-cells to S-cells.
 A nucleosome comprises of generally 200 bp.  Hence, DNA was considered the ‘transforming
 It constitutes the repeating unit to form a principle’.
structure called Chromatin. • The Hershey-Chase Experiment:
 Chromatins are packaged to form chromatin  Experiment done by Alfred Hershey and Martha
fibers which are further coiled and condensed to Chase in 1952 with bacteriophages, also proved
form chromosome at metaphase. that DNA is the genetic material.
 Types of chromatins in nucleus- Euchromatin and  Some viruses were allowed to grow on a medium
Heterochromatin. that contained radioactive phosphorus (P-32) and
Euchromatins are transcriptionally active part some others on medium that contained radioactive
of chromatin which are loosely packed. Whereas, sulphur (S-35).
heterochromatin is inactive part of chromatin and  E. coli bacteria were infected which radioactive
are densely packed. phages, after which the cells were agitated gently
and then the culture was centrifuged to separate
The Search for Genetic Material virus particles from bacteria.
• Transforming principle:  It was found that:
 In 1928, Frederick Griffith used Streptococcus - Bacteria infected with viruses that had
pneumoniae and mice for his experiment. radioactive DNA were radioactive, showing that
 Streptococcus pneumoniae bacteria were allowed DNA was the genetic material that passed from
to grow on a culture plate. Some of them produced the virus to the bacteria.
rough colonies (R) while others produced smooth - Bacteria infected with viruses that had
shiny colonies (S). This is because the S strain radioactive proteins were not radioactive.
bacteria has a polysaccharide mucous coating  They concluded that DNA is the genetic material.
whereas R strain does not have the coating.
 When S strain was injected into mice, it died.
Whereas when R strain was injected in mice, it
survived.
 When heat killed S-strain was injected into mice,
it survived. However, when heat killed S-strain
along with R- strain was injected into mice, it died.
 The conclusion made from this experiment
was that, that some transforming principle’ got
transferred to R-strain from the heat-killed S
strain. This might have enabled synthesize of
smooth polysaccharide coat in the R strain and
made them virulent. This must be due to the
transfer of the genetic material.
• Biochemical Characterization of
transforming principle:
 The biochemical nature of ‘transforming principle’
in Griffith’s experiment was given by Colin
MacLeod, Maclyn McCarty and Oswald Avery.
 They used suitable enzymes to purify the Fig.: The Hershey-Chase Experiment
• Properties of Genetic Material: which resulted in 15N being incorporated into

A molecule needs to possess following characteristics newly synthesized DNA and made it heavier.
Then the cells were transferred into a medium
to be a genetic material-
with 14NH4Cl, which also got incorporated in
 The molecule should be stable, structurally as
both strands of DNA which made it lighter.
well as chemically.
 The samples were studied at different time
 There should be scope of slow changes which
intervals. After 20 minutes when 15N had trans-
result in mutation which is essential for evolution.
ferred to 14N, the sample was isolated and cent-
 It should be able to replicate itself and create its rifuged. Its density came out to be intermediate
replica by the process of Replication. between 14N DNA and 15N DNA.
 It should possess the property to express itself as  In the next generation, i.e. after 40 minutes, the
‘Mendelian Characters’. DNA extract was composed of equal amount of
• DNA v/s RNA hybrid DNA and of ‘light’ DNA.
DNA RNA Generation I Generation II
15
N-DNA 14 N-DNA 14
N-DNA
Chemically less reactive. Chemically more
15
N-DNA 15
N-DNA
reactive. 20 min 40 min 14
N-DNA
Gravitational force
Structurally more stable. Structurally less stable. 14
N-DNA
Less prone to mutation. Prone to mutation.

15
N15N 14
N15N 14
N14N 14N15N
Better for storage of Not good for storage due Heavy Hybrid Light Hybrid
genetic material. to instability.
Fig.: Separation of DNA by Centrifugation
Not suitable for Better for transmission
• The Machinery and the Enzymes for
transmission of genetic of genetic material.
replication:
material.
 DNA replication begins at a point called origin. In
Depends on RNA for Can directly code for this process both the strands unwind and Helicase
protein synthesis. protein synthesis. enzyme break hydrogen bond between both the
Double stranded. Single stranded. strands. The structure formed by breaking of bond
and unwinding of strand is called as ‘replication fork’.
RNA  The process of DNA replication can be done
RNA or ribonucleic acid is a single stranded structure only in 5’ → 3’ direction. In presence of enzyme
which is folded back upon itself forming helices. primase, a small RNA primer is synthesized and
Nitrogenous bases of RNA are same as DNA except then in presence of DNA Polymerase nucleotides
that it has uracil in place of thymine. It acts as genetic join with one another to primer strand and result
in polynucleotide chain.
material for various viruses. RNA was the genetic
 The replication is continuous on strand in which
material in early life forms after which it went into
the template had polarity of 3’ → 5’ whereas it is
chemical modifications and evolved into DNA.
discontinuous over 5’ → 3’. DNA ligase helps in
DNA Replication joining the discontinuous fragments.
5' 3'
It is the process of copying of DNA from the parent
DNA. Watson and Crick proposed semi-conservative
model of DNA replication. The model suggests the
separation of two strands would and synthesis the
Template DNA
new complementary strands by acting as a template.
(parental strands)
Once the replication is completed, each DNA
molecule is left with one newly synthesized and one 5'
Continuous 3' Discontinuous
parental strand each. This scheme was termed as
synthesis synthesis
semi-conservative DNA replication.
• The Experimental Proof:
 In 1958, Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl
3' Newly synthesized 5'
performed an experiment to show that DNA
5' strands 3'
replicates semi conservatively.
 E. Coli was grown in medium containing 15NH4Cl Fig.: Replicating Fork
Transcription  RNA polymerase follows the rule of

complementarity where it uses nucleoside
Transcription refers to the process of duplicating the
triphosphates as substrate and it is then
genetic data from one strand of the DNA into RNA.
polymerized into a template.
Here also, the principle of complementarily governs
 It also helps helix to open up and keep on
the process of transcription, except the adenosine
elongating.
now forms base pair with uracil instead of thymine.
• Transcription Unit:  Enzyme is bound to a small part of RNA. Now the
polymerase reaches the terminator region.
There are three main regions in a transcription unit
 The last phase is termination of transcription
in DNA, which are as follows:
where the nascent RNA lowers down.
 In a transcription unit, the promoter and
terminator are found along with structural gene.
 The promoter is said to be located towards 5’ –end
(upstream) of the structural gene (the reference is
made with respect to the polarity of coding strand).
 A DNA sequence helps in providing the binding
site for RNA polymerase, and the template and
coding strands are defined by the presence of a
promoter.
 The explanation of coding and template strands
can be switched by changing the position with
terminator.
 The terminator defines the end of the process of
transcription. Fig.: Process of Transcription in Bacteria
Transcription start site
• Complexities in Eukaryotes:
Promoter Structural
gene
Template Terminator
strand
3' 5'  There exist non-functional exons and introns
5' 3' in the primary transcripts. Now, the exons
Coding strand are arranged in a set order and the introns are
Fig.: Schematic structure of a transcription unit removed and this process is known as splicing.
• Gene and the Transcription Unit: hnRNA goes through a process known as capping
 A gene is considered as the functional unit of where an unusual nucleotide is added to 5’ end
inheritance. Genes can also be called as DNA of hnRNA. It goes through another process called
sequence coding for tRNA or rRNA molecules. tailing in which adenylate residues (200-300) are
 Segment of DNA which codes for a polypeptide added at 3’- end.
is called as cistron. There are two types of the  There exist three RNA polymerases in the nucleus.
structural gene in a transcription unit: The RNA polymerase I, II and III transcribes
- Monocistronic: It is found in eukaryotes, where rRNAs, precursor of mRNA and tRNA, 5S rRNA,
the coding sequence or exons are split and are and snRNAs, respectively.
interrupted by introns, the intervening sequence
5' 5'
- Polycistronic: It is found in bacteria or
3' 3'
prokaryotes, where there’s no split genes.
• Types of RNA:
3' m RNA
 Bacteria have three types of RNAs: mRNA, tRNA Capping mCap Intron
and rRNA also known as messenger, transfer and GPPP
ribosomal RNAs respectively. Exon RNA splicing Polydenylation
 They are required for synthesizing a protein in a cell.
m
G 3'
5' PPP
 The mRNA provides the template, tRNA brings Poly A tail
m
amino acids and reads the genetic code, and rRNAs GPPP
5'
play structural and catalytic role during translation. m
3'
• Process of transcription: 5' GPPP
 The first phase is initiation where RNA polymerase Messenger RNA (m RNA)
holds on to promoter and starts transcription. Fig.: Process of transcription in Eukaryotes
3 Marks Questions
PREVIOUS YEARS’ 16. (a) D N A s e g m e n t h a s a t o t a l o f 1 0 0 0
nucleotides, out of which 240 of them
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS are adenine containing nucleotides. How
many pyrimidine bases this DNA segment
TOPIC 1 possesses?
(b) Draw a diagrammatic sketch of a portion of
1 Mark Questions DNA segment to support your answer.
1. Name the transcriptionally active region of
[DELHI 2015]
chromatin in a nucleus. [DELHI 2015]
17. Following the collision of two trains a large number
2. Retroviruses have no DNA. However, the DNA
of passengers are killed. A majority of them are
of the infected host cell does possess viral DNA.
beyond recognition. Authorities want to hand over
How is it possible? [ALL INDIA 2015]
the dead to their relatives. Name a modern scientific
3. Wr i t e t h e d u a l p u r p o s e s e r v e d b y
method and write the procedure that would help in
Deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates in
the identification of kinship. [DELHI 2015]
polymerisation? [DELHI 2018]
18. D e s c r i b e t h e e x p e r i m e n t , t h a t h e l p e d
4. Mention the role of the codons AUG and UGA
demonstrate the semi-conservative mode of
during protein synthesis. [DELHI 2011]
DNA replication. [DELHI 2016]
5. Name the enzyme and state its property that is
19. The base sequence in one of the strands of DNA
responsible for continuous and discontinuous
is TAGCATGAT
replication of the two strands of DNA
(i) Give the base sequence of its complementary
molecule. [DELHI 2013]
strand.
6. State the role of transposons in silencing of
(ii) How are the base pairs held together in a
mRNA in eukaryotic cells. [ALL INDIA 2013]
DNA molecule?
(iii) Explain the base complementarity rules.
2 Marks Questions Name the scientist who framed this rule.
7. How do histones acquire positive charge? [DELHI 2011]
[DELHI 2011] 20. (i) Name the enzyme that catalyses the
8. (a) Draw a neat labelled diagram of a nucleosome. transcription of hnRNA.
(b) Mention what enables histones to acquire a (ii) Why does the hnRNA need to undergo
positive charge. [DELHI 2012] changes? List the changes hnRNA undergoes
9. Draw a neat labelled sketch of a replicating fork and where in the cell such changes takes
of DNA. [ALL INDIA 2012] place. [ALL INDIA 2011]
10. (i) Name the scientist who suggested that the 21. Unambiguous, universal and degenerateare
genetic code should be made of a combination some of the terms used for the genetic code.
of the three nucleotides. Explain the salient features of each one of
(ii) Explain the basis on which he arrived at this them. [ALL INDIA 2011]
conclusion. [DELHI 2014] 22. List the salient features of double helix structure
11. Discuss the role the enzyme DNA ligase plays of DNA. [DELHI 2012]
during DNA replication. [DELHI 2016] 23. How are the structural genes activated in the
12. Following are the features of genetic codes. What lac operon in E. coli? [DELHI 2012]
does each one indicate? Stop codon; Unambiguous 24. Given below is the representation of amino acid
codon; Degenerate codon; Universal codon. composition of the relevant translated portion
[ALL INDIA 2016] of the beta chain of haemoglobin, related to the
13. Describe the structure of nucleosome. shape of human red blood cells.
[DELHI 2017] [ALL INDIA 2012]
14. Differentiate between the genetic codes given CTC
Gene
below: GAG
(a) Unambiguous and Universal
mRNA GAG
(b) Degenerate and Initiator
[ALL INDIA 2017]
15. Although a prokaryotic cell has no defined Val His Leu Thr Pro Glu Glu
nucleus, yet DNA is not scattered throughout
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
the cell. Explain. [DELHI 2018] HbA Peptide
(a) Is this representation indicating a normal 35. Describe Meselson and Stahl’s experiment
human or a sufferer from certain genetic that was carried in 1958 on E.Coli. Write
disease? Give reason in support of your the conclusion they arrived at after the
answer. experiment. [ALL INDIA 2016]
(b) What difference would be noticed in the 36. (a) Describe the process of transcription in
phenotype of the normal and the sufferer bacteria.
related to this gene? (b) Explain the processing the hnRNA needs to
(c) Who are likely to suffer more from the defect undergo before becoming functional mRNA
related to the gene represented - the males, in eukaryotes. [ALL INDIA 2016]
the females or both males and females 37. (a) Describe the structure and function of a
equally? And why? t-RNA molecule. Why is it referred to as an
25. Write the full form of VNTR. How is VNTR adapter molecule?
different from “probe”? [DELHI 2015] (b) Explain the process of splicing of hn-RNA in
a eukaryotic cell. [ALL INDIA 2017]
38. Write the different components of a lac-operon in
5 Marks Questions E. coli. Explain its expression while in an ‘open’
26. Describe Frederick Griffith’s experiment
state. [ALL INDIA 2017]
on Streptococcus pneumoniae. Discuss the
conclusion he arrived at. [DELHI 2012]
27. (a) Write the conclusion drawn by Griffith at Solutions
the end of his experiment with Streptococcus 1. The region of a chromatin which is active for
pneumoniae. transcription is euchromatin. [1]
(b) How did O. Avery, C. MacLeod and M. 2. Retroviruses have RNA as genetic material.
McCarty prove that DNA was the genetic Virus attacks the macrophage cells of the
material? Explain [ALL INDIA 2013] host body where the RNA of the virus reverse
28. (a) Explain the process of DNA replication with transcribes to form viral DNA with the help of
the help of schematic diagram. the reverse transcriptase enzyme. [1]
(b) In which phase of the cell cycle DNA 3. Deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates serve dual
replication occur in Eukaryotes. What would purposes. they act as substrate. They provide
not happen if cell division is not followed energy for polymerisation reaction. [1]
after DNA replication? [DELHI 2014] 4. AUG code for methionine that is the starting
29. (a) Describe the various steps of Griffith’s codon for protein synthesis from RNA whereas
experiment that led to the conclusion of the UGA is the termination codon for protein
‘Transforming Principle’. synthesis. [1]
(b) How did the chemical nature of the 5. The enzyme is DNA polymerase which is DNA
‘Transforming Principle’ get established? dependent. The property unique is that it
[DELHI 2014] catalyses the polymerisation in one direction
30. Describe how the lac operon operates, both in the which is 5’-→ 3’. Hence, this leads to the
presence and absence of an inducer in E.coli. replication of DNA in leading strand as continuous
[DELHI 2014] and lagging strand is discontinuous. [1]
31. How did Hershey and Chase established that 6. Transposon have the ability to jump from one
DNA is transferred from virus to bacteria? location to another in a genome that helps in
[DELHI 2015] gene silencing. [1]
32. How do m-RNA, t-RNA and ribosomes help in 7. As, histones mainly consist of positively charged
the process of translation? [ALL INDIA 2015] amino acids like lysine, arginine, hence in this
33. (a) How are the following formed and involved way histones acquire positive charge. [2]
in DNA packaging in a nucleus of a cell? 8. (a)
(i) Histone octomer DNA H1 histone
(ii) Nucleosome
(iii) Chromatin
Histone octamer
(b) Differentiate between Euchromatin and
Heterochromatin. [DELHI 2016]
34. Explain the role of lactose as an inducer in a lac Core of histone
operon. [DELHI 2016] molecules [1]
Fig.: Labelled diagram of a nucleosome
(b) As, histones mainly consist of positively 14. (a) Unambiguous and Universal
charged amino acids like lysine, arginine, Unambiguous: The code is specific. It means
hence in this way histones acquire positive one codon codes for only one amino acid.
charge. [1] Universal: The code which codes a particular
9. [2] amino acid is same in all organisms. [1]
n s 5'
SSB proteins ei 3' (b) Degenerate and Initiator:
rot
Bp Degenerate: when an amino acid is coded
SS Lagging stand
DNA Topos
pressure II by more than one codon, it is said to be
Replication fork
3' 5' movement degenerate.
5' 3' Initiator: AUG is an initiator codon which
DNA helicase Leading strand codes for the amino acid methionine. This
DNA polymerase II
5' initiates the translation process. [1]
3' 15. In prokaryotes, such as, E. coli, though they
Fig.: Neat labelled sketch of a do not have a defined nucleus, the DNA is not
replicating fork of DNA scattered throughout the cell. The nucleus is
10. (i) George Gamow is the name of the scientist called incipient nucleus in which DNA (being
who suggested that the genetic code should negatively charged) is held with some proteins
be made of a combination of the three (that have positive charges) in a region termed
nucleotides. [1] as ‘nucleoid’. The DNA in nucleoid is organised
(ii) According to him, if the codons consist of in large loops held by proteins. [2]
three amino acids, then only they would be 16. (a) According to Chargaff rule, Amount of
able to code for 20 amino acids. [1] Adenine (A) = Amount of Thymine (T) and
11. Role of DNA ligase during DNA replication:
Amount of Cytosine (C) =Amount of Guanine
(i) The enzyme DNA ligase joins or seals
(G).
discontinuous DNA fragments. [1]
Given is 240 of nucleotides are adenine, it
(ii) DNA ligase adds on nucleotide in the usual
5’ to 3’ direction along the DNA strand. [1] means therefore, same amount of thymine.
12. Stop codon: the codon which does not code for Total 1000 nucleotides are present
any amino acid, examples are UAA, UAG and So 1000 – (A + T) = amount of C + G
UGA. These codons terminate the synthesis 1000 – (240 + 240) = C + G
of polypeptide chain. Unambiguous codon: C + G = 620. It means C = 310 and G = 310
one codon codes for only one amino acid. Therefore, amount of pyrimidine in DNA =
Degenerative codon: some amino acids are coded T + C, 240 + 310 = 550 [1½]
by more than one codon. [1] (b) Diagrammatic sketch of a portion of DNA
Universal codon – the same genetic code codes segment:
for same amino acid across all living organisms
whether it is humans or bacteria. [1] Nucleotide
13. The negatively charged DNA is wrapped 3' 5'
Sugar-
around positively charged histone octomer to C G
phosphate
form a structure called nucleosome. A typical Backbone
nucleosome consist of 200 bp of DNA helix. It
A T
consist four type of proteins which occurs in
pairs: H2A, H2B, H3 and H4 [1]
DNA H1 histone G C
T A
Histone
octamer 5'
3'
Fig.: DNA double helix Fig.: Antiparallel DNA
Core of histone [1½]

molecules 17. DNA fingerprinting is the modern scientific
Fig.: Nucleosome [1] method used for the identification of kinship.
DNA Fingerprinting process can be carried out

in following steps:
I. Blood sample from taken from the dead
passengers, then DNA is extracted from
blood cells.
II. With the help of restriction enzymes DNA
is cut into fragments.
III. The DNA fragments are separated into
bands during electrophoresis in agarose gel.
IV. By southern blotting technique the DNA
band pattern in the gel is transferred to a
nylon membrane.
V. The radioactive DNA probe is prepared.
VI. The DNA probe binds to specific DNA
sequences on the membrane.
VII. Excess DNA probe is washed and the
radioactive probe is bound to the DNA
pattern on the membrane.
VIII.X –ray film is placed next to the membrane
to detect the radioactive pattern and the
X–ray film is developed to make visible the
pattern of bands which is known as a DNA
fingerprint. [2+1]
18. After the replication of DNA if newly formed
DNA molecule consists of one parental and
one newly synthesised strand. This type of
Fig.: Meselson and Stahl’s experiment. [1]
replication is called semiconservative DNA
19. (i) The base sequence of its complementary
replication. This has been proved experimentally
strand is ATCGTACTA [1]
by Meselson and Stahl in 1958: (ii) Base pairs are held together by hydrogen
(I) They grew E. coli in a medium containing bond [1]
15
NH4Cl. After sometime N15, the heavy (iii) Chargaff framed the rule of complementarity
isotope of nitrogen was incorporated rules, in which G is bonded with C by triple
into newly synthesised DNA and other hydrogen bonds and T is bonded with A by
two hydrogen bonds. [1]
nitrogenous compounds. This heavy DNA
20. (i) R N A p o l y m e r a s e I I c a t a l y s e s t h e
molecule could be distinguished from the
transcription of heteronuclear RNA. [1]
normal DNA by centrifugation in a cesium (ii) Heteronuclear RNA consists of intron
chloride (CsCl) density gradient [1] sequence which is the non-coding part and
(II) Then they transferred the cells into a that needs to be removed, hence it undergoes
medium with normal 14
NH 4Cl and took changes like capping, tailing, splicing that
samples at various definite time intervals occur in the nucleus. [2]
21. Unambiguous means one codon will code for one
as the cells multiplied, and extracted the
amino acid. Universal stands for same codon will
DNA that remained as Double-stranded
code for same amino acid in all the organism
helices. The various samples were separated from bacteria to human. Degenerate stand for
independently on CsCl gradients to measure one amino acid can be coded by more than one
the densities of DNA [1] codon. [3]
22. The salient features of double helix structure of with harmless R bacteria pooled with harmless
DNA are: heat-killed S bacteria. [2½]
(a) Double helix structure of DNA consist of Conclusion: Heat-killed S bacteria is not able to
two polynucleotide chain whose backbone develop pneumonia in mice whereas harmless
consists of sugar and phosphate. [½] R bacteria pooled with harmless heat-killed
(b) The one polynucleotide chain runs in 5’ to 3’ S bacteria when injected together led to the
direction and other in 3’ to 5’. This property development of pneumonia in mice. Harmless
is known as antiparallel. [1] R-strain bacteria pooled with harmless heat-
(c) The two strands of DNA are joined by killed S bacteria when injected together must
hydrogen bonds. Chargaff framed the rule have taken up something and Griffith called it a
of complementarity C always comes with “transforming principle” that permitted bacteria
C and form a tripple bond. A always comes to transform into smooth-coated bacteria and
with T and form a double bond. [1] become virulent. Hence, the bacteria is able to
(d) The two polynucleotide chain are coiled in pass its genetic material to another bacteria by
a right handed manner. Distance between a process known as transformation. [2½]
two base pair is 3.4A0. [½] 27. (a) Harmless R-strain bacteria pooled with
23. Lac operon in E. coli consist of three structural harmless heat-killed S bacteria when injected
genes: z, y, a. Lactose act as inducer, binds with together must have taken up something and
repressor gene and hence operator site become Griffith called it a “transforming principle”
free to bind with RNA polymerase and start that permitted bacteria to transform into
the activation and transcription of structural smooth-coated bacteria and become virulent.
genes. [3] Hence, the bacteria is able to pass its genetic
24. (a) This representation indicating a normal material to another bacteria by a process
human, as glutamic Acid in the sixth known as transformation. Hence, the
position is not substituted by Valine. [1] name of the experiment is “transformation
(b) The sufferer’s RBCs get elongated and sickle experiment”. [2½]
shaped as compared to the normal biconcave (b) Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn
RBCs [1] McCarty in the year 1944, from America,
(c) Both males and females are likely to suffer tried to find out the molecular nature of
from the disease equally, as the diseases is Griffith’s “transforming material”. They
not a sex linked trait. [1] started their experiment with large cultures
25. VNTR is “variable number of tandem repeats”. of heat-killed S cells. Further, through a
VNTR is a small stretch of DNA that consist series of biochemical events, they are able
of repeated nucleotide bases. The length of to find the nature of Griffith’s “transforming
repeated sequences vary among chromosome material”. They concluded that DNA might
and individual. Probe is a small stretch of DNA be the “transforming material”. [2½]
used to find any gene in genome. VNTR is used 28. (a) DNA replication is the process through
in forensic science to find out the criminals and which DNA replicates and make a copy
to confirm parent of their child. [3] of it. The main enzyme involved in DNA
26. Fredrick Griffith conducted the experiment in replication is DNA polymerase. Energy
1928 on Streptococcus pneumonia. He observed, required for DNA is provided by dNTPs.
that two strains of bacteria: smooth type(S-type) DNA replication involve three process:
and other is rough (R-type). R bacteria were initiation, elongation and termination. The
non-virulent (not capable of causing disease), initiation of replication occurs at specific
whereas S bacteria are virulent (capable of region called origin of replication. DNA
causing disease). The R type bacteria had rough polymerase help in the DNA synthesis.
appearance and S type had smooth appearance During the initiation of replication, the
due to a polysaccharide, or sugar-based, coat parent strands of DNA open , forming a Y
produced by the bacteria. The R bacteria shaped structure called as replication fork.
were non-virulent, meaning that they did not The enzyme is DNA polymerase which is
cause sickness when injected into a mouse. DNA dependent. The property unique is
Mice injected with live S bacteria developed that it catalyses the polymerisation in one
pneumonia and died. Griffith further injected direction which is 5’-→3’. Hence, this lead
some mice with heat-killed S bacteria and some to the DNA replication in leading strand
as continuous and lagging strand as dis (b) Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn
-continuous. The discontinuous strands are McCarty in the year 1944, from America,
joined by an enzyme called DNA ligase. [2] tried to find out the molecular nature
5' of Griffith’s “transforming material”.
ins 3'
SSB proteins r ote
Bp They concluded that DNA might be the
SS Lagging stand
DNA Topo- “transforming material”. Alfred Hershey
isomerase II Replication fork
3' 5' movement and Martha Chase in the year 1952,
5' 3' finally confirmed that DNA is the genetic
DNA helicase Leading strand material. [2]
DNA polymerase II
5'
30. Lac operon in E. coliconsists of four parts:
3' structural gene, promoter gene, operator
Fig.: DNA replication [½] gene and regulator gene. These genes become
(b) In S phase of the cell cycle, DNA replication functional and are turned on and off as per the
occurs in Eukaryotes. If cell division is not requirement. The lac operon consist of three
followed by DNA replication, then replicated structural genes z, y, a that code for enzyme
chromosome will not get distributed in beta galactosidase, permease and transacetylase
daughter nuclei. This will result in the respectively. These genes are expressed in
accumulation of replicated chromosome or the presence of lactose. The promoter is the
DNA that eventually increase the nucleus site at which RNA polymerase binds to start
cell volume and cause expansion. [2½] the transcription of the structural gene. The
29. (a) Fredrick Griffith conducted the experiment operator is the site at which protein repressor
in 1928 on Streptococcus pneumonia. He binds. In the absence of regulator protein, RNA
observed, two strains of bacteria: smooth polymerase is prevented from attaching through
type(S-type) and other is rough (R-type). The promoter. The repressor binds to the operator in
R bacteria were non-virulent (not capable the absence of lactose. When a lactose is added,
of causing disease), whereas S bacteria it binds to the repressor to form a complex
were virulent (capable of causing disease). which is unable to bind the operator. The RNA
R type bacteria appearance is rough and polymerase binds to the promoter and hence,
smooth appearance of S strain was due operator is switched on. This initiates the
to a polysaccharide, or sugar-based coat transcription of three structural gene that result
produced by the bacteria. The R bacteria in the formation of polynucleotide chain. These
were non-virulent, meaning that they did three enzymes metabolise lactose into glucose
not cause sickness when injected into a and galactose. [5]
mouse whereas Mice injected with live S 31. Alfred Hershey & Martha Chase in 1952
bacteria developed pneumonia and died. conducted transduction experiments to prove
Griffith further injected some mice with that DNA is the genetic material.
heat-killed S bacteria and some with Non- They conducted experiments on bacteriophage
virulant R bacteria pooled them with Non- and allowed it to infect two separate bacterial
virulant heat-killed S bacteria. colonies. One bacterial colony has radioactive
Heat-killed S bacteria was not able to phosphorus P32 and the other bacterial colony
develop pneumonia in mice whereas Non- with radioactive sulphur S35. When bacteriophage
virulant R bacteria pooled with Non-virulant infected these two colonies, radioactive sulphur
heat-killed S bacteria when injected together (S35) got incorporated in the capsid proteins of
led to the development of pneumonia bacteriophage, While radioactive phosphorus
in mice. Non-virulant R-strain bacteria (P32) became a component of phage DNA. The
pooled with Non-virulant heat-killed S two types of bacteriophage were then introduced
bacteria when injected together must have to infect two different bacterial colonies of E.coli.
taken up something and Griffith called it The two bacterial cultures were centrifuged
a “transforming principle” that permitted separately. The phage capsid gets separated
mice to transform into smooth-coated from the bacteria. The bacterial cells were
bacteria and become virulent. Hence, the present at the bottom of centrifuge tube as
bacteria is able to pass its genetic material pellets. Hershey and Chase observed that
to another bacteria by a process known as in the experiment using S35 the supernatant
transformation. [3] capsid showed radioactivity but the bacterial
cells does not show radioactivity whereas in the m-RNA. The smaller subunit has a point
experiment using P32, the supernatant does not for recognising m-RNA and binding area for
show radioactivity. Thus, it was concluded that initiation factors. [2]
the DNA, which is able to enter the bacteria, is Gly Leu Tyr
the genetic material. The protein part has no Ser

Leu
Growing polypeptide chain
such function. [3½] Gly
Asu
tRNA
tRNA Ser U
G U
G A
A Ala Val
tRNA tRNA
G C UG A A
C U C UU G G G U C C G C A G UU A A U U U C U A U C
5' Ribosome
3'
mRNA

Fig.: Translation [1]
33. (a) (i) They are organised to form histone
octomer. [1]
(ii) Negatively charged DNA is wrapped
around positively charged histone
octamer to give rise to a nucleosome.
[1]
(iii) Nucleosomes constitute repeating unit
of a structure in the nucleus called
chromatin. It is thread-like stained
(coloured) bodies. 1]
Fig.: Alfred-Martha experiment [1½] DNA H1 histone
32. Role of m-RNA, t-RNA and ribosomes in protein
synthesis:
I. mRNA: The messenger RNA or mRNA
synthesised on the DNA template in the Histone
nucleoplasm. It carries genetic information octamer
from DNA and moves into the cytoplasm
and takes part in its translation by bringing
amino acids in a specific sequence during the
synthesis of a polypeptide chain. The same Core of histone molecules
mRNA can be reused many times. [1] Fig.: Nucleosome [1]
II. t-RNA: The transfer RNA or tRNA has (b) Difference between Euchromatin and
particular function during protein synthesis. Heterochromatin: [1]
As its name suggests, it transfers a specific
amino acid to mRNA over a particular codon Euchromatin Heterochromatin
corresponding to their anticodons. Each A region of A region of densely
t-RNA has an area for coming in contact loosely packed, packed, dark
with ribosome and the enzyme amino acyl light stained stained chromatin.
tRNA synthetase. [1] chromatin.
III. Ribosomes: Ribosomes are cell organelles Transcriptionally Transcriptionally
present abundantly in the cell cytoplasm. active chromatin inactive chromatin
It is the site of protein synthesis. Each 34. Lactose is the substrate for the enzyme beta
ribosome has two subunits— smaller and galactosidase and it regulates switching ON and
larger subunits. The larger subunit has a
OFF of the operon. In the presence of an inducer
groove. Through groove the newly formed
polypeptide comes out. The groove also such as lactose, the repressor is inactivated
protects the polypeptide from cellular by interaction with the inducer. This allows
enzymes. The smaller subunit fits like a cap RNA polymerase access to the promoter and
over the larger one and leaves a tunnel for transcription proceeds. [3]
In presence of inducer (lactose) (iii) This heavy 15N DNA was separated from
p i p o z y a the normal DNA by density gradient
centrifugation using caesium chloride as the
Transcription
gradient. [½]
(iv) The cells were then transferred into a
Repressor mRNA lac mRNA
medium of 14NH4Cl with 14N as the
Translation
nitrogen source. [½]
permease (v) Samples were taken from this medium of
14
NH4Cl and the DNA was extracted. [½]
Inducer β-galactosidase
Observation:
transacetylase
DNA extracted from the culture after one
(Inactive repressor) generation (20 minutes is the generation time
Fig.: Lac-Operon [2] of E. coli) showed intermediate hybrid density.
35. The steps of the Meselson and Stahl’s experiment: The DNA extracted after two generations (40
(i) They grew E. coli for many generations in minutes) showed light DNA and hybrid DNA.
[1½]
15NH4Cl to get the heavy isotope 15N as
Conclusion:
the nitrogen source. [½] It can be concluded that the newly synthesised
(ii) They incorporated 15N into the DNA. [½] DNA contains one strand of its parent and one is
new. Thus, replication was semi-conservative.
[½]
36. (a) Transcription has three steps—initiation,
elongation and termination.
Initiation: RNA polymerase binds with sigma
factor (σ) and attaches to the promoter site at
5’ end to initiate the process of transcription.
Elongation: When RNA polymerase moves from
promoter to the terminator site it causes the
polymerisation of nucleotides resulting in the
formation of RNA in the 5’-3’ direction.
Termination: When RNA polymerase reaches
to the terminator site it binds to ρ factor and
the transcribed RNA falls off along with RNA
polymerase. [1]
Fig.: The process of transcription in bacteria

Fig.: Meselson and Stahl’s experiment [1] [1½]
(b) The hnRNA before becoming functional The main function of tRNA is to pick up an
mRNA in eukaryotes, it undergoes splicing. amino acid from the cytoplasm of the cell and
During splicing introns are removed and bring it to the mRNA template at a specific
exons are joined in a specific order. The position for polymerisation. tRNA is called
hnRNA undergoes additional processing in an adapter molecule because it attaches
two ways: itself to the ribosome-mRNA complex which
Capping: addition of methyl guanosine facilitates the incorporation of the correct
triphosphate to the 5’ end of hnRNA. amino acid to the growing polypeptide chain
Tailing: Poly adenylate residues are added to the by its specific anticodon to the mRNA codon.
3´ end of hnRNA. The fully processed hnRNA is Anticolon site
the functional mRNA which is transported out 3' End A
Covalent bond
C
of the nucleus. [1½] C
5' End
5' 5'
3' 3'
Ribosomal
Recognition recognition
Capping 3' m RNA site side
Cap Intron
m
GPPP
5' Exon RNA splicing Amino acid
6GC
m
G 3' CCGCC GUCA
5' PPP mRNA
Poly A tail
m
Fig.: Structure of t-RNA [1]
GPPP (b) A non-functional primary transcript formed
5'
m
3' in eukaryotes. It consists of both the coding
5' GPPP region (exon) and non-coding region (intron)
Messenger RNA (m RNA) in RNA and are called heterogeneous RNA
Fig.: Splicing of hnRNA [1] or hn-RNA. hn-RNA undergoes a process by
37. (a) The structure of tRNA is a cloverleaf-like. It which the introns are removed and exons are
consists of five arms or loops. The five loops joined to form functional m-RNA through the
are anticodon loop, Amino acid acceptor, process called splicing. [2½]
T-loop, D-loop and Variable loop. [1½]
38. Lac operon consists of one regulatory gene (i), a promoter (p), an operator (o), and three structural genes
z, y and a. The operon can be switched on or switched off. Lactose acts as inducer thus absence of lactose
switches off the operon. Regulator gene (i) produces repressor protein. Repressor protein binds to the
operator gene (o) region of the operon which prevents RNA polymerase from transcribing the structural
gene and operon is switched off. Gene regulation is the process of controlling which genes in a cell’s DNA
will make a functional product such as a protein. Thus making of functional protein is called expression
of gene. [3]
p i p o z y a In absence of inducer
Repressor binds to the operator region(o)

Repressor mRNA and prevents RNA polymerase from
transcribing the operon
Repressor
p i p o z y a In presence of inducer
Transcription
Repressor mRNA lac mRNA

Translation
transacetylase
permease
Inducer β-galactosidase
(Inactive repressor)
Fig.: Expression of gene & Lac operon [2]
[Topic 2] Genetic Code, Human Genome Project &

DNA Fingerprinting
Genetic Code • tRNA- The Adapter Molecule:
 Amino acids have no structural specialties to read
Genetic code is the sequence of nucleotides in mRNA the code uniquely. On one hand they read the code
that contains information for protein synthesis. and on other hand would bind to specific amino
• Salient features of Genetic Code: acids.
 The genetic code is a triplet code.  An anticodon loop is present in tRNA which has
 One amino acid has only one codon code, hence, it basesthat are complementary to the code and
is specific and undebatable. amino acids are binded together by tRNA with the
help of amino acid accepter end. There are specific
 The code is almost universal and non-overlapping.
tRNAs for each amino acid.
 Sometimes more than one codon is used to code  There is a specific initiator tRNA that helps in
amino acids and so the code is dissipated. initiation. There are no tRNAs present for stop
 No punctuation is used between adjacently placed codons.
codons. Ser Tyr
 Exceptions to this rule have been found in
mitochondrial codons, and in some protozoans tRNA
First Third
position position
Second position
U C A G
UUU Phe UCU Ser UAU Tyr UGU Cys U
U UUC Phe
UUA Leu
UCC Ser
UCA Ser
UAC Tyr
UAA Stop
UGC Cys
UGA Stop
C U C A Anticodon A UG
A A G U Codon U G A mRNA
UUG Leu UCG Ser UAG Stop UGG Trp G 5'
CUU Leu CCU Pro CAU His CGU Arg U Fig.: tRNA – the adapter molecule
CUC Leu CCC Pro CAC His CGC Arg C • Translation:
C CUA Leu CCA Pro CAA Gin CGA Arg A
CUG Leu CCG Pro CAG Gin CGG Arg G  Polymerisation of amino acids to form a
AUU Ile ACU Thr AAU Asn AGU Ser U polypeptide is referred as translation.
C  In the first phase which is called as charging of
A AUC Ile ACC Thr AAC Asn AGC Ser
AUA Ile ACA Thr AAA Lys AGA Arg A tRNA, as energy is required from ATP for formation
AUG Met ACG Thr AAG Lys AGG Arg G of peptide bond, so amino acids are activated in
GUU Val GCU Ala GAU Asp GGU Gly U
C the presence of ATP and linked to their cognate
G GUC Val
GUA Val
GCC Ala
GCA Ala
GAC Asp
GAA Glu
GGC Gly
GGA Gly A tRNA in presence of aminoacyl tRNA synthetase.
GUG Val GCG Ala GAG Glu GGG Gly G This step is also called as aminoacylation of tRNA.
 In the next step called as initiation, the ribosome
Fig.: The Codons for Various Amino Acids binds to the mRNA at the start codon (AUG) that
• Mutations and Genetic Code: is recognized by initiator tRNA.
 Studying mutation explains the relationships  In the third phase of elongation, complexes which
between DNA and genes. are formed by linkage of amino acids to tRNA,
bind to appropriate codon in mRNAby forming
 Deletion or rearrangement in DNA segment
complimentary base pairs with the tRNA anticodon.
results in loss or gain of a gene and so its function.
 At the end, in last phase, the process of translation
 Example of point mutation includes, change is terminated and complete polypeptide is released
of single base pair in the gene for beta globin from the ribosome.
chain, results in the change of amino acid residue • Regulation of Gene Expression:
glutamate to valine which results into a diseased  Polypeptide is formed as a result of gene
condition called as sickle cell anaemia. expression. In eukaryotes, the regulation could be
 If a base or two are inserted or deleted, it changes exerted at:
the reading frame from the point of insertion or - Transcriptional level (formation of primary
deletion. transcript)
- Processing level (regulation of splicing)

- Transport of mRNA from nucleus to the cytoplasm
- Translational level.
• Lac Operon:
 A polycistronic structural gene is controlled with the help of a common promoter and regulatory genes. In
bacteria, this kind of an arrangement is quite common and is known as an operon. For example: val operon,
trp operon, lac operon, etc.
 It is the operon which controls metabolism of lactose. Lactose is used as an inducer as it regulates switching
on and off of the operon.
Fig.: The lac Operon
Human Genome Project

Genome is referred to as the complete DNA, found in the haploid set of chromosomes of an organism. Human
Genome project (HGP) was the first effort in identifying the sequence of nucleotides and mapping of all genes
in human genome.
• Goals of HGP:
 To determine the sequences of the 3 billion chemical base pairs that comprise of human DNA.
 To identify all the genes present in human DNA.
 To improve data analysis tools.
 To have a storage facility to safely keep this information in databases.
 To transfer related technologies to other sectors, such as industries.
 To deal with ethical, legal and social issues that may arise due to this project.
• Methodologies:
 One of the two methods focuses on recognizing all the genes that expressed as RNA.
 The second method takes the blind outlook of aligning the genome, containing all the coding and non-coding
sequence, and are assigned different regions later in the sequence.
DNA Fingerprinting
DNA fingerprinting is a way to identify the similarities and differences in specific region of DNA sequence
known as repetitive DNA, as in these sequences, a small stretch of DNA is repeated many times.
• Basis of DNA fingerprinting:
 Polymorphism in DNA sequence is the basis of genetic mapping of human genome as well as of DNA
fingerprinting. Polymorphism (variation at genetic level) arises due to mutations.
• Steps of DNA fingerprinting:
 Firstly, isolate the DNA.
 Then, DNA is digested by restriction endonuclease.
 Then, DNA fragments are separated by electrophoresis.
 After this, separated DNA fragments are transferred to synthetic membranes, such as nitrocellulose or
nylon, also referred as blotting.
 Then DNA fragments are hybridized using labelled VNTR probe.
 Finally, hybridized NA fragments are detected by auto radiography.
Paternal
chromosome
Maternal
chromosome Chromosome 7 Chromosome 7
Chromosome 2 Chromosome 2
Chromosome 16 Chromosome 16
DNA from individuala A DNA from individuala B
Number of short
C A B
Number of short tandom repeats
tandem repeats
0 11 12
11
10
9
Chromosome 7 8
7
6
Chromosome 2 5
4
3
2
Chromosome 16 1
DNA from crime scene (C) Amplified repeats, a separated by size
on a gel, give a DNA fingerprint
Fig.: Schematic representation of DNA Fingerprinting
2. (a) What do ‘Y’ and ‘B’ stand for in ‘YAC’ and
PREVIOUS YEARS’ ‘BAC’ used in Human Genome Project

(HGP). Mention their role in the project.
(b) Write the percentage of the total human
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS genome that codes for proteins and the
TOPIC 2 percentage of discovered genes whose
functions are known as observed during
3 Marks Questions HGP.
1. Explain the significance of satellite DNA in DNA (c) Expand ‘SNPs’ identified by scientists in
finger printing technique. [ALL INDIA 2015] HGP. [ALL INDIA 2016]
3. (a) List the two methodologies which were assigning different regions in the
involved in human genome project. Mention sequence with functions. [1]
how they were used. (b) ‘YAC’ stands for Yeast Artificial Chromosome:
(b) Expand ‘YAC’ and mention what it was used It is used as a cloning vector for cloning
for. [ALL INDIA 2017] DNA fragments in suitable host so that DNA
4. (a) Expand VNTR and describe its role in DNA sequencing can be done. [1]
fingerprinting. 4. (a) VNTR stands for Variable Number of
(b) List any two applications of DNA finger Tandem Repeats. The VNTR is a satellite
printing technique. [DELHI 2018] DNA called mini-satellite. A small DNA
5. It is established that RNA is the first genetic sequence is arranged tandemly in many copy
material. Explain giving three reasons. numbers. The copy number in an individual
[DELHI 2012] is different. The numbers of repeat show very
6. (a) Name the enzyme responsible for the high degree of polymorphism. The size of
transcription of tRNA and the amino acid, VNTR range from 0.1 to 20 kb. Consequently,
the initiator tRNA gets linked with. after hybridisation with VNTR probe, the
(b) Explain the role of initiator tRNA in autoradiogram gives many bands of differing
initiation of protein synthesis. sizes. These bands give a characteristic
[ALL INDIA 2012] pattern for an individual DNA. Except
7. Describe the structure of a RNA polynucleotide identical twins, the band of characteristic
chain having four different types of patterns are different in different individuals.
nucleotides. [DELHI 2013] The sensitivity of the technique has been
increased by use of polymerase chain reaction
Solutions (PCR). Consequently, DNA from a single cell
is enough to perform DNA fingerprinting
1. Satellite DNA are small non-coding sequences
analysis. [1+1]
of bases. It is inheritable and may be separated
(b) In addition to application in forensic science,
from main DNA during density gradient
it has much wider application in determining
centrifugation. Satellite DNA shows variable
population and in genetic diversities. [1]
morphology which forms the basis of DNA
5. Three reasons to prove that RNA is the first
fingerprinting. The short nucleotide repeats in
genetic material are:
the DNA varies in number from person to person
1. RNA is capable of storing genetic information
and nucleotide repeats are specific in each
and self-replication [1]
individual. These are called ‘variable number
2. RNA is capable of catalysing chemical
tandem repeats’ or mini-satellites. Individuals
reaction. [1]
inherit these repeats from their parents which
3. It can directly code for the synthesis of
are used as genetic markers in a personal
proteins. [1]
identity test [3]
6. (a) RNA polymerase III is responsible for the
2. (a) In Human Genome Project (HGP), ‘YAC’ Y
transcription of tRNA and methionene is the
stands for Yeast and in ‘BAC’ B stands for
amino acid, the initiator tRNA gets linked
bacteria. These are used as vector for cloning
with. [1½]
foreign DNA. [1]
(b) Initiator tRNA reaches the small sub
(b) The percentage of total human genome
unit of ribosome having anticodon UAC
that codes for proteins is less than 2%.
that recognize the codon AUG on mRNA.
The percentage of discovered genes whose
The bases make the complementary base
functions are known is more than 50% [1]
pairings. This starts the protein synthesis
(c) ‘SNPs’ stands for Single Nucleotide
initiation. [1½]
Polymorphism in HGP. [1]
7. RNA consist of single chain of nucleotides and
3. (a) Two methodologies of HGP:
is a polymer of ribonucleotides. The four bases
(1) Expressed Sequence Tags (EST’s): This
present in the RNA are : adenine (A), cytosine
method focusses on identifying all the
(C), guanine (G), uracil (U). Ribonucleotides
genes that are expressed as RNA. [1]
are link by 3’-5’ phosphodiester bonds to
(2) Sequence Annotation: It is an approach
form polyribonucleotide chain. Normally,
of simply sequencing the whole set of
polyribonucleotide chain consist 0f 700-1200
genome that contains all the coding
ribonucleotides. [3]
and non-coding sequences, and later
CHAPTER 7
Evolution

Origin of life, Biological 1Q
evolution and evidences (1 mark)
for biological evolution
(Paleontological,
comparative anatomy,
embryology and
molecular evidence)
Darwin's contribution, 1Q 1Q 1Q 1Q
Modern Synthetic theory (1 mark) (1 mark) (1 mark) (3 marks)
of Evolution
Mechanism of evolution 1Q 1Q
- Variation (Mutation (2 marks) (2 marks)
and Recombination)
and Natural Selection
with examples, types of
natural selection
Gene flow and genetic
drift
Hardy - Weinberg's 1Q 1Q 1Q 1Q
principle, Adaptive (2 marks) (3 marks) (3 marks) (2 marks)
Radiation, Human
evolution
On the basis of above analysis, it can be said that from exam point of view the concepts
Hardy-Weinberg’s Principle, Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection and on Analogous and
homologous structures are most important concepts of the chapter.
7.76 CHAPTER 7 : Evolution
[Topic 1] Origin of Life on Earth and Various Related

Exidences
Summary in the tubes. On the analysis, it was found that the
red substance was containing glycine, amino acids,
Theories of origin of life: Many theories have been and nitrogenous bases. The substances are found in
given by various scientists to explain the phenomenon the nucleus of a cell.
of origin of life. Some of these proposed theories are
as follows:
• Biogenesis
• Theory of sudden creation from inorganic
material.
• Theory of special creation.
• Naturalistic theory
• Theory of spontaneous generation or Abiogenesis.
• Cosmozoic theory
Modern Theory by Oparin

• The main idea of the theory - “life could have
originated from non-living organic molecules.”
• In 1936, Oparin presented his ideas in his book
“The origin of life”.
• He proposed that, the origin of the Earth was
about 4,500 million years ago. There was a
reduced atmosphere which is also called as Fig.: Miller’s experiment
primitive atmosphere which had presence of
nitrogen, hydrogen, ammonia, methane, carbon
Evolution of life forms
mono-oxide and water, when the earth was cooling During a sea voyage, some observations were made.
down. Ultraviolet rays and electric discharges by Charles Darwin concluded them all and proposed
lightening acted as the source of energy. Folded that current living forms have some similarities
earth crust was formed during this process. For among themselves and also with life forms prevailing
centuries, rains poured over the earth and got millions of years back. Quite a lot of them do not exist
deposited in deep places of the earth crust. anymore. The geological history of earth matches
Stanley Miller, an American biologist, performed up quite closely with the biological history of earth.
an experiment known as Miller’s experiment. He Earlier it was a common conclusion that earth is very
synthesized the basic compounds which are essential old, around thousands but in actual it is billions of
for life in the laboratory, on a small scale. years old.
He made a specially designed flask which was Evidences for evolution
containing hydrogen, ammonia and methane in • Divergent evolution: Because of different needs,
the proportion of 2 : 1 : 2 respectively at 0°C. This along different directions the same structures
proportion is the same as the proportion of gases that been developed.
were present in the environment of primitive earth. • Convergent evolution: Different structures
A smaller flask, filled with water was connected to developed along same direction due to adaptation
the flask that was containing the gases, with the help to perform similar functions.
of glass tubes. Two tungsten electrodes were fitted
and a current of 60,000 volts was passed through
Adaptive Radiation
the gases to recreate the lightning storms that were In a given geographical area, evolution of different
there at the time of origin of life. This process was species from a point and diverging to different areas
continued for seven days. On the last day when the of geography. A number of marsupials, each different
vapours condensed, a red color substance was found from the other evolved from an ancestral stock, but
all within the Australian island continent
CHAPTER 7 : Evolution 7.77
9. (a) Select the homologous structures from the

combinations given below:
(i) Forelimbs of whales and bats
(ii) Tuber of potato and sweet potato
(iii) Eyes of octopus and mammals
(iv) Thorns of Bougainvillea and tendrils
of Cucurbita
(b) State the kind of evolution they represent.
[ALL INDIA 2015]
10. Mention the evolutionary significance of the
following organisms:
(a) Shrews
(b) Lobefins
(c) Homo habilis
Fig.: Adaptive Radiation (d) Homo erectus [DELHI 2017]
PREVIOUS YEARS’ 3 Marks Questions

11. Branching descent and natural selection are
the two key concepts of Darwinian Theory of
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS evolution. Explain each concept with the help
TOPIC 1 of suitable example. [ALL INDIA 2011]
12. How does industrial melanism support Darwin’s
1 Mark Questions
theory of Natural Selection? Explain.
1. Comment on the similarity between the wing
of a cockroach and the wing of a bird. What [DELHI 2012]
do you infer from the above, with reference to 13. State the theory of Biogenesis. How does the
evolution? [DELHI 2012] Miller’s experiment support this theory?
2. Write the similarity between the wing of a [ALL INDIA 2012]
butterfly and the wing of a bat. What do you infer 14. With the help of two suitable examples explain
from the above with reference to evolution? the effect of anthropogenic actions on organic
[ALL INDIA 2012] evolution. [DELHI 2013]
3. Identify the examples of convergent evolution 15. Explain the increase in the numbers of melanic
from the following: (dark winged) moths in the urban areas of post
(i) Flippers of penguins and dolphins industrialisation period in England.
(ii) Eyes of octopus and mammals [ALL INDIA 2013]
(iii) Vertebrate brains [DELHI 2013] 16. Since the origin of life on Earth, there were five
4. State a reason for the increased population of episodes of mass extinction of species.
dark coloured moths coinciding with the loss of (i) How is the ‘Sixth Extinction’, presently
lichens (on tree barks) during industrialization in progress, different from the previous
period in England. [DELHI 2015] episodes?
5. According to de-Vries what is saltation? (ii) Who is mainly responsible for the ‘Sixth
[DELHI 2016] Extinction’?
6. What role does an individual organism play as (iii) List any four points that can help to
per Darwin’s theory of natural selection? overcome this disaster. [ALL INDIA 2014]
[DELHI 2017] 17. Explain adaptive radiation with the help of a
7. State two postulates of Oparin and Haldane with suitable example. [DELHI 2015]
reference to origin oflife. [ALL INDIA 2017] 18. Describe the experiment that helped Louis
Pasteur to dismiss the theory of spontaneous
2 Marks Questions generation of life. [DELHI 2016]
8. List the two main propositions of Oparin and 19. Differentiate between homology and analogy.
Haldane. [ALL INDIA 2013] Give one example of each. [ALL INDIA 2016]
20. (a) Differentiate between analogous and 7. Two postulates of Oparin and Haldane with
homologous structures. reference to origin of life are given below:
(b) Select and write analogous structures from (a) First life originated from pre-existing, non-
the list given below: living organic molecules (RNA, protein).[½]
(i) Wings of butterfly and birds (b) Formation of life was preceded by chemical
(ii) Vertebrate hearts evolution. [½]
(iii) Tendrils of bougainvillea and cucurbita 8. Oparin-Haldane theory of origin of life
(iv) Tubers of sweet potato and potato (1) First life originated was anaerobic, as at that
[DELHI 2018] point, free O2 was absent [1]
(2) The primitive atmosphere was reducing as
5 Marks Questions oxygen was absent. [1]
21. (a) Explain Darwinian Theory of evolution with
9. (a) Homologous structures are those which are
the help of one suitable example. State the
similar in origin but dissimilar in function.
two key concepts of the theory.
Examples of homologous structures are (i)
(b) Mention any three characteristics of
Forelimbs of whales and bats, (iv) Thorns of
Neanderthal man that lived in near east
Bougainvillea and tendrils of Cucurbita.[1]
and central Asia. [DELHI 2014]
(b) The homologous structures represent
divergent evolution. [1]
Solutions 10. (a) Shrews: The first small sized viviparous
1. The wing of a cockroach and the wing of a bird mammals evolved on the earth. [½]
are the examples of analogous organs which (b) Lobefins: These were amphibians considered
means they have different structure but their to be extinct 65 million years ago. Lobefins
function is same. Hence, we can say that they evolved into the first amphibian which lived
have originated from different ancestor as a part in water and on land. They are considered
of convergent evolution. Wings of both bird and ancestors of modern frog. [½]
cockroach are used for flying. [1] (c) Homo habilis. It was evolved from
2. The wing of a butterfly and the wing of a bird Australopithecus. Its brain capacity was
are the examples of analogous organs means 650-800cc and were likely non- meat eaters.
they have different structure but their function The teeth and bipedal locomotion are the
is same. Hence, we can say that they have features. [½]
originate from a different ancestor as a part of (d) Homo erectus. It evolved from Homo habilis
convergent evolution. Wings of both are used for primitive type of speech have developed. It
flying. [1] started using fire. It had larger brain size i.e
3. The examples of convergent evolution are 900cc. They were probably meat eaters. [½]
Flippers of penguins and dolphins and Eyes of 11. Natural selection is a process by which the
octopus and mammals as both pairs of structure organism having better traits to survive
perform the similar function but evolved are selected by nature as compared to those
independently in various animals. [1] organism which are less adapted. Example,
4. During industrial revolution, large amount different microbes react differently to the
of smoke resulted in large scale soot which antibiotics. [2]
deposited on tree trunks. Deposition of soot Branching descent is the formation of new
causes the tree trunks to become darker turning species from a single common descendant.
them black. Hence, the number of dark moths Example is Darwin finches. [1]
increased as they were not easily visible to their 12. The effects of Industrial melanism in the
predators while the white-winged were easily support the Darwin’s theory. In 1850s before
picked up by the predators. Thus, light coloured industrialisation, the population of white winged
moth fail to survive and dark ones were selected moth on trees were larger than dark winged.
by natural selection. [1] But after industrialisation, in 1920 population
5. According to de-Vries, ‘mutation caused of darker winged moth increased and white
speciation’. He called this as saltation. It means winged moth decreased. It was due to the fact
saltation is single step, large mutation. [1] that predators were able to identify moth against
6. An individual organism may produce new a contrasting background. Hence, moths those
species due to variations by random mating or which are able to camouflage with the plants,
artificial selection. [1] and surroundings were able to survive. [3]
13. Theory of Biogenesis state that life have 17. Adaptive radiation is a process of evolution of
originated from pre-existing life. It was given different species in a given geographical area
by Louis Pasteur. Diverse organic compounds starting from a point and radiating to other
were formed from in-organic compounds. [1]
geographical areas. One of the example of
In 1953, Miller and Urey conducted an
adaptive radiation is Australian marsupials.
experiment to prove theory of Biogenesis. They
created primitive earth conditions like high In Australian island, a number of marsupials
temperature, reducing atmosphere, gases like have evolved from an ancestral stock. When
methane, ammonia and then stimulated electric more than one adaptive radiation appeared to
discharge in closed flask having the gases that have occurred in an isolated geographical area
were present in the primitive atmosphere. (representing different habitats). This is called
They observed the formation of amino acids. convergent evolution. [1+1]
Hence, Miller and Urey support the theory of
Biogenesis. [2]
14. Two suitable examples explain the effect of
anthropogenic actions on organic evolution are:
(a) In 1850s before industrialisation population
of white winged moth on trees were larger
than dark winged. But after industrialisation
in 1920 population of darker winged moth
increased and white winged moth decreased.
It was due to the fact that predators were
able to identify moth against a contrasting
background. Hence, moths which were
able to camouflage with the plants, and
surroundings were able to survive. [2]
(b) Use of herbicides and insecticides in
agriculture, increased the selection of the
plants which are resistant to herbicides and Fig.: Adaptive Radiation [1]
insecticides. [1] 18. Louis Pasteur did an experimentation very
15. In 1850s before industrialisation population of carefully to demonstrate that life comes only
white winged moth on trees were larger than from pre-existing life. He took two pre-sterilised
dark winged. But after industrialisation in 1920 flasks with killed yeast. One flask was sealed
population of darker winged moth increased and
while the other was kept open in air. Differential
white winged moth decreased. It was due to the
growth of life was observed in the flasks-life
fact that predators were able to identify moths
against a contrasting background. Hence, moths was found only in the open flask’. It proved
which were able to camouflage with the plants, that life comes from pre-existing life (theory of
and surroundings were able to survive. [3] biogenesis). [3]
16. (i) ‘Sixth Extinction’, presently in progress, 19.
different from the previous episodes in the
Homology Analogy
(a) rates of extinction is very fast as compare
to previous one (b) Sixth Extinction is It is the study of It is the study of
occurring because of human activities, not organs which are organs which are
involving any natural calamity. [1] similar in origin dissimilar in origin
(ii) Various human activities like deforestation, and dissimilar in and similar in
function. function.
global warming are responsible for the ‘Sixth
Extinction’ [1] Example are Example are wings
(iii) Conservation of plants and animals, wings of birds and of birds and wings of
conservation of natural resources and forelimbs of humans. insects.
preventing habitat loss, decreased the rate It supports It supports
of deforestation are four points that can help divergent evolution. convergent evolution.
to overcome this disaster. [1] [1+1+1]
20. (a) D i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a n a l o g o u s a n d 21. (a) Darwinian Theory of evolution was given

homologous structures: by Charles Darwin. His theory of evolution
is called as Theory of Natural selection. He
Analogous Homologous Explain “Natural selection” as a principle
structures structures that helps in creating variations and
inheritance of those variations in future
Structures or organs Structures or organs progeny. Resulting in creation of new
which are dissimilar which are similar in species. Famous example is: In 1850s before
in origin and similar origin and dissimilar industrialisation population of white winged
in function. in function. moth on trees were larger than dark winged.
As these moths were able to the camouflage
Example are wings Example are with background. But after industrialisation
of birds and wings of wings of birds and in 1920 population of darker winged moth
insects. forelimbs of humans. increased and white winged moth decreased.
It was due to the fact that predators able
It supports It supports divergent to identify moth against a contrasting
convergent evolution. evolution. background. Hence, those moths which are
able to camouflage with the plants, and
[1+1] surroundings were able to survive. [3]
(b) The analogous organ are: (b) Three characteristics of Neanderthal man are:
(i) Brain size of 1400 cc
(i) Wings of butterfly and birds (ii) They used Hides to protect their bodies
(iv) Tubers of sweet potato and potato. [1] (iii) They buried their dead [2]
[Topic 2] Biological Evolution, Its Mechanism and

Evolution of Man
Evolution by natural selection, in a true sense
Peak gets
would have started when cellular forms of life with higher and
narrower
differences in metabolic capability originated on earth.
Lamarck, proposed that the evolution of various life Phenotypes
favoured (a)
forms happened but was driven by the use or disuse
by natural Medium-
Number of individuals
of the organs. selection sized Peak shifts

with phenotype
individuals in one
Darwinian Theory of natural selection, given by are direction
favoured
Charles Robert Darwin said that only the fittest
species can survive the changing environmental and (b)
physical conditions. The two important concepts of

Darwinian’s Theory of Evolution: Branching descent Two peaks form
and natural selection.
Mechanism of Evolution (c)
Mutations are random and directionless while Fig.: Hardy weinberg principle
Darwinian variations are small and directional. Hardy-Weinberg principle
Evolution for Darwin was gradual while deVries
The principle states that within a population, allele
believed mutation caused speciation and hence called frequencies are stable and persistent from generation
it saltation (single step large mutation). to generation.
In a population, total genes along with their alleles 6. Write the characteristics of Ramapithecus,
always remain a constant and this is referred to as Dryopithecus and Neanderthal man.
genetic equilibrium. The total sum of every allelic [ALL INDIA 2017]
frequency is 1. 7. What does the following equation represent?
Explain. [ALL INDIA 2015]
Origin and Evolution of Man P2 + 2pq + q2 =1
• Primates called Dryopithecus (ape-like) and
Ramapithecus (man-like) existed around
15 million years ago. They use to walk like 5 Marks Questions
chimpanzees and gorillas and were also hairy. 8. (a) Name the primates that lived about 15
• According to few fossils found in Ethiopia and million years ago. List their characteristics
Tanzania, around three to four million years ago, feature.
man-like primates existed in eastern parts of Africa. (b) (i) Where was the first-man like animal
• Around two million years ago, the first human- found?
like creatures were traced back and were called (ii) Write the order in which Neanderthals,
Homo habilis. They assumingly did not eat meat. Homo habilis and Homo erectus
• Homo erectus, who is supposed to have a large appeared on earth. State the brain
brain, probably ate meat. capacity of each one of them.
• Then came the age of Homo sapiens found first (iii) When did modern Homo sapiens appear
in Africa and they moved across continents and on this planet? [DELHI 2011]
evolved into distinct races.
• Around 18,000 years ago, pre-historic cave art
developed. Agriculture came into existence
Solutions
about 10,000 years back. After that the human 1. Dryopithecus was the common ancestor of the
settlement started. great apes and man. [1]
2. Eating habits of Homo habilis and Homo erectus
were different. Homo habilis did not eat meat
PREVIOUS YEARS’ while Homo erectus werelikely to be meat
eating. [1]
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 3. (a) Dryopithecus [½]
(b) Australopithecines [½]
TOPIC 2 4. In a given population, the frequency of
1 Mark Questions occurrence of alleles of a gene can be found out.
1. Name the common ancestor of the great apes According to Hardy-Weinberg’s principle the
and man. [ALL INDIA 2011] allele frequencies in a population are stable and
2. Write the probable differences in eating habits is constant over generations. The total genes and
of Homo habilis and Homo erectus. their alleles in a population remains a constant.
[ALL INDIA 2016] Then this is called genetic equilibrium. Sum
3. Write the names of the following: total of all the allelic frequencies is 1. [1]
(a) A 15 mya primate that was ape-like It means p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1.
(b) A 2 mya primate that lived in east African This is a binomial expansion of (p+q)2. When
grasslands [DELHI 2018] frequency of each trait is measured, if it differs
from expected values, then the difference
(direction) indicates the extent of evolutionary
2 Marks Questions change. Disturbance in genetic equilibrium, or
4. With the help of an algebraic equation, how Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, i.e., change of
did hardy-Weinberg explain that in a given frequency of alleles in a population would then
population the frequency of occurrence of alleles be interpreted as resulting in evolution. [1]
of a gene is supposed to remain the same through 5. Hardy-Weinberg principle states that allele
generations? [DELHI 2018]
frequency in a population is stable and remain
3 Marks Questions constant from generation to generation. The
5. p2+ 2pq + q2 = 1. Explain this algebraic equation gene pool remains constant and known as
on the basis of Hardy Weinberg’s principle. genetic equilibrium.
[DELHI 2017] p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
p2 represents frequency of homozygous dominant occurrence of recessive allele a in the parental

genotype generation. [1]
2pq represents frequency of heterozygous Then according to the equation,
genotype P2 = Frequency of occurrence of individuals with
q2 represents frequency of homozygous recessive homozygous dominant alleles (AA) [1]
genotype 2pq = Frequency of occurrence of individuals
with heterozygous alleles (Aa)
Sum total of all frequency is 1
q2 = Frequency of occurrence of individuals with
Over several generations if the gene frequencies
homozygous recessive alleles (aa)
remains constant, it indicates that, no evolution
1 is the sum of all frequencies. [1]
has taken place. Change in gene frequencies
8. (a) Dryopithecus and Ramapithecusarethe
would indicate that evolution is in progress. [3]
6. T h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f R a m a p i t h e c u s , primates that lived about 15 million years
Dryopithecus and Neanderthal man: ago. These primates were hairy and walk
Ramapithecus was primate which were was look like chimpanzees. Ramapithecus were
more man-like walked erect on their feet. They more similar to man whereas Dryopithecus
had small canines and large molars. [2] were more similar to ape. [2]
Dryopithecus was primate, more ape-like. He (b) (i) The first man like animal was found in
had arms and legs equal. Muzzles and canine Africa. [1]
large (ii) Order according to the evolution on
Neanderthal was primate with erect posture, the earth include Homo habilis having
sloping forehead and flat cranium. [1] brain capacity of 650-680 cc, Homo
7. According to Hardy—Weinberg law, the given erectus having brain capacity of 900
equation represents the gene frequency of the cc and Neanderthal shaving brain
total population. Suppose a gene has two alleles capacity of 1400 cc. [1]
A and a, then p is the frequency of occurrence (iii) Modern Homo sapiens appear on this
of dominant allele A and q is the frequency of planet around 75000 year ago. [1]
CHAPTER 8
Human Health and
Diseases

Pathogens
Parasites causing human 1Q 1Q 1Q
diseases (Malaria, (3 marks) (3 marks) (2 marks)
Filariasis, Ascariasis,
Typhoid, Pneumonia,
common cold, amoebiasis,
ring worm)
Basic concepts of 1Q 1Q 1Q 1Q
immunology - vaccines (3 marks) (3 marks) (2 marks) (1 mark)
Cancer, HIV and AIDs; 1Q 1Q
Adolescene, drug and (3 marks) (2 marks)
alcholol abuse
Immune Responses, blood Transfusion, Social Issue, Human Diseases, Symptoms and Pre-
ventive measures , Immunity and Drugs are most important concepts of the chapter.
8.86 CHAPTER 8 : Human Health and Diseases
[Topic 1] Health, Common Diseases in Human and

Immunity
Summary • Bacterial Diseases:
 Typhoid:
Health and Disease It is caused by bacterium Salmonella typhi and
• Introduction: the symptoms include stomach pain, high fever,
 Health is a state of complete physical, mental, weakness, headache etc.
social and well-being. Human health can be  Pneumonia:
affected by lifestyle, genetic disorders and It is caused by bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae
infections. Good health is maintained by regular
and Haemophilus influenzae and the symptoms
exercise, balanced diet and personal hygiene.
include fever, cough, chills, headache, etc.
 When functioning of one or more organs or
 Dysentery:
systems of the body is affected, that state is called
disease. Diseases are grouped as infectious and It is caused by bacterium Shigella bacillus and the
non-infectious. symptoms include abdominal cramps, diarrhea,
 The diseases caused stomach-ache, etc.
by gene mutation,
c h r o m o s o m a l
aberrations or
environmental factors
are congenital as they
are present in the body
from birth.
 The diseases which are
developed after birth are
acquired diseases which
can further be of two
types: Communicable
and non-communicable
diseases.
 The diseases which
are infectious and
caused by bacteria,
fungi, protozoa, etc. are
communicable while
the diseases which do
not spread and remain
confined to people like
deficiency diseases,
allergies, cancer and
degenerative diseases
are non-communicable
diseases.
Common Diseases
in Humans
Infectious diseases can
be divided into five types:
Bacterial, Viral, Protozoan,
Fungal and Helminthic.
CHAPTER 8 : Human Health and Diseases 8.87
• Viral Disease: • Innate immunity:

 Common cold: It occurs due to rhino viruses. It  It is present in an individual since birth and
is characterized by sore throat, cough, headache, remains throughout life and it is a non-specific
nasal congestion, etc. It can be caused by defense system. The barriers could be of four types:
transmission through contaminated objects. - Physiological barrier: Microbial growth in the
• Protozoan Diseases: body is prevented by physiological barrier like
 Malaria: Plasmodium is a protozoan which causes tears from eyes, acid in stomach, saliva in
malaria. Plasmodium has four different species: mouth, etc.
P. Vivax, P. ovale, P. malariae, P. falciparum. The - Cytokine barrier: Virus infected cells which
malignant, malaria caused by P. falciparum is the secrete protein called interferon protect non
most serious one and can be fatal. Symptoms of infected cells from further viral infection.
malaria include, high fever, sweating, headache,, - Physical barrier: They prevent microorganisms
nausea, fatigue, etc. to enter different parts of the body like
• Fungal Disease: gastrointestinal tracts, skin, etc.
 Ringworm: It is a type of fungal disease which is - Cellular barrier: These destroy microbes.
caused by fungi Epidermophyton, Microsporum, Example: Some natural killer cells in the blood,
and Trichophyton. It occurs from use of comb, polymorpho-nuclear leukocytes, etc.
clothes, etc. of infected person or from soil. It • Acquired immunity:
grows in region like skin folds, in between toes  It is acquired in the body of an individual after
by heat and moisture. Appearance of scaly, dry birth and can be short lived.
lesions on skin, scalp and nails, intense itching
 If same pathogen is exposed several times then
are some of its symptoms.
immune response would be quick as our immune
• Helminthic Diseases: system have a good memory.
 Ascariasis: Intestinal endoparasite called Ascaris  These responses are produced by B-lymphocytes
or common round worm is the main cause of
(produce antibodies) and T-lymphocytes (help
Ascariasis. The eggs of parasite are excreted along
B-cells to produce antibodies).
with the faeces of infected person contaminate soil,
 Structure of antibody: Antibody is represented
water, plants, etc. which reaches to human beings
as H2L2 as each antibody molecule has 4 peptide
and cause infection. Fever, internal bleeding,
chains out of which two are small, called light
anemia are some of its symptoms.
chains and 2 are longer called heavy chains.
 Filariasis/Elephantiasis: It is caused by
 There are two types of acquired immunity
filarial worms (Wuchereria malayi, Wuchereria
bancrofti). The organs in which worm lives gets response – humoral immune response and cell-
severely inflammated. Genital organs and limbs mediated immunity.
are deformed which are affected by it. Antigen binding site Antigen binding site
• Prevention and Control of Diseases: N
 Maintaining personal hygiene by keeping the
body clean, consuming clean drinking water, food,
etc.
 Maintaining public hygiene by disposing of wastes
Light
and excreta properly, cleaning and disinfecting
chain
water reservoirs ad keeping a check on breeding
places of vectors.
Immunity Heavy chain

It is the immune system which can prevent us from
these diseases. Entry of pathogens can be blocked
by various defenses present in our body. There are C C
some antimicrobial substances present in saliva, Fig.: Structure of an Antibody Molecule
tears, mucous membranes, skin helps to protect us • Active and Passive immunity:
from the pathogens which might enter into our body.  Antibodies are produced in the host body as it is
Antibodies and specified lymphocytes are produced to exposed to antigens present in the form of living
work against specific antigens. Immunity is basically or dead microbes. This type of immunity is called
of two types: Innate and Acquired active immunity.
 In some cases, antibodies are prepared and just  Its infection can be spread by various ways like
provided to the body to protect against foreign infected blood, sexual intercourse, contaminated
agents. This type of immunity is called passive needles, etc.
immunity.  There are various symptoms of AIDS like
• Immunization: mononucleosis-like symptoms (high fever, chills,
 Active Immunization: When a vaccine is itchy rash, swollen lymph glands, etc.), weakness
introduced in body, the antibodies which are and weight loss.
produced against the antigens neutralize the
pathogenic agents during infection.  AIDS can be treated by antiretroviral drugs and
it is only partially effective. It can prolong the life
 Passive Immunization: It is pre-formed antibodies
or antitoxin, introduced in body as injections for of the patient but cannot prevent death.
quick immune response.  AIDS is diagnosed by ELIZA test (Enzyme-linked
• Allergy: immune-sorbent assay)
 An amplified response to some antigens called  Prevention involves- controlling drug abuse,
allergens present in the environment is called advocating safe sex, educating people about AIDS,
allergy. Some of the allergens are mites in animal etc.
dander, dust, pollens, etc.
 Histamine and serotonin are some of the chemicals
which are released from mast cells due to which
causes allergy.
 Running nose, sneezing, difficulty in breathing
are some of the symptoms of allergy.
 Anti-histamine, steroids and adrenaline are used
to quickly reduce the symptoms of allergy.
• Auto Immunity:
 Higher vertebrates can differentiate foreign
organisms and foreign molecules.
 Body attacks self cells due to genetic and some
other unknown reasons which is called auto-
immune disease causing damage to the body.
 One of the example of auto-immune disease is
Rheumatoid arthritis.
• Immune System in Human Body:
 Immune system plays a vital role in identifying
foreign antigens, remembering them and
responding them. It is crucial in allergic reactions,
organ transplantation and auto immune diseases.
Immune system in human body comprises
of lymphoid organ, tissues, cells and soluble
molecules like antibodies.
 Lymphoid Organs: The organs where lymphocytes Fig.: Replication of Retrovirus
originate, mature and proliferate. They are of two • Cancer:
types- primary lymphoid organs and secondary  It is the proliferation or uncontrolled growth of
lymphoid organs.
cells. These cells divide uncontrollably and are not
 Bone marrow and thymus come under primary
affected by growth factors or property of growth
lymphoid organs, whereas spleen, tonsils, lymph
inhibition.
nodes and MALT are examples of secondary
lymphoid organs.  A large mass of cells is formed by repeated division
• AIDS: called tumors. The cancer cells move from one
 A sexually transmitted disease called AIDS part to other part of the body by body fluids.
(Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) kill  There are two types of tumors- benign tumor
number of people worldwide. which is confined to its place of origin and is less
 A retrovirus which has RNA genome, Human harmful and other is malignant tumor which
Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) is the reason for AIDS. keeps spreading to nearby tissues and is fatal.
 Agents which cause transformation of normal cells 8. Identify A, D, E and F in the diagram of an
into cancerous cells are called carcinogens. They antibody molecule given below: [DELHI 2011]
can be physical agents, chemical or biological. A
 Cancer can be detected by various methods like:
- Computed Tomography where a 3-D image is
generated using X-rays. B
- It can be detected by histopathological studies D-chain
C
and biopsy of the tissue.
- Non-ionizing radiation and strong magnetic
field is used for resonance imaging. It detects
physiological and pathological changes in living
tissue. E-chain
- Different tests can be conducted like bone F
Bond/Bridge
marrow and blood test for increased cell counts.
- Cancer in internal organs can be detected using 9. Differentiate between benign and malignant
radiography by X-rays. tumours. [ALL INDIA 2011]
 Cancer can be treated by various methods: 10. Name the two special types of lymphocytes in
- Chemotherapy is done to kill cancer cells but the humans. How do they differ in their roles in
drugs used cause some side effects as well. immune response? [DELHI 2012]
11. Name the bacterium that causes typhoid.
- Surgery can be done for Tumors to avoid further
spread of cells. Mention two diagnostic symptoms. How is this
disease transmitted to others? [DELHI 2012]
- Immune system can be activated by some
12. (a) Highlight the role of thymus as a lymphoid
immunotherapy response modifiers.
organ.
(b) Name the cells that are released from the
PREVIOUS YEARS’ above mentioned gland. Mention how they

help in immunity. [ALL INDIA 2012]
13. (a) Name the protozoan parasite that causes
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS amoebic dysentery in humans.
TOPIC 1 (b) Mention the diagnostic symptoms of the
disease.
1 Mark Questions (c) How is the disease transmitted to others?
1. State two different roles of spleen in the human [ALL INDIA 2012]
body. [DELHI 2012] 14. Write the events that take place when a vaccine
2. Name any two types of cells which act as for any disease is introduced into the human
‘Cellular barriers’ to provide Innate Immunity body. [ALL INDIA 2013]
in humans. [DELHI 2014] 15. Why is a person with cuts and bruises following
3. Why is secondary immune response more an accident administered tetanus antitoxin?
intense than the primary immune response in Give reasons. [ALL INDIA 2013]
humans? [ALL INDIA 2014] 16. List the symptoms of Ascariasis. How does a
4. How do cytokine barriers provide innate healthy person acquire this infection?
immunity in humans? [ALL INDIA 2018] [ALL INDIA 2014]
5. Name two diseases whose spread can be controlled 17. Mention one application for each of the following:
by the eradication of Aedes mosquitoes. (a) Passive immunization
[DELHI 2018] (b) Antihistamine
(c) Colostrum
(d) Cytokinin-barrier [ALL INDIA 2017]
2 Marks Questions
6. Name the two types of immune systems in a
human body. Why are cell mediated and humoral 3 Marks Questions
immunities so called? [DELHI 2011] 18. (i) Write the scientific names of the two species
7. Write the scientific names of the causal of filarial worms causing filariasis.
organisms of elephantiasis and ringworm in (ii) How do they affect the body of infected person?
humans. Mention the body parts affected by (iii) How does the disease spread?
them. [DELHI 2011] [ALL INDIA 2011]
19. Trace the life-cycle of malarial parasite in the (b) If the advice is not followed by the patient,
human body when bitten by an infected female there is an apprehension that the patient
Anopheles. [DELHI 2012] might contract a disease that would destroy
20. Community Service department of your school the immune system of his/her body. Explain
plans a visit to a slum area near the school with with the help of schematic diagram only how
an objective to educate the slum dwellers with the immune system would get affected and
respect to health and hygiene. destroyed. [ALL INDIA 2016]
(a) Why is there a need to organize such visits? 26. Name a human disease, its causal organism,
(b) Write the steps you will highlight, as a symptoms (any three) and vector, spread by
member of this department, in your intake of water and food contaminated by
Interaction with them to enable them to lead a human faecal matter. [ALL INDIA 2017]
healthy life. [ALL INDIA 2014]
21. A team of students are preparing to participate 5 Marks Questions
in the interschool sports meet. During a practice 27. Describe the asexual and sexual phases of life
session you find some vials with labels of certain cycle of Plasmodium that causes malaria in
cannabinoids. humans. [DELHI 2013]
(a) Will you report to the authorities? Why?
(b) Name a plant from which such chemicals
are obtained.
(c) Write the effect of these chemicals on human
body. [DELHI 2015]
22. A heavily bleeding and bruised road accident
victim was brought to a nursing home. The
doctor immediately gave him an injection to
protect him against a deadly disease.
(a) Write what the doctor injected into the
patient’s body.
(b) How do you think this injection would
protect the patient against the disease?
(c) Name the disease against which this
injection was given and the kind of immunity
it provides. [ALL INDIA 2015]
23. During a school trip to ‘Rohtang Pass’, one of
your classmate suddenly developed ‘altitude
sickness’. But, she recovered after sometime.
(a) Mention one symptom to diagnose the
sickness.
(b) What caused the sickness?
(c) How could she recover by herself after
sometime? [DELHI 2016]
24. (a) It is generally observed that the children Fig.: Plasmodium life cycle
who had suffered from chicken-pox in 28. A person in your colony has recently been
their childhood may not contract the same diagnosed with AIDS. People/residents in the
disease in their adulthood.’ Explain giving colony want him to leave the colony for the fear
reasons the basis of such an immunity in an of spread of AIDS.
individual. Name this kind of immunity. (a) Write your view on the situation, giving
(b) What are interferons? Mention their role. reasons.
[ALL INDIA 2016] (b) List the possible preventive measures that
25. (a) What precaution(s) would you recommend you would suggest to the residents of your
to a patient requiring repeated blood locality in a meeting organised by you so
transfusion? that they understand the situation.
(c) Write the symptoms and the causative agent 10. T cell and B cells are the two special types
of AIDS [ALL INDIA 2013] of lymphocytes in humans. B cells are a part
29. (a) Cancer is one of the most dreaded diseases of humoral immune response and respond to
of humans. Explain ‘Contact inhibition’ and antigen by producing antibodies. T cell is a
‘Metastasis’ with respect to the disease. part of cell mediated immunity and respond
(b) Name the group of genes which have been to antigen by helping B cells to produce
identified in normal cells that could lead to antibodies. [2]
cancer and how they do so? 11. Salmonella typhi is the bacterium that causes
(c) Name any two techniques which are useful typhoid. Stomach pain and headache are
to detect cancers of internal organs. two diagnostic symptoms. This disease is
(d) Why are cancer patients often given transmitted through contaminated food or
-interferon as part of the treatment? water. [2]
[DELHI 2014] 12. (a) Thymus is an important gland involved in
Solutions the maturation of lymphocytes and T cells.
1. Two different roles of spleen in the human body (b) T cells are produced from thymus gland. T
are filtering of the blood and recycling of old cells help the B cells in producing antibodies
blood cells. [1] and are a part of cell mediated immunity.
2. Natural killer cells and leukocytes are two types [1+1]
of cells which act as ‘Cellular barriers’ to provide 13. (a) Entamoeba histolytica is the parasite that
Innate Immunity in humans. [1] lives in small intestine, and causes amoebic
3. In secondary immune response, memory cells get dysentery in humans. [1]
activated and come in action when the second (b) Diagnostic symptoms of the disease include
time the person is exposed to same antigen, stool with blood and abdominal pain and
therefore, the secondary immune response is cramps. [½]
more intense than the primary immune response (c) The disease is transmitted through
in humans. [1] contaminated food and drinking water. [½]
4. Innate immunity is an important component 14. Vaccine stimulates the production of antibody
of the host defense against infection. Innate and memory cells because it acts as a weak
immunity is initiated within hours of infection antigen when the first time vaccine is given
and provides a rapid defence by secreting for specific antigen. When this pathogen enters
proteins called interferons which protect non- the second time (during an infection) in the
infected cells from further viral infection. [1] body then memory cells generated in prior
5. Dengue and Chikungunya can be controlled by vaccination, elicits a rapid and massive response
the eradication of Aedes mosquito. [1] against the pathogen. [2]
6. Cell mediated and humoral immunity are two 15. Tetanus antitoxin contains antibody against
types of immune systems in a human body. pathogen it binds and inactivates pathogen. This
Humoral immunity involve the B lymphocytes is an example of passive immunity. [2]
which produced the antibodies and cell mediated 16. Blockage of intestine passage, muscular pain,
immunity involve the T lymphocytes. [2] anaemia, internal bleeding are the symptoms
7. Scientific names of the causal organisms of of Ascariasis. A healthy person acquire this
elephantiasis is Wuchereia bancrofti and infection by the foods contaminated with the
scientific names of the causal organisms of eggs of parasite. [2]
ringworm is Trichophyton. Body parts affected 17. (a) Passive immunisation is a process of
in elephantiasis is lower limb lymphatic vessels acquiring immunity. It is achieved by
and body parts affected by ringworm is skin.[2] introducing ready made antibodies into the
8. A is representing antigen binding site, D is body. It provides quick immune response to
representing light chain, E is representing heavy the body. [½]
chain, F is representing disulphide bonds. [2] (b) Antihistamines are the chemicals which are
9. Benign tumours is located at a single place given against allergic reactions. [½]
and cannot spread from one part of the body to (c) Colostrum is the yellow fluid comes out from
another whereas malignant tumours involve the the mother’s breast just after the child birth.
movement of cancer cells from one part of the It contains antibodies which provide passive
body to another. [2] immunity to the new born. [½]
(d) Cytokinin-barrier is a glycoprotein which (c) The injection was given to prevent tetanus
protects non-infected cells from further viral caused by Clostridium tetani, which
infection. [½] usually exists in environment as spores
18. (i) The scientific names of the two species and may again access to the body through
of filarial worms causing filariasis are
wound. The injection containing antiserum
Wuchereria bancrofti and Wuchereria
provides quick response by giving passive
malayi. [1]
(ii) Both the worms attack the lymphatic vessels immunity. [1]
of lower limb. This result in the swelling of 23. (a) The symptoms may appear as nausea,
lower limbs and result in the disease called fatigue and heart palpitation. [1]
as elephantiasis. [1] (b) The sickness was due to low atmospheric
(iii) The disease spread is spread through female pressure which prevails at high altitude.
mosquito bite. [1] At the high altitude, the body does not get
19. P. falciparum enter into the human body in the sufficient oxygen due to low atmospheric
form of a sporozoite through a bite from a female pressure. [1]
Anopheles mosquito and enters the blood stream
(c) The body of the girl student compensates low
followed by liver cells. There they reproduce
oxygen availability by increasing number
asexually by dividing into schizonts that consist
of many merozoites. [1] of red blood cells (RBC) production. The
In the mosquito gut they undergo sexual binding affinity of haemoglobin decreases.
reproduction, the microgamete nucleus divides Hence, breathing rate increases and the
three times and fertilizes a macrogamete body gets acclimatised. [1]
forming a zygote. The zygote, after fertilization, 24. (a) The children who have suffered from
changes into - ookinete. The ookinete, then, chickenpox in their childhood may not suffer
enter the mosquito midgut wall, where it encysts from the disease again due to acquired
into a formation called oocyst. [2] active immunity. The first infection of
20. (a) There a need to organize such visits to create
chicken pox produces a primary response
the awareness in the people about the need
of hygiene to prevent many diseases that of low intensity against chicken pox virus.
are spread through contaminated food and On subsequent encounters with the same
water. [1] pathogen, a secondary response occurs of
(b) The steps I will highlight, as a member of high intensity. This is attributed to the fact
this department are: that our body has memory of the pathogen
(i) Will teach them about the importance from the first encounter which had resulted
of healthy life. in the production of antibodies against the
(ii) Will teach them about deadly diseases pathogen. Hence, no contract with disease.
and the vaccination of these diseases.
[2½]
(iii) Will teach them about the proper
(b) Interferons are proteins secreted by virus-
disposal of garbage. [1+1]
21. (a) Of course I will tell the authority about infected cells. These interferons protect
the presence of vials. As cannabinoids is a the non-infected cells from getting infected
type of drug. Intake of this drug is illegal by inhibiting viral replication. When an
practice. [1] interferon is given to cancer patient it
(b) It is obtained from the inflorescences of the activates immune system and may destroy
plant Cannabis sativa plant. [1] tumour. [1½]
(c) Cannabinoids effects on cardiovascular 25. (a) The patients who require regular blood
system of the body. [1] transfusion should take following
22. (a) The patient was injected with antiserum
precautions: I. Every time use of new
containing preformed antibodies against the
sterilised needle for blood transfusion. II.
organism that may cause infection or toxin
produced by it. [1] Transfused blood must be tested for HIV
(b) The preformed antibody injected, act on and it should be HIV free. [1]
the pathogen immediately to provide (b) In case contaminated blood is infected, HIV
protection. [1] virus may enter and cause AIDS. [1]
In the mosquito gut they form sexual

reproduction, the microgamete nucleus divides
three times and fertilizes a macrogamete
forming a zygote. The zygote, after fertilization,
changed into - ookinete. The ookinete, then,
enter the mosquito midgut wall, where it encysts
into a formation called oocyst. [5]
28. (a) AIDS does not spread by shaking hand and
use of common utensil so there is no need of
fear to live with AIDS patient. [1]
(b) Taking care of the blood during transfusion,
use of only disposable needles and syringes
in hospitals and clinics, free distribution of
condoms, controlling drug abuse, advocating
safe sex are some preventive measures that
you would suggest to the residents of your
locality in a meeting organised by you so
that they understand the situation [2]
(c) AIDS is caused by the Human Immuno
deficiency Virus (HIV), which is a type of
retrovirus. Symptoms of AIDS include fever,
Fig.: Schematic diagram showing how immune sore throat, weight loss, fever and recurrent
system get affected and destroyed [1] infections. [2]
26. 29. (a) Cancer is one of the most dreaded disease of
humans. This is because it is associated with
Disease Causal Symptoms Vector
the phenomenon called as “metastatis” in
organism
which group of infected cells have a tendency
Amoebiasis Entamoeba- Symptoms Houseflies
(Amoebic histolytica, of include act as
to move from one location to another. Hence,
dysentery) is a protozo- constipa- mechanical the disease spread very fast and individuals
an parasite tion, abdom- carriers die. [2]
in the large inal pain and serve
(b) Oncogenes and proto-oncogenes are the
intestine and cramps, to transmit
of human stools with the parasite group of genes that have been identified
which excess from faeces in normal cells. These genes when become
causes mucous and of infected active under certain conditions, would lead
blood clots. person to
food to oncogenic transformation of the cells. [1]
[3] (c) Techniques such as radiography, CT
(Computed Tomography) and MRI (Magnetic
27. P. falciparum go into the human in the form
Resonance Imaging) are useful to detect
of a sporozoite through a bite from a female
cancers of internal organs. [1]
anopheles mosquito and enters the bloodstream (d) Cancer patients are often given alpha-
followed by liver cells. There they reproduce interferonsas part of their treatment because
asexually by dividing into schizonts that consist it activates a patient’s immune system and
of many merozoites. helps in destroying the tumour. [1]
[Topic 2] Adolescence and Drug/Alcohol Abuse

Drugs and Alcohol • Opioids:
 These drugs bind to the opioid receptors present
Use of drugs and alcohol cause harmful effects on the
in the central nervous system.
body. Some commonly abused drugs are opioids, coca
 Heroin which is chemically called diacetylmorphine
alkaloids and cannabinoids. is obtained from acetylation of morphine. It is a
depressant which slows down body functions.
• Cannabinoids: • Depression, fatigue, rebellious and aggressive

 These interact with receptors present in the brain behavior, withdrawal and isolation are some of
called cannabinoid receptors. the effects of alcohol and drugs.
 These are taken by oral ingestion or inhalation
which affects cardiovascular system of the body.
Prevention and Control
• Measures like education and counseling, seeking
 Natural cannabinoids are obtained from plant
help from parents and peers, avoid undue peer
Cannabis sativa.
pressure, etc can be taken for prevention and
• Cocaine:
control of drugs and alcohol abuse.
 It is obtained from the plant Erythroxylum coca.
It has a stimulating action on the central nervous
system.
 It interferes with transportation of PREVIOUS YEARS’
neurotransmitter dopamine.
• Alcohol:
 Alcoholic drink is further divided into beverages TOPIC 2
and spirits. Wine, beer, etc. which have alcohol
content between 5-15% come under beverages and 1 Mark Questions
whisky, brandy, etc. which have alcohol content 1. How does smoking tobacco in human lead to the
more than 50% are types of spirits. oxygen deficiency in their body?
 Alcohol has various effects on human body. It [ALL INDIA 2012]
hampers speech, thinking ability, movement, 2. Why sharing of injection needles between two
blurred vision, loss of body balance, vomiting, individuals is not recommended?
nausea etc. It causes cirrhosis and fatty liver. [DELHI 2013]
3. When does a human body elicit an anamnestic
Adolescence and Drug/Alcohol response? [ALL INDIA 2013]
Abuse
• Adolescence: 2 Marks Questions
 It is a phase is which child attains maturity for 4. Name the plant source of the drug popularly
effective participation in society. called “smack” How does it affect the body of
 This phase links childhood and adulthood, which the abuser? [ALL INDIA 2012]
makes it crucial and vulnerable stage of life. 5. (a) Name the source plant of heroin drug. How
• Causes of Drug or Alcohol Use in Adolescence is it obtained from the plant?
Period: (b) Write the effects of heroin on the human
 Curiosity, excitement, need for adventure are body. [DELHI 2018]
main causes of beginning drug or alcohol use by
adolescents.
3 Marks Questions
Addiction and Dependence 6. (a) Why is there a fear amongst the guardians
• Addiction: that their adolescent wards may get trapped
It is a psychological attachment to effects such in drug/alcohol abuse?
as euphoria and temporary feeling of well being (b) Explain ‘addiction’ and ‘dependence’ in
associated with drugs and alcohol. respect of drug/alcohol abuse in youth.
• Dependence: [ALL INDIA 2017]
The body’s tendency to show a characteristic and
unpleasant withdrawal syndrome because of Solutions
regular dose of drugs or alcohol is dependence. It
1. Smoking tobacco produces blood carbon
may lead to depression.
monoxide content and decreases the oxygen
Effects of Drugs and Alcohol Abuse binding capacity of the blood. It causes Oxygen
• Showing reckless behavior, vandalism and violence deficiency in their body. [1]
are some adverse effects of drugs and alcohol abuse 2. Sharing of injection needles between two
• The chronic use of drugs and alcohol damages individuals is not recommended because it can
nervous system and liver this is termed as spread disease and infection from unfit person
cirrhosis. to healthy person. [1]
3. An anamnestic response also known as 6. (a) Reasons for fear amongst the guardians
secondary immune response. Human body elicit of their adolescents for trapping habits of
an anamnestic response when it gets exposed to alcohol or drug abuse:
same antigen second time. [1] (i) Influence of Peer pressure.
4. Papaver somniferum is the source of the (ii) Out of curiosity, excitement and
drug popularly called “smack”. It affects the experiment.
(iii) To escape from stress, frustration and
respiratory and circulatory depressant and
depression.
slows down body functions. [2]
(iv) To overcome hardships of life.
5. (a) Heroin commonly called smackis chemically
(v) No supportive family members. [2]
diacetyl morphine which is a white,
(b) Addiction: The psychological attachment
odourless, bitter crystalline compound. to some effects such as euphoria and a
This is obtained by acetylation of morphine, feeling of temporary well-being associated
which is extracted from the latex of poppy with drugs and alcohol. Dependence: The
plant Papaver somniferum. [1] tendency of the body that shows withdrawal
(b) Heroin is a depressant and slows down body symptoms when doses of drug or alcohol is
functions. [1] suddenly discontinued. [1]
CHAPTER 9
Strategies for
Enhancement in Food
Production

Improvement in food 1Q 1Q 1Q 1Q 1Q
production : Plant (2 marks), (3 marks), (2 marks), (3 marks) (2 marks)
breeding, tissue culture, 1Q 1Q
single cell protein, (3 marks) (2 marks)
Biofortification
Apiculature and Animal 1Q 1Q 1Q
husbandry (1 mark) (3 marks) (3 marks)
Bio-control Agents, Bioactive Molecules, Disease Resistance and Plant/Animal Breeding
Techniques are most important concepts of the chapter.
9.98 CHAPTER 9 : Strategies for Enhancement in Food Production
[Topic 1] Animal husbandry

Summary • Outbreeding:
 When breeding is between different breeds of
It is the agricultural practice of breeding and raising animals or breeding of unrelated animals or
livestock like buffaloes, cows, pigs, goats, etc. different species altogether.
Management of farms and farm  Types of outbreeding:
- Out-crossing: Mating of animals within the same
animals breed, but having no common ancestors on either
• Dairy farm management: side of their pedigree up to 4-6 generations. It
 It deals with the processes and systems that helps in overcoming inbreeding depression.
increase yield and improve quality of milk. - Cross-breeding: In this, superior males of one
 For better yield from cattle: breed is crossed with superior females of another
breed.
- The cattle needs to be well fed, well housed get
- Interspecific hybridization: In this method the
adequate water and remain disease free
male and female animals of two different species
- Special emphasis should be given to quality and
are crossed. The progeny attains desirable
quantity of fodder.
characters from both the parents.
- Cleanliness and hygiene of cattle should be the
- Controlled Breeding Experiments: It is carried out
main priority while milking and then while using artificial insemination. In this method the
storing and transporting the milk. semen is collected from the male that is chosen as
• Poultry farm management: a parent and injected into the reproductive tract
 Poultry is the class of domesticated fowl used for of the selected female by the breeder.
food or for their eggs. Bee keeping:
 Aspects of poultry farm management: • It is also called apiculture. It deals with the
- The breed that is selected should be disease free maintenance of hives of honeybees for the
and suitable for breeding and it also includes production of honey and bee wax.
proper feed and water for domesticated birds, • Honey and bee wax both have industrial purpose.
hygienic and health care of birds, proper and safe Honey is used in various medicines and for
farm conditions. consumption as it is high in nutritional value. Bee
wax is used in preparing cosmetics, polishes, etc.
Animal Breeding • Bees also help in pollination of various flowering
It aims at increasing the yield of animals and plants and crops.
improving the desirable qualities of the produce.
Fisheries:
• Inbreeding:
• This industry deals with the catching, processing
 When mating is between animals of the same or selling of fish, shellfish or other aquatic animals.
breed for 4 to 6 generations is called as inbreeding. • In coastal area it is major source of employment and
 Superior males and females of breed are mated in income, as it is the only source of livelihood for many.
pairs to get superior progeny.
 Superior female is the cow or buffalo that produces
more milk and superior male is the bull that helps
in producing superior progenies.
PREVIOUS YEARS’
 Inbreeding helps in increasing homozygosity to EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
evolve a pure line animal. It also plays a role in
accumulating superior genes and discarding less TOPIC 1
desirable genes. 1 Mark Questions
 However, it also results in inbreeding depression, 1. Suggest the breeding method most suitable
where the progeny may reduce productivity and for animals that are below average in milk
fertility. productivity. [DELHI 2016]
CHAPTER 9 : Strategies for Enhancement in Food Production 9.99
2. Write the name of the following:

Solutions
(a) The most common species of bees suitable
1. To improve productivity in animals any one
for apiculture
of the following methods can be followed:
(b) An improved breed of chicken [DELHI 2012]
Outbreeding, outcrossing, cross-breeding,
3. Write the importance of MOET. [DELHI 2013]
artificial insemination, hybridisation, etc. [1]
2. (a) Apis indica is the most common species of
2 Marks Questions bees suitable for apiculture [½]
4. State the disadvantage of inbreeding among (b) Leghorn is an improved breed of chicken
cattle. How it can be overcome? [DELHI 2014] [½]
3. Multiple Ovulation and Embryo Transfer
3 Marks Questions (MOET) is an advanced method of cattle breeding
5. Enlist the steps involved in inbreeding of cattle. which increases the cattle size in a short time
Suggest two disadvantages of this practice. including added benefits like production of lean
[DELHI 2015] meat (less lipid and more protein content) and
6. Enumerate any six essentials of good, effective high milk yielding breeds of females. [1]
Dairy Farm Management Practices. 4. Inbreeding among cattle result in inbreeding
[ALL INDIA 2015] depression. It can be overcome by outbreeding.
7. (a) Write the two limitations of traditional [2]
breeding technique that led to promotion of 5. Inbreeding is the process of the mating of more
micro propagation. closely related individuals within the same
(b) M e n t i o n t w o a d v a n t a g e s o f m i c r o breed for 4-6 generations. [½]
propagation. The steps involved in breeding of cattle:
(a) Selection of superior males and superior
(c) Give two examples where it is commercially
females of the same breed. [½]
adopted. [ALL INDIA 2016]
(b) Allowed them to mate. [½]
8. (a) What is inbreeding depression?
(c) Evaluation of the progeny obtained from
(b) Explain the importance of “selection” during
them after mating. [½]
inbreeding in cattle. [DELHI 2017]
(d) Superior males and females among them are
9. Explain out-breeding, out-crossing and cross-
identified for further mating. [½]
breeding practices in animal husbandry.
(e) A superior female in the case of cattle gives
[DELHI 2018]
more milk and superior male can gives
10. What is inbreeding depression and how is it
superior progeny as compared to those of
caused in organisms? Write any two advantages
other males. [½]
of inbreeding. [DELHI 2011]
Continued inbreeding reduces fertility and even
11. (a) What is the programme called that is
productivity.
involved in improving success rate of
6. The essentials of good and effective dairy farm
production of desired hybrid and herd size
management practices are:
of cattle?
(i) Selection of good and healthy breed of dairy
(b) Explain the method used for carrying this
farm animals. [½]
programme for cows. [DELHI 2012]
(ii) Cattle shed should have adequate ventilation,
12. Differentiate between the inbreeding and out
suitable inside temperature, sufficient light,
breeding in cattle. State one advantage and one
water, air and well-drained drains and
disadvantage for each of them. [DELHI 2013]
sufficient accommodation space. [½]
(iii) Each animal should be given proper and
5 Marks Questions balanced feed. [½]
13. (a) State the objective of animal breeding. (iv) Hygiene and proper cleanliness should be
(b) List the importance and limitations of included in the housing of animals. [½]
inbreeding. How can the limitations be (v) Animals should be vaccinated regularly in
overcome? order to protect them from diseases. [½]
(c) Give an example of a new breed each of cattle (vi) Regular visits by a veterinary doctor is
and poultry. [ALL INDIA 2014] must. [½]
7. (a) Two limitations of traditional breeding which 11. (a) The programme is called by name Multiple
led to the promotion of micropropagation: Ovulation Embryo Transfer Technology
(i) Productivity of Hybrids is much lower (MOET). [1]
as compassed to tissue culture. (b) In this method a cow is administered
(ii) Hybrid character get segregate in hormones to induce follicular maturation
future generations. Cost of producing and super ovulation --instead of one egg
Hybrids is very high. I uncertainty of which they normally yield per cycle they
desired combination. [1] produce 6-8 eggs. The animal is either mated
(b) Two advantages of micropropagation: with an elite bull or artificially inseminated,
(i) This process can produce larger number and the fertilised eggs at 8-32 cell stages, are
of plants in very short time. recovered non surgically and transferred to
(ii) Produces disease free plants. [1] surrogate mothers. [2]
(c) Micropropagation technology is commercially 12.
adopted for: Inbreeding in Outbreeding in
Tomato and banana plants. [1] cattle cattle
8. (a) When inbreeding is carried for long
Mating of closely Mating of unrelated
time it usually reduces fertility, and
related individual individual
even productivity or yield. The continued
inbreeding is called inbreeding depression. Mating is between Mating is between
[1½] the same breed for the same breed
(b) “Selection” during inbreeding in cattle 4-6 generations. which are not bred
helps in accumulation of superior genes at least for the past
4-6 generations. It is
and discard undesirable genes. Hence, it
even done between
increases homozygosity and pure lines.
different species
It helps to restore fertility and helps to
[1]
increase yield. [1½]
Advantage of inbreeding: it is used for developing
9. Out-breeding, out-crossing and cross-breeding
pure lines.
are breeding practices for animals. These
Advantage of outbreeding: it is used for
practices are carried out to increase the yield.
producing organism with desirable traits. [1]
Out-breeding is the Breeding of unrelated
Disadvantage of inbreeding: it result in
animals of the same breed but not having common
inbreeding depression
ancestors for 4-6 generations (outcrossing) or
Disadvantage of outbreeding: the organism are
of different breeds (cross-breeding) or even
produces are not very fertile. [1]
different species (interspecific hybridisation).
13. (a) Objectives of animal breeding are (i)
[1]
production of animals having high yield of
Out-crossing is a type of out-breeding in which
biological products (ii) improved varieties
mating of animals, within the same breed but
of animal and disease resistance(iii)
having no common ancestors on either side of
Elimination of harmful traits [2]
their pedigree up to 4-6 generations and the
(b) Advantage of inbreeding: it is used for
resulting offspring is called outcross. It is the
developing pure lines. Disadvantage
best breeding method for animals. [1]
of inbreeding: it results in inbreeding
Cross-breeding is also a type of out-breeding in
depression. It can be overcome by out
which the mating of superior males of one breed
breeding. [2]
is done with the superior female of another breed
(c) Jersey is the new breed each of cattle and
is called cross- breeding. This is done to combine
Leghorn is new breed each of poultry [1]
the desirable qualities of two breeds into a single
individual. [1]
10. Continued inbreeding specially close inbreeding,
usually reduces productivity and fertility as
recessive genes get exposed. Two advantages of
inbreeding are superiority is maintained among
generation and true breeding trait is obtained.
[3]
[Topic 2] Plant Breeding

Plant Breeding radiations and selecting and using the plants
that have the desirable character as a source in
It is the purposeful manipulation of plant species in breeding.
order to create desired plant types that are better
suited for cultivation, give better yields and are Crop Variety Resistance to
disease resistant. diseases
• Steps of Plant Breeding: Wheat Himgiri Leaf and stripe
Breeding a new genetic variety of crop involves rust, hill bunt
following steps:
Brassica Pusa swarnim White rust
 Collection of variability
(Karan rai)
 Evaluation and selection of parents
Cauliflower Pusa Shubhra, Black rot and
 Cross hybridization among the selected parents
Pusa Snowball Curl
 Selection and testing of superior recombinants
K-1 blight black rot
 Testing, release and commercialization of new
cultivars
• Wheat and Rice: Cowpea Pusa Komal Bacterial blight
 Due to development of semi-dwarf varieties Chilli Pusa Sadabahar Chilly mosaic
of wheat and rice, their production increased virus, Tobacco
enormously during 1960 to 2000.
mosaic virus and
 This variety of wheat was developed by Nobel Leaf curl
Laureate Norman E. Borlaug
• Plant Breeding for Developing Resistance to
• Sugarcane:
Insect Pests:
 Saccharum barberi that grew in north India was
 Insect and pest infestation destroy crops on a very
crossed with Saccharum officinarum of south
large scale. So various morphological, biochemical
India as it had higher sugar content and thicker
or physiological characteristics can help plant to
stem.
become insect resistant.
 Hybrid had desirable traits of both species; it
 For example, hairy leaves in several plants, solid
had high sugar content with thick stems and had
stems, etc. are some of the characteristics to keep
ability to grow in north India.
the plant insect resistant.
• Millets:
 Breeding hybrid varieties of maize, jowar and Crop Variety Insect Pests
bajra has helped in developing high yielding Brassica Pusa Gaurav Aphids
varieties which are resistant to water stress. (rapeseed
Plant Breeding for Disease mustard)
Flat bean Pusa Sem 2, Jassids, aphids
Resistance Pusa Sem 3 and fruit borer
Food production can be enhanced if the hybridof Okra (Bhindi) Pusa Sawani, Shoot and Fruit
plant is bred and developed in such a way that it is Pusa A-4 borer
resistant to diseases. This will reduce the dependence • Plant Breeding for Improved Food Quality
on fungicides and bactericides.  As large number of people can’t afford enough
• Methods of breeding for disease resistance: vegetables, fruits, meat, etc. So, breeding crops
 Breeding can be carried out by – conventional that are better in quality and high in nutritional
breeding techniques or by mutation breeding. value is necessary.
 A conventional breeding technique involves  Bio fortification: It is the practice of breeding
hybridization and selection. This method has crops with higher levels of vitamins and minerals,
restriction that limited number of disease or higher protein and healthier fats to improve
resistance genes is available. public health.
 Mutation breeding is the process of artificially  The main objectives of improving nutritional
inducing mutations through use of chemicals or quality involves improving:
- Protein content and its quality. 4. What are ‘true breeding lines’ that are used to
- Micronutrients and mineral content. study inheritance pattern of traits in plants?
- Vitamin content [DELHI 2014]
- Oil content and its quality.
Single Cell Protein 2 Marks Questions
• SCP or Single Cell Protein is one of the alternate 5. How has mutation breeding helped in improving
sources of proteins for animal and human the production of mung bean crop?
nutrition. [DELHI 2015]
• Spirulina is easy to cultivate as it can grow on 6. (a) Why are the plants raised through
materials like straw, molasses, etc. It is rich micropropagation are termed as somaclones?
in all nutrients. It also reduces environmental (b) Mention two advantages of this technique.
pollution. [ALL INDIA 2015]
Tissue Culture 7. Identify ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘C’ and ‘D’ in the given table.
• It is the technique of regenerating a plant from Crop Variety Resistance to
any part of plant in steril condition under special disease
nutrient media. A Himgiri Leaf rust
• Totipotency is the capacity to generate a whole
Cauliflower Pusa Subhra B
plant from any cell/explant.
• The nutritional medium should provide a carbon Brassica Pusa C
source, inorganic salts, vitamins, amino acids and Swarnim
growth regulators. Cowpea D Bacterial blight
• The process of producing thousands of plants [DELHI 2016]
through tissue culture is called micropropagation. 8. Suggest four important steps to produce a
• Somaclones: The plants produced by the micro- disease resistant plant through conventional
propagation will be genetically identical to the plant breeding technology. [ALL INDIA 2016]
original plant from which they are grown. 9. In an agricultural field there is a prevalence of
• When the plant is infected its meristem can be the following organisms and crop diseases which
removed and can be grown in vitro to obtain a are affecting the crop yield badly:
virus-free plant. (a) White rust
• The process of fusing the isolated protoplasts from (b) Leaf and stripe rust
two different varieties of plants each of which (c) Black rot
is having desirable characters to get a hybrid (d) Jassids
protoplasts, which can be further grown to form a Recommend the varieties of crops the farmers
new plant is called somatic hybridization and the
should grow to get rid of the existing problem
hybrid is called somatic hybrid.
and thus improve the crop yield.
[DELHI 2017]
PREVIOUS YEARS’ 10. You have obtained a high yielding variety of

tomato. Name and explain the procedure that
ensures retention of the desired characteristics
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS repeatedly in large populations of future
TOPIC 2 generation of the tomato crop. [DELHI 2018]
1 Mark Questions
1. State the importance of bio fortification. 3 Marks Questions
[ALL INDIA 2011] 11. Plant breeding technique has helped sugar
2. Name the following: industry in North India. Explain how?
(a) The semi-dwarf variety of wheat which is [DELHI 2016]
high-yielding and disease-resistant 12. (a) Write the desirable characters a farmer looks
(b) Any one inter-specific hybrid mammal. for in his sugarcane crop.
[ALL INDIA 2012] (b) How did plant breeding techniques help
3. Name any two diseases the ‘Himgiri’ variety of north Indian farmers to develop cane with
wheat is resistant to. [ALL INDIA 2013] desired characters? [ALL INDIA 2017]
13. How can crop varieties be made disease resistant

Solutions
to overcome food crisis in India? Explain. Name
one disease resistant variety in India of: 1. Bio fortification is done in order to increase the
(a) Wheat to leaf and stripe rust nutritional quality of crop. For example, crop
(b) Brassica to white rust [DELHI 2011] is enriched with vitamins, protein and other
14. Scientists have succeeded in recovering healthy minerals. [1]
sugarcane plants from a diseased one. 2. (a) Sonalika and Kalyan sona are semi-dwarf
variety of wheat which is high-yielding and
(a) Name the part of the plant used as explant
disease-resistant. [½]
by the scientist.
(b) Mule is an inter-specific hybrid mammal.
(b) Describe the procedure the Scientist followed
[½]
to recover the healthy plants.
3. Leaf and Stripe rust and Hill bunt are two
(c) N a m e t h i s t e c h n o l o g y f o r c r o p
diseases the ‘Himgiri’ variety of wheat is
improvement. [ALL INDIA 2011]
resistant to. [1]
15. (a) Name the tropical sugar cane variety
4. ‘True breeding lines’ are those plants that are
grown in South India. How has it helped in
produced from self-fertilization. These plants
improving the sugar cane quality grown in
are homozygous for a trait. [1]
North India?
5. It is possible to induce mutations artificially
(b) Identify a, b, c in the following table
by using chemicals or radiations to create a
No. Crop Variety Insect new character or trait which is not found in
pests
the parental type and by using the plants,
1. Brass- Pusa (a) that have the desirable character as a source
ica Gaurav
in breeding. This process is called mutation
2. Flat Pusa Sem 2 (b) breeding. In mung bean, resistance to yellow
bean Pusa Sem 3
mosaic virus and powdery mildew were induced
3. (c) Pusa Shoot and by mutations. [2]
Sawani fruit borer
6. (a) The method of producing plants through
Pusa A-4
tissue culture is called micropropagation. The
[DELHI 2014] plants produced through micropropagation
16. Make a list of any three outbreeding devices that are genetically identical to the original plant
flowering plants have developed and explain how from which they are produced hence, they
they help to encourage cross-pollination. are called somaclones. [1]
[ALL INDIA 2014] (b) Advantages of micropropagation:
5 Marks Questions (i) A large number of plants can be
17. (a) What is plant breeding? List the two steps produced from a single plant in a short
the classical plant breeding involves. span of time and in a limited space.
(b) How has the mutation breeding helped in (ii) Virus-free healthy plants can be
improving crop varieties? Give one example. produced from the shoot apical
(c) How has the breeding programme helped meristem. [1]
in improving the public nutritional health? 7. [½x4=2]
State two examples in support of your Crop Variety Resistance to
answer. [DELHI 2013] disease
18. (a) Name the technology that has helped the A (Wheat) Himgiri Leaf rust
scientists to propagate on large scale the
Cauli- Pusa B (Black rot and
desired crops in short duration. List the
flower Subhra Curl blight black rot)
steps carried out to propagate the crops by
the said technique. Brassica Pusa C (white rust)
(b) How are somatic hybrids obtained? Swarnim
[DELHI 2014] Cow pea D (Pusa Bacterial blight
19. With advancements in genetics, molecular Komal)
biology and tissue culture, new traits have been 8. Important steps, to produce a disease resistant
incorporated into crop plants. Explain the main plant, through conventional plant breeding
steps in breeding a new genetic variety of a crop. technology are:
[ALL INDIA 2014] (a) Selection of plant with desired characters.
(b) Cross breeding among the selected parents consist of selecting the plants with desired
(c) Selection and evaluation of raised hybrids. characteristics in a given field, cross pollinate
(d) Testing of superior recombinant. [½x4=2] the desired plants, allow them to grow fully to
9. Normal varieties of crops, shows poor growth, produce seeds and use the seeds to grow further
as they are prone to pathogen infestation. To progeny and select the plants with desired traits
get rid of the problems, the farmers should in that generation.
grow improved, diseases resistant varieties for (a) Himgiri
higher yield. Farmers should grow the following (b) Pusa Swarnim [3]
varieties to improve the crop yield. 14. (a) The stem of Saccharum barberi and
(a) Pusa Swarnim or Karan rai Saccharum officinarium is used as explant
(b) Himgiri by the scientist. [1]
(c) Pusa Shubhra or Pusa Snowball K-1 (b) Firstly, explant is grown in aseptic
(d) Pusa Sem 2 or Pusa Sem 3 [2] conditions in a nutrient medium that lead
10. Tissue culture technique helps in retention to the formation of undifferentiated mass.
of the desired characteristics repeatedly in Then this mass is transferred to hormone
large populations of future generations for containing medium. [1]
tomato crop. In this technique plant cells, (c) Tissue culture is the technology for crop
tissues or organs are allowed to grow in improvement [1]
nutrient media under controlled environmental 15. (a) Saccharum officinarium which is having
conditions. These are meristematic tissues and more sugar and thicker stem is tropical
are totipotent. These plants parts give rise to sugar cane variety grown in South India.
new plants. Tissue culture is used to produce Saccharum barberi is grown in North India.
large number of genetically similar plants in a The two varieties are bred, in order to
short duration of time. [2] produce a variety with more sugar content
11. Saccharum barberi was originally grown and thick stem which can grow in North
in North India, but had poor sugar content India. [2]
and yield. Sugar cane grown in South India, (b) In this table, a is aphids, b is jassids and
Saccharum officinarum had thicker stems fruit borer, c is okra [1]
and higher sugar content. But Saccharum 16. Three outbreeding devices that flowering plants
officinarum did not grow well in North India. have developed are:
The two species Saccharum barberi from (a) Not allowing the maturation of pollen and
Northand Saccharum officinarum from South stigma at the same time. Sometimes, pollen
India were crossed to get desirable qualities of is allowed to mature first and sometimes
high yield, thick stems, high sugar and ability stigma is mature. This helps in cross-
to grow in North India. [3] pollination. [1]
12. (a) Desirable characters for sugarcane crop are (b) In some plants, anthers are placed in such a
thick stem with long internodes, high sugar position that pollen cannot come in contact
content and disease resistance. [1] with stigma of the flower. [1]
(b) Saccharum barberi was originally grown (c) Growing plants which have cross pollination
in North India, but had poor sugar content mechanism. [1]
and yield. Sugar cane grown in South India, 17. (a) In Plant breeding, traits of plants are
Saccharum officinarum had thicker stems changed in order to produce the desired
and higher sugar content. But Saccharum characteristics like greater nutritional
officinarum did not grow well in North India. content and disease resistant. In this
The two species Saccharum barberi and method, breeding consist of selecting the
Saccharum officinarum from South India best plants in a given field, cross pollinate
were crossed to get desirable qualities of the desired plants, allow them to grow fully
high yield, thick stems, high sugar and to produce seeds and use the seeds to grow
ability to grow in North India. [2] further progeny and select the plants with
13. Crop varieties can be made disease resistant by desired traits in that generation. Two steps
plant breeding method. In this method, traits are: hybridisation and selection [2]
of plants are changed in order to produce the (b) Mutation breeding involve the introduction
desired characteristics like greater nutritional of desirable mutations in the selected plants.
content and disease resistance. Breeding Then these plants are used as source plants.
This is known as mutation breeding. This (iii) This lead to the propagation of plants
method has been applied in Mung bean in a short period of time.
to provide the resistance against mosaic (iv) Somaclones are the plants produced by
virus. [2] tissue culture as they are genetically
(c) Breeding programmes have helped in similar to their parents. [2]
improving the public nutritional health (b) Somatichybrids are obtained by cellular
by development of high nutrient carrying hybridization in which somatic part of
traits. Two examples are iron and calcium the plants are hybridized. For example,
enriched spinach, protein enriched beans –
protoplast of potato and tomato are produced
garden peas. [1]
to form pomato. [2]
18. (a) Tissue culture is the technology that has
19. The main steps in breeding a new genetic variety
helped the scientists to propagate on large
scale the desired crops in short duration. The of a crop are
steps carried out to propagate the crops by (a) Collection of variability [1]
the said technique are: [1] (b) Evaluation and selection of germplasm of
(i) Explant (part of plant) is grown in plants [1]
sterile conditions in nutrient media to (c) Cross hybridization of selected plants [1]
develop complete plants. (d) S e l e c t i o n a n d t e s t i n g o f s u p e r i o r
(ii) Nutrient media is rich in carbon sources, recombinants. [1]
vitamins, amino acid and hormones. (e) Commercialization of new variety [1]
CHAPTER 10
Microbes in
Human Welfare

In household food 1Q(2 marks)
processing, industrial
production
Sewage treatment 1Q 1Q 1Q 1Q
(1 mark) (2 marks) (3 marks) (3 marks)
Energy generation and 1Q 1Q 1Q
as biocontrol agents and (2 marks), (2 marks) (3 marks)
biofertilizers 1Q
(3 marks),
Antibiotics; production 1Q 1Q
and judicious use (3 marks) (2 marks)
On the basis of above analysis, it can be said that from exam point of view Sewage Treatment
and Bio Control agents are most important concepts of the chapter.
10.108 CHAPTER 10 : Microbes in Human Welfare
[Topic 1] Microbes in Household Products, Industrial

Products and in Sewage Treatment
Summary  The effluent is then transferred to a settling tank
where the bacterial flocs are allowed to sediment,
 Microbes are diverse in nature; they include this sediment is called an activated sludge. A part
protozoa, bacteria, fungi, viruses, viroids and of it is pumped back in tank to act as inoculum and
prions. rest is pumped into anaerobic sludge digesters.
 Not all microbes are harmful, many microbes are Here, other bacteria digest the sludge and produce
useful to human in various ways. a mixture of gases which form biogas.
• Microbes in Household Products:
 Lactobacillus and other LAB (lactic acid bacteria)
help in formation of curd by producing acids PREVIOUS YEARS’
during their growth that coagulates and partially
digests milk proteins. LAB also keeps a check on EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
disease causing microbes in our stomach.
 Various food items require microbes for their
TOPIC 1
preparation. Dough of idli and dosa are prepared 1 Mark Questions
by bacteria. The fermentation of the dough used 1. Write the scientific name of the microbe used for
in making bread is done by using baker’s yeast fermenting malted cereals and fruit juices.
(Saccharomyces cerevisiae). Microbes are used in [DELHI 2011]
cheese to provide characteristic texture, flavor 2. Name the enzyme produced by Streptococcus
and taste. bacterium. Explain its importance in medical
• Microbes in Industrial Products: science. [ALL INDIA 2011]
 Alcoholic beverages are prepared by the process
of fermentation using same yeast Saccharomyces 2 Marks Questions
cerevisiae which is used for bread making. 3. List the events that reduce the Biological Oxygen
Different drinks are obtained depending on the Demand (BOD) of a primary effluent during
raw material used and whether or not distillation sewage treatment. [DELHI 2016]
is required. 4. Mention a product of Human welfare obtained
 Antibiotics are produced by microbes which kill or with the help of each one of the following
retard the growth of disease- causing microbes. microbes:
(a) LAB
 Microbes are used in commercial production
(b) Saccharomyces cerevisiae
of acetic acids, citric acids, enzymes like lipase,
(c) Propionibacterium sharmanii
pectinases and streptokinase.
(d) Aspergillus niger [DELHI 2015]
• Microbes in Sewage Treatment:
5. Explain the different steps involved during
 First the sewage undergoes primary treatment primary treatment phase of sewage.
which involves filtration and sedimentation. [ALL INDIA 2015]
During sequential filtration, floating debris is 6. Name the microbes that help production of the
removed. Then grit is removed by sedimentation. following products commercially:
 The effluent from the primary settling tank then (a) Statin
undergoes secondary treatment, where it is passed (b) Citric acid
through large aeration tanks where air is pumped (c) Penicillin
and constantly agitated. This activity results in (d) Butyric acid. [ALL INDIA 2017]
strong growth of essential aerobic microbes into 7. How does the application of the fungal genus,
flocs, which are masses of bacteria along with Glomus, to the agricultural farm increase the
fungal filaments that form mesh like structures. farm output? [DELHI 2017]
As this floc consumes major part of organic matter, 8. Name the bacterium responsible for the large
so the biochemical oxygen demand, BOD reduces holes seen in ‘‘Swiss Cheese’’. What are these
significantly. holes due to? [ALL INDIA 2013]
CHAPTER 10 : Microbes in Human Welfare 10.109
9. List the events that reduce the Biological Oxygen 2. Streptokinase is the enzyme produced by
Demand (BOD) of a primary effluent during Streptococcus bacterium. This enzyme used
sewage treatment. [ALL INDIA 2016] as a clot buster for the people suffering from
10. Mention a product of Human welfare obtained myocardial infractions. [1]
with the help of each one of the following 3. Effluent from the primary settling tank passed
microbes: into aeration tank where it is constantly
(a) LAB agitated mechanically and air is pumped into
(b) Saccharomyces cerevisiae it. This allows vigorous growth of useful aerobic
(c) Propionibacterium sharmanii microbes into flocs. These microbes consume the
(d) Aspergillus niger [ALL INDIA 2015] major part of the organic matter in the effluent
and significantly reduces the BOD (biochemical
oxygen demand) of the effluent. [2]
3 Marks Questions 4. Product of microbes for human welfare:
11. Given below is a list of six micro-organisms. (a) LAB is stands for lactic acid bacteria or
State their usefulness to humans. lactobacillus. It is gram positive bacteria
(a) Nucleopolyhedro virus which is used in curd production or making
(b) Saccharomyces cerevisiae curd at our home. [½]
(c) Monascus purpureus (b) Saccharomyces cerevisiaeis used in bread
(d) Trichoderma polysporum making or brewing industry or for production
(e) Penicillium notation of ethanol (ethyl alcohol). [½]
(f) Propionibacterium sharmanii (c) Propionibacterium sharmanii produces large
[DELHI 2016] holes in Swiss cheese by releasing large
12. Choose any three microbes, from the following amount of CO2. [½]
which are suited for organic farming which is (d) Aspergillus nigeris used in industries for
in great demand these days for various reasons. production of citric acid. [½]
Mention one application of each one chosen. 5. The primary phase of sewage treatment involves
Mycorrhiza; Monascus; Anabaena; Rhizobium; physical removal of particles through filtration
Methenobaterium; Trichoderma. [DELHI 2015] and sedimentation. The floating debris is
13. Describe how do ‘flocs’ and ‘activated sludge’ help removed by sequential filteration. Then the
in Sewage Treatment [DELHI 2017] filtered sewage is passed into the grit chamber
14. Secondary treatment of the sewage is also called where the coarse solid materials like soil and
Biological treatment. Justify this statement and pebbles settle by gravity. After this, the sewage
explain the process. [ALL INDIA 2017] is allowed to pass into a sedimentation tank
15. (a) Why are the fruit juices bought from market where the suspended materials settle and
clearer as compared to those made at home? form the primary sludge whereas suspended
(b) Name the bioactive molecules produced effluents float in the effluent. The effluent from
by Trichodermapolysporum and Monascus the primary setting tank is taken for secondary
purpureus. [DELHI 2013] treatment. [2]
6.
Solutions Product Microbes
1. A yeast, whose, scientific name is Saccharomyces Statin Monascus purpureus

cerevisiae is used for fermenting malted cereals Citric acid Aspergillus niger
and fruit juices. [½] Penicillin Penicillium notatum
Gas
Butyric acid Clostridium butylicum
(b) [2]
7. Many members of genus of fungus Glomus
form symbiotic association with plants to form
(c) (a) mycorrhiza. The fungal symbiont in these
associations absorbs phosphorus from soil and
Digestor passed it to the plants in addition to the other
benefits like resistance to root-borne pathogens,
tolerance to salinity and drought. Thus Glomus
Fig.: Fermenter [½] plays important role in the crop yield. [2]
8. The large holes in Swiss cheese’ are due to 13. Sewage effluent is pumped into an aeration
bacterium propionibacterium sharmanii carbon- tank that contains sludge (consisting of bacteria
dioxide production. [2] and algae). In aeration tank, bacteria multiply
9. Effluent from the primary settling tank passed rapidly and form masses along with fungal
into aeration tank where it is constantly filaments to form aggregates called flocs. These
agitated mechanically and air is pumped into flocs sediment at the bottom of tank and is called
it. This allows vigorous growth of useful aerobic activated sludge. A part of activated sludge is
microbes into flocs. These microbes consume the pumped back into the aeration tank to serve as
major part of the organic matter in the effluent the inoculum, while the remaining major part
and significantly reduces the BOD (biochemical
of the sludge is pumped into anaerobic sludge
oxygen demand) of the effluent. [2]
digesters for anaerobic microbial decomposition
10. Product of microbes for human welfare:
and production of biogas. The bacteria are able
(a) LAB is stands for lactic acid bacteria or
to decompose most of the organic matter while
lactobacillus. It is gram positive bacteria
which is used in curd production or curd algae provide oxygen to these decomposers. The
making at our home. [½] bacteria commonly used in sewage treatment
(b) Saccharomyces cerevisiae is used in are: Coliform, Clostridium, Pseudomonas,
bread making or brewing industry or for Micrococcus etc. But this water still carries large
production of ethanol (ethyl alcohol). [½] amounts of nitrates, phosphates, etc. Before this
(c) Propionibacterium sharmanii produces large water is allowed to pass into water bodies, it
holes in Swiss cheese by releasing large undergoes tertiary treatment. [3]
amount of CO2. [½] 14. Secondary treatment is also called biological
(d) Aspergillus nigeris used in industries for treatment because it uses organisms and
production of citric acid. [½] detritus feeders. The process includes the
11. (a) Nucleopolyhedro virus is used as bio control following steps:
agents for Integrated Pest Management.[½] (a) The primary effluent is carried to aeration
(b) Saccharomyces cerevisiae is used in tanks and the liquid is mechanically
bread making or brewing industry or for agitated continuously with pumping of air.
production of ethanol (ethyl alcohol). [½] (b) A large number of aerobic heterotrophic
(c) Monascuspurpureus is a cholesterol lowering microbes such as bacteria, fungi, yeasts and
agent [½] protozoa grow in the aeration tank and form
(d) Tr i c h o d e r m a p o l y s p o r u m p r o d u c e s
flocs.
Cyclosporin A which is an immuno-
(c) The microbes digest organic matter and
suppressive agent. [½]
convert it to microbial biomass and release
(e) Penicillium motatum produces antibiotic
minerals. This reduces the biochemical
penicillin. [½]
oxygen demand (BOD).
(f) Propioni bacterium sharmanii produces
large holes in Swiss cheese by releasing (d) As the BOD of the waste matter is reduced
large amount of CO2. [½] to 10 to 15% of raw sewage, it passes into
12. The three microbes chosen that are suited for the settling tank where the bacterial flocs
organic farming. are allowed to undergo sedimentation.
(a) Anabaena is a cyanobacteria which can (e) The settled material is called activated
fix atmospheric nitrogen. In paddy fields, sludge.
cyanobacteria serve as an important bio (f) The activated sludge is collected and
fertiliser. It also add organic matter to the subjected to anaerobic digestion in a
soil and increase its fertility. [1] separate tank. This tank has oxygen-free
(b) Rhizobiumis a symbiotic bacteria which lives atmosphere where anaerobic microbes
in the root nodules of leguminous plants
start digesting the bacteria and fungi in the
such as peas, beans. It fixes atmospheric
nitrogen. [1] sludge.
(c) Mycorrhiza is a symbiotic association (g) Anaerobic microorganisms digest the organic
between fungus and roots of higher plants. matter into soluble substances and gaseous
Fungal symbiont like Glomus in these products such as methane, carbon dioxide
associations absorbs phosphorus from soil and hydrogen sulphide. Methane is highly
and passes it to the plant. [1] inflammable and can be used as biogas.
(h) Finally, the treated sewage effluent (b) Cyclosporine A which is a immuno suppressive
is subjected to chemical treatment for agent isbioactive molecules produced by
disinfection before releasing it into natural Trichoderma polysporum and Statins are
water bodies such as rivers and streams. produced by Monascuspurpureus. [1½]
[3]
15. (a) The fruit juices bought from market clearer
as compared to those made at home because
they are clarified by the pectinase and
proteases enzymes. [1½]
[Topic 2] Microbes in Production of Biogas, as Bio-control

Agents and Bio-fertilizers
• The role of Microbes in Production of Biogas: they are kept at manageable level within a living
 Biogas constitutes of methane primarily along and vibrant ecosystem.
with other mixture of gases. It is used as a fuel and  The use of bio-control measures will reduce
is produced by the actions of microbes. Bacteria our dependence on pesticides and other toxic
commonly found in anaerobic sludge and rumen chemicals. To control butterfly caterpillars the
of cattle are methanogens, which produce large bacteria named Bt. or Bacillus thuringiensis is
amount of methane along with carbon dioxide and used.
hydrogen. • The role of Microbes in Bio-fertilizers:
 Biogas plant consists of a concrete tank, a floating  Bio fertilizers are nothing but the organisms that
cover and an outlet. Slurry and bio-waste is put enhance the quality of nutrient in the soil. The
in concrete tank. Floating cover rises when gas is microbes acting as bio-fertilizers are bacteria,
produced in the tank due to microbial activity and fungi and cyanobacteria.
the outlet helps to supply biogas to nearby houses  Rhizobium found in nodules on the roots of
through a pipe. leguminous plants fix atmospheric nitrogen into
organic form for the plant to utilize as a nutrient.
 The symbiotic association between fungi and
plants is known as Mycorrhiza. Phosphorus is
absorbed from soil by fungal symbiont and passed
on to plant as nutrient.
 Cyanobacteria are used in paddy fields as bio
fertilizers.
PREVIOUS YEARS’
TOPIC 2
1 Mark Questions
1. Mention the role of cyanobacteria as a bio
fertiliser. [ALL INDIA 2012]
Fig.: A typical biogas plant
• Microbes as Bio control Agents:
 Plant diseases and pests can be controlled by 2 Marks Questions
the use of biological methods and this is referred 2. Name a genus of baculovirus. Why are they
as bio control. Organic farmers do not eradicate considered good bio-control agents?
insects which are pests to their farms, instead [ALL INDIA 2016]
3. Your advice is sought to improve the nitrogen 3. (a) Azospirillum and Azotobacterare free-living
content of the soil to be used for cultivation of a bacteria in the soil. They can fix atmospheric
non-leguminous terrestrial crop. nitrogen thus enriching the nitrogen content
(a) Recommend two microbes that can enrich
of the soil. [1]
the soil with nitrogen.
(b) Leguminous plants contain root nodules
(b) Why do leguminous crops not require such
enrichment of the soil? [DELHI 2018] in which Rhizobium bacteria are present.
4. Whyis Rhizobium categorized as a ‘symbiotic Rhizobium bacteria can fix atmospheric
bacterium’? How does it act as a bio fertilizer? nitrogen in the usable form which can be
[ALL INDIA 2012] used by plants. This is why leguminous
crops do not require fertilisers as nitrogen
5. Your advice is sought to improve the nitrogen
content of the soil to be used for cultivation of a source. [1]
non-leguminous terrestrial crop. 4. Rhizobium is a gram negative bacteria live in the
(a) Recommend two microbes that can enrich roots of legume plants. This bacteria live in the
the soil with nitrogen. nodules in root of leguminous plants and convert
(b) Why do leguminous crops not require such atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia and other
enrichment of the soil? [DELHI 2018] usable forms of nitrogen that plants can use to
make amino acids. [2]
3 Marks Questions 5. (a) Azospirillum and Azotobacterare free-living
6. What are methanogens? How do they help to bacteria in the soil. They can fix atmospheric
generate biogas? [ALL INDIA 2015]. nitrogen thus enriching the nitrogen content
7. (a) How do organic farmers control pests? Give
of the soil. [1]
two examples.
(b) Leguminous plants contain root nodules
(b) State the difference in their approach from
that of conventional pest control methods. in which Rhizobium bacteria are present.
[ALL INDIA 2016] Rhizobium bacteria can fix atmospheric
8. (a) Organic farmers prefer biological control of nitrogen in the usable form which can be
diseases and pests to the use of chemicals used by plants. This is why leguminous crops
for the same purpose. Justify. do not require nitrogen from fertilisers. [1]
(b) Give an example of a bacterium, a fungus
6. Certain bacteria which grow anaerobically on
and an insect that are used as biocontrol
cellulosic material and produce large amount
agents. [DELHI 2018]
of methane along with CO 2 and H 2. These
bacteria are collectively called methanogens.
5 Marks Questions
Example is bacterium is Methano bacterium.
9. Describe how biogas is generated from activated
sludge. List the components of biogas. The methanogenic bacteria digest the organic
[ALL INDIA 2013] mass to produce marsh gas during the secondary
treatment of sewage. Marsh gas is a mixture of
Solutions gases containing methane, hydrogen sulphide
1. Cyanobacteria fix atmospheric nitrogen into and carbon dioxide which form biogas. [3]
ammonia and other usable forms of nitrogen that 7. (a) Organic farmers control pests either by
plant can use to make amino acids and proteins natural predation or by using biological
and hence increase the fertility. [1] control. Examples: Owls are used to kill
2. Nucleopolyhedro virus is a genus of baculovirus.
rats in the crop field, lady bird used to kill
It is effective and efficient bio-control agent
aphids. Bt Cotton plants are introduced with
because it is species-specific, narrow spectrum
insecticidal agent. It does not show any negative the Bt toxin gene of the bacterium Bacillus
impacts on plants, mammals, birds or even non- thruingiensis. This gene provides the cotton
target insects. [2] crops resistance against the bollworms.[1½]
(b) Differences between organic pest control and which depend upon them as food or hosts
conventional pest control methods: would not beable to survive. [1½]
Conventional Organic farming (b) Insects = Ladybird and Dragonflies. They are
Pest Control based pest useful to get rid of aphids and mosquitoes,
control respectively
Bacteria = Bacillus thuringiensis. It is used
Chemical Natural or to control butterfly caterpillars.
insecticides and biological pest Fungus, Trichodermais free-living in very
pesticides are used control
common in the root ecosystems. They are
to control pest
effective biocontrol agents of several plant
It is harmful to It does not harm pathogens [1½]
crops also crops 9. Biogas produced by anaerobic fermentation of
Causes It does not waste biomass in the following steps:
environmental have impact on (a) Complex monomers like proteins, lipids,
pollution environment cellulose and hemi-cellulose are degraded
[1½] by facultative microbes to form simple
8. (a) Chemical methods used to control diseases monomers. [2]
and pests are not safe as often chemicals (b) After that, monomers are changed into
(pesticides) kills both useful and harmful organic acid under partially aerobic
life forms without any discrimination. condition. [1]
Eradication of the insects that are often (c) In the last stage, acid is converted into
described as pests is not only possible, methane by methanogen. [1]
but also undesirable. Without them the Methane, carbon-dioxide and hydrogen sulphide
beneficial predatory and parasitic insects are the components of biogas. [1]
CHAPTER 11
Biotechnology:
Principles and Processes

Genetic engineering 1Q 1Q 1Q 1Q 1Q
(Recombinant DNA (1 mark), (3 marks) (3 marks) (3 marks), (3 marks),
technology) 1Q 1Q 1Q
(3 marks) (3 marks) (3 marks)
Steps Insertion Inactivation, Cloning, r-DNA Technology Tools and Methodology and PCR
are most important concepts of the chapter.
11.116 CHAPTER 11 : Biotechnology: Principles and Processes
[Topic 1] Principles of biotechnology and tools of

recombination DNA Technology
Summary • Maintain the recognised DNA in the host medium
and then transfer DNA to its progeny.
Introduction Tools of recombinant DNA
Biotechnology deals with large scale production of
products and processes that are useful to humans Technology
that makes use of live organisms, cells or enzymes. • Restriction enzyme
Karl Ereky coined the term ‘biotechnology’ in 1919.  They are also known as restriction endonuclease
Biotechnology helps in: which cleaves DNA into fragments at recognition
• Correcting a defecting gene sites. The sequence in which the DNA is cut is
• Microbe-interceded process (making curd, bread, known as recognition sequence.
wine, etc.)  The first restriction endo nuclease is Hind II,
• Preparation of a DNA vaccine isolated by Wileox, Kelley and Smith in 1968
• Synthesis and using of a gene from, Haemophilis influenza bacterium.
• In vitro fertilisation (test tube baby program)  It always cut DNA molecules at a particular point
by recognizing a specific sequence of six base pairs
Principles of Biotechnology which is called as Recognition sequence.
• Genetic engineering:  There are two kinds of restriction enzymes:
This type of engineering uses different techniques exonucleases (removes nucleotides from the ends
that alter the chemistry of genetic material of DNA) and endonucleases (makes cuts at specific
(DNA and RNA) which introduce these into host positions within DNA).
organisms and thus change the phenotype of the
host organism.
• Maintenance of sterile ambience:
It refers to a traditional hybridization technique
leading to multiplication of undesirable genes
along with desired genes to enable growth leading
to creation of DNA.
The techniques of genetic engineering involve
creating recombinant DNA, using gene cloning and
gene transfer, overcome this limitation and allows us
to isolate and introduce only one or a set of desirable
genes without introduction of undesirable genes into
the target organism.
A recombinant piece of DNA cannot multiply itself
in the progeny cells of an organism as the alien piece
of DNA becomes a part of chromosomes having the
inability to replicate. So, it inherits and multiplies Fig.: Steps in formation of recombinant DNA by
along with the host DNA as it gets integrated into action of restriction endonuclease enzyme - EcoRI
the recipient genome. This process of making  Diagrammatic representation of recombinant
multiple copies of template DNA can also be termed DNA technology is shown below.
as cloning.  Separation and isolation of DNA fragments:
Steps of genetically modifying an organism - The DNA fragments are formed by the cutting
• Recognise the DNA with desirable genes. of DNA by restriction endonucleases and
• Introduce those recognised DNA into the host are separated by a technique called as gel
medium. electrophoresis.
CHAPTER 11 : Biotechnology: Principles and Processes 11.117
- DNA fragments are negatively charged molecules specific concentration of a divalent cation, which
which are separated by forcing them to move improves the efficiency with which DNA enters
towards the anode under an electric field through the bacterium through pores in its cell wall.
a medium/matrix.  Alien DNA can be introduced into host cells in
- Agarose is the most commonly used matrix which some other following ways:
is a natural polymer extracted from sea weeds. - Micro-injection: This is the process of directly
injecting recombinant DNA into the nucleus of an
animal cell.
- Biolistics method: The process of bombardment of
cells with high velocity micro-particles of gold or
tungsten coated with DNA. It is a suitable method
for the plants.
- Disarmed pathogens vectors: Cells transfer the
recombinant DNA into the host after getting
infected by disarmed pathogens vectors.
PREVIOUS YEARS’
TOPIC 1
1 Mark Questions
1. Retroviruses have no DNA. However, the DNA
of the infected host cell does possess viral DNA.
How is it possible? [ALL INDIA 2015]
2. Suggest a technique to a researcher who needs
to separate fragments of DNA. [DELHI 2016]
3. How can bacterial DNA be released from the
Fig.: Recombinant DNA Technology
bacterial cell for biotechnology experiments?
• Cloning vectors: [DELHI 2011]
 DNA molecules which carry a foreign DNA 4. Mention the type of host cells suitable for the
segment and can replicate inside the host cells are gene guns to introduce an alien DNA.
called as cloning vectors. Example: Plasmids and [DELHI 2014]
bacteriophages. 5. Why is it not possible for an alien DNA to become
The cloning of a DNA requires following features: part of a chromosome anywhere along its length
 Origin of replication (Ori): A DNA sequence from and replicate normally? [ALL INDIA 2014]
where replication begins is known as Origin of
replication (Ori).
 Selectable marker: It helps in recognising and 2 Marks Questions
removing transformants and selectively allowing 6. List the key tools used in recombinant DNA
the growth of transformants. The procedure in technology. [DELHI 2011]
which a DNA is introduced in a host is known as 7. Name the type of bioreactor shown. Write the
Transformation. purpose for which it is used. [ALL INDIA 2011]
 Cloning sites: Vector needs to have recognition
sites for linking alien DNA.
 Vectors for cloning genes in plants and animals:
Genes of some pathogens can be changed into
useful vectors for delivering genes to plants and
animals.
• Competent host:
 To force bacteria to take up the plasmid, first
the bacterial cell should be made component to
take up DNA and for that they are treated with a
8. Explain the work carried out by Cohen and Boyer 21. Name and describe the technique that helps in
that contributed immensely in biotechnology. separating the DNA fragments formed by the use
[ALL INDIA 2012] of restriction endonuclease. [ALL INDIA 2014]
9. Name two commonly used bioreactors. State the 22. (i) Describe the characteristics of a cloning
importance of using a bioreactor.[DELHI 2013] vector must possess.
10. (a) Mention the difference in the mode of action (ii) Why DNA cannot pass through the cell
of exonuclease and endonuclease. membrane? Explain. How a bacterial cell is
(b) How does the restriction endonuclease made ‘competent’ to take up the recombinant
function? [DELHI 2013] DNA from the medium. [ALL INDIA 2011]
11. Explain with the help of a suitable example the
naming of a restriction endonuclease’
[DELHI 2014]
Solutions
12. How are ‘sticky ends formed on a DNA strand? 1. The genetic material of retrovirus is the RNA.
Why are they so called? [DELHI 2014] It enters the cell of the host, where the virus
13. How does a restriction nuclease function? undergoes reverse transcription to use its RNA
Explain. [ALL INDIA 2014] genome to form viral DNA in presence of reverse
transcriptase enzyme. This viral DNA then
incorporates into the host cell DNA, directing
3 Marks Questions the infected cells to produce more copies of
14. Draw a labelled sketch of sparged-stirred-tank viruses. In this way, the infected cell possesses
bioreactor. Write its application. [DELHI 2015]
viral DNA. [1]
15. Rearrange the following in the correct sequence
2. Gel-electrophoresis. [1]
to accomplish an important biological reaction:
3. Bacteria DNA are released from the bacterial
(a) In vitro synthesis of copies of DNA of interest
cell for biotechnology experiments with enzyme
(b) Chemically synthesized oligonucleotides
lysozyme that break the cell wall of bacteria.
(c) Enzyme DNA-polymerase
[1]
(d) Complementary region of DNA
4. Undifferentiated plant cell are the type of host
(e) Genomic DNA template
cells suitable for the gene guns to introduce an
(f) Nucleotides provided
alien DNA because plant cells consist of cell wall
(g) Primers
that can be easily broken by gold and tungsten
(h) Thermostable DNA-polymerase (from
coated with DNA. [1]
Thermus aquaticus)
(i) Denaturation of ds-DNA[ALL INDIA 2015] 5. It not possible for an alien DNA to become part
16. Suggest and describe a technique to obtain of a chromosome any where along its length and
multiple copies of a gene of interest in vitro. replicate normally because replication of DNA
[DELHI 2016] start at specific place in a DNA called as ORI
17. Explain enzyme-replacement therapy to treat (origin of replication). [1]
adenosine deaminase deficiency. Mention two 6. The key tools used in recombinant DNA
disadvantages of this procedure. technology are:
[ALL INDIA 2016] (i) Cloning vectors [½]
18. Explain the role(s) of the following in (ii) restriction endonuclease enzyme [½]
Biotechnology: (iii) competent host [½]
(a) Restriction endonuclease (iv) DNA ligase, cellulose, chitinase enzymes[½]
(b) Gel – electrophoresis 7. The given bioreactor is the simple stirred
(c) Selectable markers in pBR322. tank bioreactor. It is used for the production
[DELHI 2017] of recombinant proteins at a large scale using
19. (a) How has the development of bioreactor microbial plants/animals/human cells. It is
helped in biotechnology? cylindrical or with a curved base to facilitate
(b) Name the most commonly used bioreactor mixings of reactor contents and use available
and describe its working. [DELHI 2018] oxygen. [2]
20. Draw a schematic sketch of pBR322 plasmid and 8. Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer conducted
label the following in it: [ALL INDIA 2012] one of the first recombinant DNA technology
(a) Any two restriction site experiments in the year 1972. Both were first
(b) Ori and rop gene to give the DNA cloning method. Cohen was the
(c) An antibiotic resistant gene firstto extract plasmid from the bacterial cell and
transfer it into another cell and Boyer found that Applications:

when DNA is cut with restriction enzymes they (a) Culture can be processed on the large scale.
form sticky ends which can be ligated easily. (b) It provides optimum conditions producing
Hence, techniques of both produced the first the desired products, example it is used
recombinant DNA. [2] to produce large quantity of proteins,
9. Simple stirred tank bioreactor and sparged alcohols. [1+1]
stirred tank bioreactor are two commonly 15. The correct sequence of the steps involved in
used bioreactors. Bioreactors are used for the PCR (Polymerase chain reaction) are:
production of recombinant proteins in a large (i) Denaturation of ds-DNA
scale. [2] (d) Complementary region of DNA
10. (a) Exonuclease cut the DNA at free ends (c) Enzyme DNA polymerase
whereas endonuclease cut within DNA (b) Chemically synthesized oligonucleotides
segment [1] (g) Primers
(b) Restriction endonuclease play an important (h) Thermostable DNA-polymerase (from
role in DNA recombinant technology in Thermus acquticus)
cutting the required DNA segment at (f) Nucleotides Provided
specific site in DNA called as palindromic (a) In vitro synthesis of region of DNA of
sequences. [1] interest [3]
11. In restriction enzyme naming, Ist letter 16. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is the
represents the genus of the organism from technique to obtain multiple copies of a gene.
which the enzyme is derived. IInd and IIIrd It involves the following steps. Multiple copies
letters represent the species and strain of the of the gene of interest is synthesised in vitro by
organism. In, EcoRI, E stands for the genus the following steps:
“Escherichia” and”co” for coli species and R for (a) Denaturing: The double-stranded template
“RY13” strain. I stand for order of restriction
DNA is heated to separate it into two
enzyme identification from the bacterium. [2]
strands. [1]
12. Sticky ends are produced by restriction enzymes.
(b) Annealing: The temperature is lowered to
They are formed when restriction enzymes cut
enable the DNA primers to attach to the
the DNA at specific palindromic sites and result
template DNA.
in the generation of overhanging stretches called
(c) Extending: The temperature is increased
‘sticky ends’ on each strand. These are called
and the new strand of DNA is made by the
sticky ends because they form hydrogen bonds
Taq polymerase enzyme. [1]
with their complementary cut counterparts. [2]
These steps are repeated 20-40 times, doubling
13. Restriction endonuclease play an important role
the number of DNA copies each time.
in DNA recombinant technology in cutting the
required DNA segment at specific sites called 5’ 3’
ds DNA
as palindromic sequences. Hence, they play an 3’ 5’
Heat Denaturation
important role in taking out the gene of interest
5’ 3’
from the organism and cutting the vector DNA
3’ 5’
at specific site, so that gene of interest can be Primers Annealing
5’ 3’
inserted in vector. [2] 3’ 5’
14. A labelled sketch of sparged-stirred-tank DNA polymerase
(Tag polymerase)
bioreactor: deoxynucleotides
5’ 3’
5’ 3’ Extension
3’ 5’
3’ 5’
30 cycles
Amplified
(–1 billion times)

Fig.: Polymerase Chain Reaction [1]
17. Adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency is a
genetic disorder. In this disorder the gene
Fig.: Sparged-stirred-tank bioreactor [1] coding for the enzyme ADA gets deleted
leading to deficiency of ADA which can be system, a temperature control system. Also,
treated by enzyme replacement therapy. In this pH control system and sampling ports so
treatment, patients are regularly injected with that small volumes of the culture can be
the functional adenosine deaminase enzyme.[2] withdrawn periodically. [1½]
Disadvantages: 20. Eco RI [3]
Therapy does not cure disease completely. It is Bam HI
very expensive therapy as repeated infusion of ampR
enzyme is required. [1] pBR322
18. (a) Restriction endonuclease is an enzyme
which cuts DNA at specific position or ori rop
specific nucleotide or palindromic nucleotide
sequence. [1] Fig.: Schematic sketch of pBR 322 plasmid
(b) G e l - e l e c t r o p h o r e s i s s e p a r a t e s D N A 21. Gel electrophoresis is the technique that helps
fragments based on size under the influence in separating the DNA fragments formed by the
of electric field. [1] use of restriction endonuclease. In this process,
(c) Selectable markers in pBR322 helps DNA samples are loaded into wells at one end
in identifying and eliminating non- of a gel, and an electric current is applied to
transformants from transformants. [1] pull them through the gel. DNA fragments are
19. (a) Appreciable quantities of products are negatively charged, so they move towards the
not obtained by small volume cultures. To positive electrode. As, the DNA fragments are
process culture of large volumes such as of different sizes, the smaller DNA molecule
100 to 1000 litres, the development of such move faster and heavier DNA molecule move
bioreactors, are needed. Thus, bioreactors slower. DNA fragments are seen as a band, in
can be thought of as vessels in which raw gel electrophoresis, because they are mixed with
materials are biologically converted into dye so that they become visible. [3]
specific products using microbial, plant, 22. (i) Cloning vector should have origin of
animal or human cells. A bioreactor provides replication, selectable marker, genes
the optimal conditions for achieving the encoding for antibiotic resistance, recognition
desired products. [1½] site for the restriction enzyme to recognise
(b) Stirring type bioreactors are commonly cloning sites. [1½]
used. A stirred - tank reactors is usually (ii) DNA is a hydrophilic molecule and hence,
cylindrical or with a curved base to facilitate cannot pass through the cell membrane.
the mixing of the reactor contents. The Bacterial cell is made competent by treating
stirrer facilitates even mixing and oxygen with specific concentration of calcium ion
availability throughout the bioreactor. /divalent ions, incubating them on ice,
The bioreactor has an agitator system, an providing heat shock for a short period and
oxygen delivery system and a foam control placing it back on ice once again. [1½]
[Topic 2] Process of Recombinant DNA Technology

Introduction Isolation of the Genetic Material (DNA)
Recombinant DNA technology involves many steps • In order to get the DNA free from other macro-
molecules, there is a need of treating bacterial
in a defined sequence which are – cell/plant or animal tissue with enzyme.
Isolation of DNA, fragmentation of DNA by • Enzymes namely lysozyme is used to treat bacteria,
restriction endonucleases, isolation of a desired DNA cellulase to treat plant cells, chitinase to treat fungus.
fragment, ligation of the DNA fragment into a vector, • The cell when broken, releases DNAalong with other
macro-molecules like proteins, lipids, RNA etc.
transferring the recombinant DNA into the host,
• The RNA is removed on treatment with
culturing the host cells in a medium at large scale ribonuclease and proteins are removed by
and extraction of the desired product. treatment with protease.
• The purified DNA precipitates after chilled • The DNA present in the surrounding is taken by
ethanol is added and can be collected as fine recipient cells.
threads in the suspension. • If a recombinant DNA bearing amplicillin
resistant gene is transferred into E.coli cells, the
Cutting of DNA at specific locations host cell become amplicillin-resistant cells.
• At the optimal conditions, incubating purified
• But the untransformed recipient cell will die it
DNA perform restriction enzyme digestions with
the transformed cells are spread on agar plates
the restriction enzyme.
containing ampicillin and only transformants will
• To check the progression of a restriction enzyme grow. The gene which is resistance to amplicillin
digestion, the technique adopted is agarose gel in this case is called a selectable marker.
electrophoresis. As DNA is a negatively charged
molecule, it moves towards the positive electrode. Obtaining the foreign gene product
• The source and the vector DNA are cut with • Recombinant protein is the protein encoding gene
specific restriction enzyme and then the cut out which is expressed in a heterologous host.
‘gene of interest’ from the source DNA and the cut • After the cloning of genes, the production of which
vector are mixed and ligase is added which forms can be done on a large scale, the fresh medium
recombinant DNA. is obtained by separation technique and is added
such that the cell maintain physiologically active
Amplification of Gene of interest phase and then produces a larger biomass leading
using PCR to higher yields.
• Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a chemical • Bioreactors:
reaction in which the multiple copies of the gene  Bioreactor is a device used for biological conversion
synthesizes in vitro with two set of primers and of raw materials into specific products like human
the enzyme DNA polymerase. cells, animal cells or microbial plants.
• The segment of DNA is amplified around 1 billion  Large volumes of cultures may be processed.
times if the process of replication is repeated  The main components of a bioreactor are an
several times. oxygen delivery system, a foam control system
• Source DNA and vector DNA are cut with some and an agitator system.
endonuclease of double stranded DNA when are  Desired conditions for the production of the
then ligated by mixing the gene of interest vector product are provided like pH, vitamins, salts and
DNA in presence of the enzyme DNA ligase to form temperature.
recombinant DNA and the amplified fragment can  Stirring type of bioreactors are mainly used which
be used to ligate with a vector for further cloning. are usually cylindrical.
Region to be amplified  A bioreactor is shown below:
5’ 3’
ds DNA
3’ 5’
Heat (a) Denaturation
5’ 3’
3’ 5’
Primers (b) Annealing
5’ 3’ of primers
3’ 5’
DNA polymerase
(Tag polymerase)
deoxynucleotides
5’ 3’
5’ 5’ (c) Extension
3’ 3’ of primers
3’ 5’
30 cycles
Amplified
(–1 billion times)
Insertion of Recombinant DNA into

the host cell/organism Fig.: Bioreactor
• There exist many methods to introduce the ligated • In a recombinant protein, protein encoding gene
DNA into recipient cells. is expressed in a heterologous host.
Downstream processing 9. Explain the roles of the following with the

help of an example each in recombinant DNA
Two main processes are referred as downstream technology:
processing which are separation and purification. (a) Restriction Enzymes
• Suitable preservations have to formulate the product. (b) Plasmids [DELHI 2018]
• In case of drugs, formulation has to undergo 10. Identify A and B illustration in the following:
thorough clinical trials and the process of quality (a) (i) A (ii)
control varies for every product. 5’–G –3’
Plasmid
3’–C T T A A G– 5’
PREVIOUS YEARS’ C Replication

B
(b) Write the term given to A and B and why?

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS (c) Expand PCR. Mention its importance in
biotechnology. [DELHI 2011]
TOPIC 2 11. How is the amplification of a gene sample of
interest carried out using Polymerase Chain
1 Mark Questions Reaction (PCR)? [DELHI 2012]
1. Why is the enzyme cellulase needed for isolating
genetic material from plant cells and not from 5 Marks Questions
the animal cells? [DELHI 2013] 12. If a desirable gene is identified in an organism
2. Name the enzymes that are used for the isolation for some experiments. Explain the following:
of DNA from bacterial and fungal cells for (i) cutting the desired gene at specific location.
recombinant DNA technology. [ALL INDIA 2014] (ii) synthesis of the multiple copies of that
gene [ALL INDIA 2011]
2 Marks Questions
3. (a) A recombinant vector with a gene of interest Solutions
inserted within the gene of α - galactosidase 1. Animal cells do not have cellulose cell wall,
enzyme, is introduced into a bacterium. whereas plant cells have. Hence, the enzyme
Explain the method that would help in cellulase is needed for isolating genetic material
selection of recombinant colonies from non- from plant cells and not from the animal
cells. [1]
recombinant ones.
2. For bacteria cell, enzyme lysozyme is used and
(b) Why is this method or selection referred to
for fungal cells, enzyme chitinase are used for
as “insertional inactivation”?[DELHI 2012]
the isolation of DNA for recombinant DNA
4. Explain the following and mention one
technology. [1]
application of each: 3. (a) Alternative selectable markers have been
(i) PCR (ii) ELISA [DELHI 2013] developed which differentiate recombinant
5. Name the source of the DNA polymerase used from non-recombinant on the basis of their
in PCR technique. Mention why it is used. ability to produce colour in the presence of
[ALL INDIA 2013] a chromogenic substrate. [1]
6. Write any four ways used to introduce a desired (b) The method is referred as Insertional
DNA segment into a bacterial cell in recombinant inactivation because a recombinant DNA is
technology experiments. [ALL INDIA 2013] inserted within the coding sequence of an
enzyme α-galactosidase which results in the
inactivation of the enzyme. [1]
3 Marks Questions 4. (i) PCR: polymerase chain reaction. It is used
7. (a) Explain the significance of ‘palindromic for the amplification of DNA for cloning
nucleotide sequence’ inthe formation of purpose. [1]
recombinant DNA. (ii) ELISA: Enzyme linked Immuno sorbent
(b) Write the use of restriction endonuclease in assay. It is used for the measurement of
the above process. [ALL INDIA 2017] antibodies in the blood. [1]
8. Describe the roles of heat, primers and the 5. Thermus aquaticus produces a DNA polymerase
bacterium Thermus aquaticus in the process of and is used in PCR technique because it is heat
PCR. [ALL INDIA 2017] stable DNA polymerase. [2]
6. (i) Chemical method – Poration by divalent cloning vectors in genetic engineering by

cation such as calcium [½] cutting and ligating the desired genes
(ii) Micro injection [½] into it and transforming into host cell for
(iii) Biolistic or gene gun [½] amplification to obtain the desired products.
(iv) Disarmed pathogen vectors [½] An example of artificial modified plasmids
7. (a) The palindromic sequences is the sequence of are pBR322. [1½]
base pairs which read the same on both the 10. (a) the part “a” is showing sticky ends that are
DNA strands, wherein orientation of reading produced when restriction endonuclease cut
is remains the same. Every endonuclease the DNA at palindromic sites and the other
inspects the entire DNA sequence for part is foreign DNA. [1]
palindromic recognition sequence. For (b) The term given to A and B is palindromic
example: [1] sequence as sequence of characters
Palin drome (nucleotides) which reads the same backward
as forward [1]
5' G A AT T C 3' (c) PCR means polymerase chain reaction. It is
used for the amplification of DNA for cloning
3' C T TA A G 5' [1] purpose. [1]
(b) The restriction endonuclease binds to the 11. Amplification of a gene sample of interest carried
DNA when it finds the palindrome. It cuts out using Polymerase Chain Reaction with the
the opposite strands of DNA, but between help of three steps:
the same bases on both the strands and (i) Denaturation of DNA that involves
forms Sticky Ends. The sticky ends make the separation of DNA strands at high
easy the action of enzyme DNA ligase and temperature. [1]
helps in the formation of recombination (ii) Annealing involves the attachment of
DNA. [1] primers to the separated DNA [1]
8. The role of heat, primers and the bacterium (iii) Extension involves the polymerization
Thermus aquaticus in the process of PCR: of nucleotide chain by the enzyme Taq
Heat: It denatures PCR. The ds DNA is heated polymerase. [1]
at the temperature 95°C, both the strands 12. (i) Restriction endonuclease play an important
separate. role in DNA recombinant technology in
Primers: Primers are the small oligonucleotides cutting the required DNA segment at
of varying length of about 10-18 nucleotides that specific site in DNA called as palindromic
are complementary to a region of template DNA sequences. Sticky ends are produced by
and helps in the extension of new chain. [2] restriction enzymes. They are formed
Thermus aquaticus: A specialized thermostable when restriction enzymes cut the DNA
enzyme Taq DNA polymerase is isolated from at specific palindromic sites and result in
the bacterium Thermus aquaticus which can the generation of overhanging stretches
tolerate high temperatures and synthesizes new called ‘sticky ends’ on each strand. These
strand. [1] are called sticky ends because they form
9. (a) Restriction enzymes: A class of nucleases hydrogen bonds with their complementary
which breaks nucleic acids at specific cut counterparts. Hence, restriction enzymes
recognition site by cleaving their play an important role in taking out the gene
phosphodiester bonds. They are used to cut of interest from the organism and cutting
the donor DNA to isolate the desired gene. the vector DNA at specific site, so that gene
The desired gene has sticky ends which can of interest can be inserted in the vector. [3]
be easily ligated to cloning vector cut by same (ii) Amplification of a gene sample of interest is
restriction enzymes having complementary carried out using Polymerase Chain Reaction
sticky ends to form recombinant DNA. For with the help of three steps: (i) Denaturation
example, EcoRI which is obtained from of DNA that involves the separation of DNA
E.coli bacteria “R” strain which cuts DNA strands at high temperature. (ii) Annealing
at specific palindromic Recognition site.[1½] involves the attachment of primers to the
(b) Plasmids: plasmids are extra chromosomal separated DNA (iii) Extension involves the
circular, self –replicating double stranded polymerization of nucleotide chain by the
DNA of bacteria. Plasmids are used as enzyme Taq polymerase. [2]
CHAPTER 12
Biotechnology and
Iits Applications

Human insulin and 1Q 1Q
vaccine production, gene (3 marks) (1 mark)
therapy
Genetically modified 1Q 1Q 1Q 1Q 1Q
organisms-Bt crops (3 marks), (3 marks) (3 marks) (1 mark) (3 marks),
1Q
(3 marks),
Transgenic Animals, 1Q 1Q
biosafety issues, (3 marks), (3 marks),
biopiracy and patents 1Q 1Q
(1 mark) (1 mark)
On the basis of above analysis, it can be said that from exam point of view Transgenic
Animals, Mechanism of Bt toxin, Bio-piracy, Insulin Production, Bioreactors and Pest
resistant plants are most important concepts of the chapter.
12.126 CHAPTER 12 : Biotechnology and its applications
[Topic 1] Biotechnological Applications in Agriculture and

Medicine
Summary • Pest Resistant Plants:
 These plants cut the use of chemical pesticides
Biotechnology by a huge amount and enable us to not use
insecticides. Some of the examples of such plants
Biotechnology is the science which is responsible
are as follows:
for the manufacturing of different pharmaceuticals.
• Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) Cotton:
These pharmaceutical products are produced from
 The Bacillus thuringiensis produces a few strains
genetically modified fungi, animals, plants, microbes
which kill insects such as worms, flies and
etc.
mosquitoes.
• Applications of biotechnology:
 The Bacillus thuringiensis produces an
 Therapeutics insecticidal protein while growing. This does not
 Genetically modified crops for agriculture affect the bacillus as it is present in its inactive
 Diagnostics protoxin form.
 Bio remediation  When an insect eats the plant, the inactive toxin
 Energy production converts into an active toxin.
 Waste treatment  This toxin results in binding of midgut surface to
• Biotechnology Research Areas: epithelial cells to create pores.
 Creating the optimal conditions which are required  This whole process causes the cell to swell and as
for a catalyst to work through engineering. a result die.
 The purification of protein or organic compounds  The toxin is coded by a gene which is known as
by downstream processing technologies. cry.
 Providing the top suitable catalyst as an improved • Nematode Resistance in Tobacco Plants
organism such as microbes.  Meloidegyme incognitia is a nematode which
generally attacks the roots of the Tobacco plant
Biotechnological Applications in causing a very less tobacco yield.
Agriculture  RNA interference is used to prevent this nematode
• Helped in increasing the production of food using attack.
the following:  The eukaryotic organisms use RNAi for their
 Organic Agriculture defence.
 Genetically engineered crop based production  This prevents mRNA translation because of
complementary dsRNA molecule.
 Agro-chemical based agriculture
 The source of complementary RNA is from an
• The Green Revolution increased the production of
infection by RNA virus.
food by three folds.
 Nematode specific genes are introduced into the
• Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO):
host plant by Agrobacterium vectors.
Genetically Modified Organisms are the flora and
 Both sense and anti-sense bacteria are produced
fauna whose genes are being modified to enhance
in the host cell.
them to be more productive according to the
human needs.  These two complementary RNA initiates RNAi
which silences the nematode. As a result the
 Advantages of GMO in Plants:
parasites are not able to survive this environment.
- The crop becomes more tolerant towards the
physical climatic conditions i.e. weather, salinity Biotechnological Applications in
etc.
- The post-harvest losses are reduced enhancing Medicine
more profit. The biotechnology is used for a mass production
- The nutrition value of the food also increases. of pharmaceutical products and drugs using
- It increases the efficiency of the plant on the basic recombinant technology. Now a days there are thirty
level which avoids early exhaustions. recombinant therapeutics officially throughout the
CHAPTER 12 : Biotechnology and its applications 12.127
globe among which twelve are being marketed in  PCR is vastly used to identify HIV or Cancer
India. pathogens.
• Genetically Engineered Insulin  Antigen and antibody interactions is the principle
on which ELISA works.
Proinsulin
 Infection produced by a pathogen can be detected
by the presence of antigen or antibodies which are
|
S S
| |
S S
|
S–S made to counter pathogens.

B cell
S–S peptiders
PREVIOUS YEARS’
|
| S
S |
| S
Insulin
S |
|
+
Free C peptide
 The diabetes in adults can be managed by taking

insulin at regular intervals of time. TOPIC 1
 At the present moment we can produce insulin for
humans synthetically. 1 Mark Questions
1. Why do children cured by enzyme-replacement
 The pancreas of different animals have insulins
present in them. therapy adenosine deaminase deficiency need
periodic treatment? [DELHI 2015]
 Insulin consists of two polypeptide chains (Chain
2. What are Cry genes? In which organism are they
A and Chain B), which are connected by disulphide
bridge. present? [ALL INDIA 2017]
3. Mention the chemical change that proinsulin
 In all the mammals the insulin is always produced
in pre-hormone i.e. hormone which is in a stage undergoes, to be able to act as mature insulin.
of growth before it converts in to a fully grown [DELHI 2018]
hormone. 4. State the role of transposons in silencing of
 These pre-hormones have C-peptide which is mRNA in eukaryotic cells. [ALL INDIA 2013]
extracted at the time of maturation. 5. State the role of C peptide in human insulin.
• Gene Therapy [ALL INDIA 2014]
 It is a method using which a defect in a gene can
be corrected. 2 Marks Questions
 In this method, the genes are inserted in to the 6. Explain how a hereditary disease can be
cells externally in order to treat a hereditary corrected. Give an example of first successful
disease. attempt made towards correction of such
 It replaces the non functional gene causing the diseases. [DELHI 2011]
problem. 7. Biotechnologist refer to Agrobacterium
 In the process patient blood’s lymphocytes are tumifaciens as a natural genetic engineer of
cultured in culture. plants. Give reason to support the statement.
 The lymphocytes are introduced by a functional [ALL INDIA 2011]
ADA cDNA. 8. How is ‘Rosie’ considered different from a normal
 This process is repeated unless all the cells are cow? Explain. [ALL INDIA 2011]
not immortal. 9. (a) Mention the cause and the body system
 A permanent cure can be a result if ADA gene is affected by ADA deficiency in humans.
introduced at early embryonic stage. (b) Name the vector used for transferring ADA
• Molecular Diagnosis DNA into the recipient cells in humans.
 Using the conventional methods makes it is very Name the recipient cells. [DELHI 2012]
difficult to make a diagnosis at an early stage. 10. (a) State the role of ligase in Biotechnology
 Hence for early diagnosis tests like PCR, ELISA, (b) What happen when Meloidegyne incognitia
recombinant DNA technology etc are done. consumes cell with RNAi gene?
 The presence of a pathogen is usually noted when [ALL INDIA 2012]
the pathogen results in to the first symptom. At 11. Write the function of adenosine deaminase
this time the density of pathogens is very high. enzyme. State the cause of ADA deficiency in
 Using PCR the density of the pathogens is humans. Mention a possible permanent cure for
increased by amplification of nucleic acid. an ADA deficiency patient. [DELHI 2013]
12. Why is proinsulin so called? How is insulin 25. (a) Tobacco plants are damaged severely when
different from it? [ALL INDIA 2013] infested with Meloidegyne incognitia. Name
13. State how Agrobacterium tumifaciens has been and explain the strategy that is adopted to
made a useful cloning vector to transfer DNA to stop this infestation.
plant cells. [DELHI 2014] (b) Name the vector used for introducing the
nematode specific gene in tobacco plant.
[DELHI 2012]
3 Marks Questions 26. Name the genes responsible for making Bt cotton
14. Recombinant DNA-technology is of great
plants resistant to bollworms attack. How do
importance in the field of medicine. With the help
such plants attain resistance against bollworm
of a flow chart, show how this technology has
attack. Explain. [ALL INDIA 2012]
been used in preparing genetically engineered
27. In a maternity clinic, for some reasons the
human insulin. [DELHI 2015]
authorities are not able to hand over the two
15. Describe any three potential applications of
new-borns to their respective real parents.
genetically modified plants.[ALL INDIA 2015]
Name and describe the technique that you would
16. How did an American Company, Eli Lilly use
suggest to sort out the matter.
the knowledge of r-DNA technology to produce
[ALL INDIA 2013]
human insulin? [ALL INDIA 2015]
28. Name the pest that destroys the cotton bolls.
17. How has RNAi technique helped to prevent
Explain the role of Bacillus thuringiensis in
the infestation of roots in tobacco plants by a
protecting the cotton crop against the pest to
nematode Meloidegyne incognitia?
increase the yield. [ALL INDIA 2013]
[DELHI 2016]
29. How did the process of RNA interference help
18. What is a GMO? List any five possible advantages
to control the nematode from infecting roots of
of a GMO to a farmer. [DELHI 2016]
tobacco plants? Explain. [ALL INDIA 2014]
19. (a) Name the selectable markers in the cloning
vector pBR322? Mention the role they play
(b) Why is the coding sequence of an enzyme Solutions
β-galactosidase a preferred selectable 1. The enzyme-replacement therapy for adenosine
marker in comparison to the ones named deaminase (ADA) deficiency is not a completely
above? [ALL INDIA 2016] curative method because lymphocytes have a
(b) The coding sequence of an enzyme definite life cycle and it needs periodic transfusion
β-galactosidase, a preferred selectable of genetically engineered lymphocytes into the
marker because of simpler and easy process. patient. [1]
In the presence of chromogenic substrate, 2. Cry genes are present in bacterium Bacillus
the recombinants are colourless and non- thuriengiensis. Cry genescode for a toxin which
recombinants are blue in colour. is poisonous to some insects. [1]
20. (a) Why must a cell be made ‘competent’ in 3. The proinsulin is cleaved and the C-peptide
biotechnology experiments? How does chain removed to form mature insulin leaving
calcium ion help in doing so? only A-chain and B-chain joined by disulphide
(b) State the role of ‘biolistic gun’ in biotechnology bond. [1]
experiments. [ALL INDIA 2016] 4. Transposon are the jumping DNA sequences
21. Write the steps you would suggest to be that can move from one location to another in
undertaken to obtain a foreign-gene-product. the genome. Hence, when they jump, at a point
[DELHI 2017] where they can bind with transcribing DNA to
22. Why do lepidopterans die when they feed on Bt RNA and prevent it from translation. [1]
cotton plant? Explain how it happens. 5. Removal of C peptide makes the active form
[DELHI 2017] of insulin from non- active form which is pro-
23. Explain the various steps involved in the insulin. [1]
production of artificial insulin. 6. Hereditary disease can be corrected now- a-days
[ALL INDIA 2017] with gene therapy. In this method, disease
24. How has the use of Agrobacterium as vectors causing gene is replaced with new normal gene
helped in controlling Meloidegyne incogintia which does not cause the disease. It involve
infestation intobacco plants? Explain in correct gene corrections in embryo stage, if discovered
sequence. [DELHI 2018] through amniocentesis and juvenile stage. [1]
First successful attempt was made on a 4-year 13. Agrobacterium tumifaciensis a gram negative
old girl. She was suffering from Adenosine bacteria and known as natural genetic engineer
deaminase deficiency. This enzyme is important of plants. The name is given to it because it
for immune system. The enzyme can by integrates its plasmid DNA known as T DNA
infused inside by injection or by bone marrow into plant genome without any vector. This
transplantation for correction of the disease.[1] property is used by biotechnologist to transfer
7. Agrobacterium tumifaciensis a gram negative desired gene in the plants with the help of its
bacteria and known as natural genetic engineer T-DNA. [2]
of plants. The name is given to it because it 14. P r e p a r a t i o n o f H u m a n I n s u l i n U s i n g
integrates its plasmid DNA known as T DNA Recombinant DNA Technology:
into plant genome without any vector. It can be Identification and separation of DNA
used to incorporate genes for plant defense, or segment which codes for insulin
against stress. Therefore it is a natural genetic
engineer of plants. [2] Introducing insulin sequence in the
8. ‘Rosie’ is a transgenic cow developed by scientist plasmid of E. coli bacterium.
in the year 1997. Its milk is better than other
cows because it is enriched with alpha -
lactalbumin. This milk is nutritionally more Engineered plasmid from E.coli is
balanced for human babies than natural cow’s inserted into a new bacterium.
milk. [2]
9. (a) ADA deficiency in humans is caused due to
the missing ADA gene in diseased person, New bacterium divides and
produces insulin.
wherein Adenosine deaminase enzyme is not
produced. Its deficiency in humans affect the
immune system. [1]
Insulin exracted
(b) The vector used for transferring ADA
from bacterium.
is a retrovirus. Recipient cells are
lymphocytes. [1] Fig.: Human Insulin preparation using
10. (a) DNA ligase act as a “glue” to join the two recombinant DNA technology [½x4+1=3]
15. (a) Genetically modified plants are more
DNA strands by forming phosphodiester
tolerant to abiotic stresses such as cold,
bond. [1]
drought, salt and heat. [1]
(b) When Meloidegyne incognitia consumes cell
(b) Genetically modified pants plants increase
with RNAi gene, then it will die because
the efficiency of mineral usage and prevent
introduced RNAi will form sense and anti-
early exhaustion of soil fertility. [1]
sense RNA (dsRNA) that are complementary
(c) GM plants do not dependent much on
to each other will be complementary to
chemical pesticides. [½]
mRNA. Hence, the situation lead to the
(d) They have enhanced the nutritional value
process of gene silencing by RNAi. [1] of food such as vitamin A-enriched rice. [½]
11. Adenosine deaminase enzyme plays an 16. The structure of insulin consist of two short
important role in the immune system of human. polypeptide chains- chain A and chain B that
ADA deficiency in humans is caused due to are linked together by disulphide bridges.
the lack of gene responsible for the production In mammals including humans, insulin is
of ADA enzyme. This condition, is cured by synthesised as a pro-hormone. It needs to be
gene replacement therapy, where the gene of processed before it becomes a fully mature and
Adenosine deaminase enzyme is introduced functional hormone. It contains an extra stretch
in then human lymphocytes with the help of called C-peptide. C-peptide is removed during
retrovirus. [2] maturation into insulin. The rDNA technique
12. Proinsulin is like a pro-enzyme having extra is used for assembling insulin into the mature
stretch of C-peptide which makes it inactive. So form. [1]
it needs to be processed to become fully mature In 1983, Eli Lily, an American company,
and functional hormone like insulin, insulin is prepared two DNA sequences corresponding to
mature hormone which contains only A and B A and B chains and it introduced into E. coli to
peptide. [2] produce A and B chains separately. These chains
were extracted and combined to form disulphide In the presence of chromogenic substrate,
bonds to form human insulin. [1] the recombinants are colourless and non-
recombinants are blue in colour. [1½]
Proinsulin 20. (a) In most biotechnology experiments the cells
S–S are made competent so that it can take up
S S
S S the DNA from the external medium. The
bacterial cells are treated with divalent
A peptide cations such as calcium to increase the
S–S efficiency of DNA entering the cell through
S
S
S S Insulin pores in the cell wall. [1½]
(b) Biolistic gun or gene gun is used to introduce
B peptide alien DNA into host cells especially in
plants. In this method, the host cells are
Free C peptide bombarded with high-velocity microparticles
Fig.: Maturation of pro-insulin into insulin [1] of gold or tungsten coated DNA molecules.
17. RNA Interference (RNAi) is process which [1½]
silences a gene. It blocks the expression of 21. The steps to obtain a foreign-gene product are
genes in the parasite when it enters the host’s stated below:
body. RNAi is a method adopted to prevent (a) Identification of DNA having desirable
infestation of roots of tobacco plants by a genes. [½]
nematode Meloidegyne incognitia. In RNAi, a (b) Identified DNA is inserted into suitable host
complementary RNA binds to mRNA to form to form recombinant DNA (rDNA). [½]
a dsRNA that cannot translate. Therefore, its (c) In the host the introduced DNA is cloned.
expression is blocked (Silenced). In this process, (d) Transfer of the DNA (gene transfer) to its
nematode-specific genes (DNA) are introduced in progeny. [½]
the host plant. This introduced DNA forms both (e) Selection of the recombinants from non-
sense and anti-sense RNA. These two strands, recombinants. [½]
being complementary to each other, bend and (f) Gene of interest is expressed by culturing
form ds RNA, leading to RNA interference. recombinant cells. [½]
mRNA of nematode is thus silenced and the (g) Production of desired gene product on large
parasite cannot survive in the transgenic host. scale by cell culture in bioreactors. [½]
Thus, tobacco plants can be protected from 22. Bt cotton are genetically modified plants have
nematode attack. [3] a Bacillus thuringiensis gene called cry gene.
18. Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) are This gene, encodes for Bt toxin protein crystals
those plants, bacteria, fungi or animals whose having insecticidal properties. The toxin is
genes have been altered by manipulation. [1] effective for lepidopteran such as cotton boll
Advantages: worm. Bt toxin exists as inactive protoxins.
(a) They have high tolerance factors cold, When an insect ingests the inactive toxin, it
drought, salt, heat, etc. gets converted into an active form of toxin due
(b) Less dependent on chemical pesticides. to the alkaline pH of the gut (stomach) which
(c) Minimum post-harvest losses. solubilise the crystals. The activated toxin binds
(d) Increased efficiency of mineral usage by to the surface of mid gut epithelial cells and
plants. make pores that cause cell swelling and celllysis
(e) increased nutritional value. [2] (breakdown) and eventually cause death of the
19. (a) Ampicillin resistance gene (ampR) and insect. [3]
tetR/ tetracycline resistance gene (tetR) 23. Insulin consist of two short polypeptide
are the selectable markers in the cloning chains- chain A and chain B that are linked
vector pBR322. They help in identifying together by disulphide bridges. In mammals
and eliminating non-transformed cells and including humans, insulin is synthesised as a
distinguish recombinant cells from non- pro-hormone. It needs to be processed before it
recombinant cells. [1½] becomes a fully mature and functional hormone.
(b) The coding sequence of an enzyme It contains an extra stretch called C-peptide.
β-galactosidase, a preferred selectable C-peptide is removed during maturation into
marker because of simpler and easy process. functional insulin. The two DNA sequences
corresponding to A and B chains are introduced thuringiensis produce proteins that kill certain
into E. coli to produce A and B chains separately. insects such as, coleopterans and dipterans.
These chains are extracted and combined B. thuringiensis forms protein crystals which
by creating disulphide bonds to form human contain a toxic insecticidal protein. [3]
insulin. [3] 27. DNA Fingerprinting or DNA test is the technique
24. A nematode Meloidegyne incognitia infects that I would suggest to sort out the matter. It
the roots of tobacco plants and causes a great consist of isolation of DNA, digestion of DNA
reduction in yield. An effective strategy was by restriction endonucleases, separation of
adopted to prevent this infestation which was DNA fragments by electrophoresis, transferring
based on the process of RNA interference (RNAi). (blotting) of separated DNA fragments to
Using Agrobacterium vectors, nematode-specific synthetic membranes, such as nitrocellulose or
genes were introduced into the host plants. The nylon, hybridisation using labelled VNTR probe,
introduction of DNA was such that it produced and detection of hybridised DNA fragments by
both sense and anti-sense RNA in the host cells. autoradiography. Half of the bands obtained on
These two RNA’s being complementary to each autoradiogram of child will resemble father and
other formed a double stranded (dsRNA) that other half to mother. [3]
initiated RNAi and it silenced specific mRNA of 28. The gene encodingcry protein is called ‘’cry gene’’.
the nematode. As a result the parasite could not
This Cry protein isolated and transferred into
survive in a transgenic host expressing specific
several crops. For example, the proteins encoded
interfering RNA. The transgenic plant therefore
by the genes cryIAc and cryIIAb control the
gets itself protected from the parasite. [3]
cotton bollworms, that of cryIAb controls corn
25. (a) When Meloidegyne incognitia consumes cell
borer. Some strains of Bacillus thuringiensis
with RNAi gene, then it will die because
produce proteins that kill certain insects such
introduced RNAi will form sense and anti-
as, coleopterans and dipterans. [1½]
sense RNA that are complementary to
B. thuringiensis forms protein crystals which
each other and form double stranded RNA.
Hence, the situation lead to silencing of contains a toxic insecticidal protein. The Bt toxin
mRNA due to RNAi. [1½] protein exist as inactive protoxins but once an
(b) Agrobacterium tumefaciens: Agrobacterium insect ingest the inactive toxin, it is converted
tumifaciensis a gram negative bacteria into an active form of toxin due to the alkaline
and known as natural genetic engineer of pH of the gut which solubilises the crystals. The
plants. The name is given to it because it activated toxin binds to the midgut epithelial
integrates its plasmid DNA known as T cells, causes cell lysis and lead to the death of
DNA into plant genome without any vector. the insect. [1½]
This property is used by biotechnologist to 29. RNAi is a gene silencing process. RNA
transfer desired gene in the plants with the interference help to control the nematode
help of its T-DNA. [1½] from infecting roots of tobacco plants. When
26. The gene encoding cry protein is called ‘’cry Meloidegyne incognitia consumes cell with RNAi
gene’’. This Cry protein isolated and transferred gene, then it will die because introduced RNAi
into several crops. For example, the proteins will form sense and anti-sense RNA that are
encoded by the genes cryIAc and cryIIAb complementary to each other and form double
control the cotton bollworms, that of cryIAb stranded RNA. Hence, the situation lead to the
controls corn borer. Some strains of Bacillus silencing of mRNA due to RNAi. [3]
[Topic 2] Transgenic Animals and Bioethical Issues

• Transgenic Animals: There are some animals in These modifications lead to some benefits which are
which an extra gene is expressed and possessed explained below:
by DNA manipulation. Such animals are called  Normal physiology and development: These
transgenic animals. There are many animals of modifications in animals help us to understand
this type like rabbits, sheep, rats, cows, fish, etc. about the regulation of genes and their effect of
but most of them are mice. normal functioning of body.
 Study of disease: These modifications also help  GEAC (Genetic Engineering Approval Committee)
to understand their contribution for diseases. It is an organization set up by the Indian
helps us to investigate about the new treatments Government to determine the validity and safety
for various diseases like cancer, Alzheimer’s, of introducing genetic modification organisms for
rheumatoid arthritis and cystic fibrosis. public services.
 Biological products: Some products are used to  Some companies are using products and
treat certain diseases but are expensive therefore technologies that have already been identified
some transgenic animals are used to create and used by some farmers and indigenous people.
those products. Some diseases which are treated
 Rice is an example which is an important food
by such products are phenylketonuria (PKU),
grain and its varieties are produced in India.
emphysema, etc.
There are some varieties which were already
 Vaccine safety: Some of the vaccines are tested
derived by Indian farmers and the companies are
for safety on transgenic mice before being used by
using their patent rights.
humans. If it is found reliable, mice are replaced
by monkeys.  Biopiracy is used for the companies and
organizations when they do not authorize from
 Chemical safety testing: Transgenic animals are
the concerned countries and people along with
used to test toxicity of drugs. These animals are
more sensitive to toxic substances. These animals compensatory payment.
are exposed to toxic substances and the effects are  Traditional knowledge of some developing
studied. and under developed countries is exploited for
• Ethical Issues: There are some ethical standards developing modern applications.
to be followed so that the morality of human  Some laws are developed by some developed
activities is evaluated. These are necessary and developing countries to avoid unauthorized
because genetic modifications of organisms can exploitation of traditional knowledge and bio-
have unpredictable results. resources.
PREVIOUS YEARS’
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS and people concerned and without giving
monetary benefits. [1]
TOPIC 2 2. (a) Trangenic animals are used for the
production of biological products like milk,
1 Mark Questions which is much cheaper than other methods.
1. What is Biopiracy? [ALL INDIA 2016]
For example, Rosie’ is a transgenic cow
[DELHI 2017]
developed by scientist in the year 1997. Its
milk is better than other cows’ because it
2 Marks Questions
is enriched with alpha – lactalbumin, for
2. How have transgenic animals proved to be
human babies. [1]
beneficial in:
(b) Transgenic animals are modified in such
(a) Production of biological products
a way that they become sensitive to toxic
(b) Chemical safety testing
substance more easily, so the scientist can
[ALL INDIA 2014]
use them for toxicity testing. [1]
3 Marks Questions 3. (a) Transgenic animals so called because their
DNA is manipulated by scientist to produce
3. (a) Why are transgenic animals so called?
biological products and other uses. [1]
(b) Explain the role of transgenic animals in
(b) (i) vaccine safety: Transgenic mice are
(i) vaccine safety
used to check the safety of polio virus.
(ii) Biological products with the help of an
(ii) Biological products: Rosie’ is a
example of each. [DELHI 2013]
transgenic cow developed by scientist
in the year 1997. Its milk is better
Solutions than other cows’ milk for human babies
1. Biopiracy is the practice of using bio-resources by because it is enriched with alpha -
multinational companies and other organisations lactalbumin. [1+1]
without proper permission from the countries
CHAPTER 13
Organisms and
Populations

Habitat and niche,
Population and ecological
adaptations
Population interactions-
mutualism, competition,
predation, parasitism
Population attributes 1Q 1Q 1Q 1Q
growth, birth rate (5 marks) (5 marks) (5 marks) (5 marks)
and death rate, age
distribution
Human Population, Abiotic factors and Growth Curve are most important concepts of the
chapter.
13.136 CHAPTER 13 : Organisms and Populations
[Topic 1] Organisms and Their Environment

Summary  Water holding capacity of the soil is determined by
the soil composition, grain size and aggregation.
Ecology is a branch of biology, which gives us holistic • Water
perspective to biology. It is the study of relationships  The amount of water available in a particular
of living organisms with their environments abiotic area determines the distribution and productivity
and biotic components. of plants.
 Salt concentration in water varies for different
Organism and its environment areas like less than 5 in inland waters, 30 – 35 in
Physiological ecology is important as it explains how the sea and more than 100 in hypersaline lagoons.
organisms adapt to their environment for survival  Some aquatic organisms can grow in wide range
and reproduction. Major abiotic or physical factors of salt water, such aquatic organisms are called
that affect the adaptation of the organisms are euryhaline and other can tolerate salinities in a
narrow range, called stenohaline.
temperature, water, soil and light.
Major Abiotic Factors Responses to Abiotic Factors

• Homeostasis:
• Light:
A process of maintaining the constancy of its
 Species of small plants like herbs and shrubs that internal environment by the organism besides
grow in forests can photosynthesize optimally experiencing different external environmental
under very low light conditions. conditions.
 Some plants depend on sunlight to meet their
photoperiodic requirement for flowering.
s
 Animals need light for timing their foraging, er
migratory and reproductive activities. orm
nf
Co
Internal level
 Some plants present at the bottom of the ocean Regulaters

does not get sunlight so some of the color
components are not available to them. Partial regulaters
• Temperature:
 The average temperature decreases continuously
as we move from plains to hilly areas and from the
equator towards the poles. External level
 In some unique habitats like thermal springs, deep
Fig.: Diagrammatic representation of
sea hydrothermal vents the average temperature organismic response
exceed 100°C
The various possibilities by which various organisms
 Some factors like kinetics of enzymes, physiological deal with the external environmental conditions are
functions, basal metabolism of the organism are
regulate, conform, migrate and suspend.
affected by the temperature.
• Regulate
 The geographical distribution of different species
 Constant body temperature, constant osmotic
is determined by the levels of thermal tolerance of concentrations are the physiological means by
the species. Some species are called eurythermal which some organisms maintain homeostasis.
which can survive in wide range of temperatures
 Success of mammals is largely due to their ability to
while species called stenothermal can survive maintain a constant body temperature and thrive
only in narrow range of temperatures. whether they live in poles or in the arid deserts.
• Soil  Humans maintain a constant body temperature of
 The nature and properties of soil depend on the 37°C
climate, weathering process, transportation of soil  In summers sweat cool due to evaporation and
and the development of soil. brings down the body temperature.
 Vegetation in an area is determined by the mineral  In winters we shiver which produces heat and
composition, topography, pH of the soil. raises body temperature.
CHAPTER 13 : Organisms and Populations 13.137
• Conform
 A constant internal environment cannot be
maintained by plants and animals.
PREVIOUS YEARS’
 With change in water osmotic concentration, body
temperature of aquatic animals also changes.
 The animals and plants whose body temperature TOPIC 1
changes with ambient temperature are called
conformers.
1 Mark Questions
1. Give an example of an organism that enters
 Thermoregulation is expensive energetically for
‘diapause’ and why. [DELHI 2014]
many organisms that includes small birds like
2. State Gause’s Competitive Exclusion
shrews and humming birds, because of which
Principle. [ALL INDIA 2014]
such organisms are conformers.
3. Name the type of association that the genus
• Migrate
Glomus exhibits with higher plants.
 Some organisms move to favorable or more [ALL INDIA 2014]
hospitable areas temporarily and return back
once the stressful period is over in their own area 2 Marks Questions
this is called migration. 4. Explain brood parasitism with the help of an
 Many Siberian birds migrate from Siberia to example. [DELHI 2012]
Rajasthan in winters. 5. Why do clown fish and sea anemone pair up?
• Suspend What is this relationship called?
 To help bacteria, fungi and lower plants to [ALL INDIA 2012]
survive in unfavorable conditions various kinds of 6. Some organisms suspend their metabolic
thick walled spores are formed that generate on activities to survive in unfavourable conditions.
availability of suitable environment. Explain with the help of any four examples.
 Some organisms escape time to avoid stress like [ALL INDIA 2012]
bears goes into hibernation in winters and fishes 7. Explain the significant role of the genus
and snails go into aestivation to avoid summer. Nucleopolyhedro virus in an ecological sensitive
 Under unfavorable conditions many zooplankton area. [ALL INDIA 2014]
species in lakes enter diapause, a stage of 8. Describe the mutual relationship between fig
suspended development. tree and wasp and comment on the phenomenon
that operates in their relationship.
Adaptation [ALL INDIA 2014]
• It is any attribute of the organism (morphological, 9. Many fresh water animals cannot survive in
physiological, and behavioral) that enables the marine environment. Explain. [DELHI 2015]
organism to survive and reproduce in its habitat.
10. What is mutualism? Mention any two examples
For example people living in higher altitudes
where the organisms involved are commercially
have higher Red Blood Cell count because the
exploited in agriculture. [ALL INDIA 2015]
oxygen level in higher altitudes is low because
11. Many fresh water animals cannot survive in
of which body produces more Red Blood Cells to
marine environment. Explain. [DELHI 2015]
allow increased level of transportation of gases.
• Allen’s rule: According to Allen’s rule, the limbs,
ears and other appendages of the animals living in 3 Marks Questions
cold climates tend to be shorter than the animals 12. Water is very essential for life. Write any
of the same species living in warm climates to three features both for plants and animals
prevent loss of heat. which enable them to survive in water scarce
• Some dessert plants perform their photosynthetic environment. [ALL INDIA 2011]
function by stems are the leaves are reduced to 13. How do organisms cope with stressful
spines. Some aquatic animals survive in hot environmental conditions which are localized
springs while others may survive in Antarctic or of short duration? [ALL INDIA 2011]
waters where the temperature is very less. 14. Explain the mutualism with the help of
These plants and animals adapt according to the any two examples. How is different from
conditions. commensalism? [DELHI 2013]
5 Marks Questions 7. Nucleopolyhedro virus is a type of virus that

15. Name the type of interaction in each of the play a significant role in an ecological sensitive
following examples: area. These virus are perfect example of
(i) Ascaris worms living in the intestine of species-specific narrow spectrum insecticidal
human application. [2]
(ii) Wasp pollinating fig inflorescence 8. Fig tree and wasp show the phenomenon of
(iii) Clown fish living among the tentacles of sea co-evolution. It means evolution of fig tree and
anemone wasp takes together. The female wasp used the
(iv) Mycorrhizae living on the roots of higher flower to lay the eggs whereas wasp pollinate
plants the flower. [2]
(v) Orchid growing on a branch of a mango tree
9. In marine environment water is more
(vi) Disappearance of smaller barnacles when
concentrated than the fresh water environment.
Balanus dominated in the coast of Scotland.
The body of many fresh water animals are not
[DELHI 2011]
adapted to living in the marine environment.
Freshwater fishes lose their body water through
Solutions osmosis because of the higher concentration
1. Zooplanktonsis an example of an organism that of salt in the surrounding water (hypertonic
enters ‘diapause due to adverse environmental environment), which makes their survival in
conditions. [1] marine water difficult. [2]
2. Gause’s Competitive Exclusion Principle was
10. Interrelationship between two organisms in
given by Georgy Gause. According to this law, two
which both organisms get benefit with respect
species that compete for the same resources cannot
to food and shelter. Two examples:
stably coexist indefinitely. They competitively
(a) Lichen is the mutualistic relationship
inferior one will get eliminated soon. [1]
between fungi and algae. The fungus
3. Glomus show the mutualism where it makes
the symbiotic relationship with plant roots by provides shelter and nutrients from the
forming mycorrhiza. [1] environment and the alga makes food for
4. Brood Parasitism is an type of parasitism in partner by photosynthesis. [1]
which the parasitic bird lays its egg in the nest (b) Nitrogen fixing bacterium, Rhizobium live
of its host and lets the host incubate them. The in the root nodules of legumes where the
best example is between the koel and the crow. bacterium derives nutrition from the root of
Koel is the brood parasite that lays its eggs in the plant and benefits the plants by fixing
the nests of crows and other birds. [2] atmospheric nitrogen in usable form for the
5. Clown fish gets protection from its predators by plants. [1]
moving around hiding in the stinging tentacles 11. In marine environment water is more
of the sea anemone whereas other one is neither concentrated than the fresh water environment.
helped nor harmed by the interaction. This
The body many fresh water animals are not
relationship called commensalism. [2]
adapted to the marine environment. Freshwater
6. Four examples are:
fishes lose their body water through osmosis
(a) Frogs hibernate in cold season in winters.
because of the higher concentration of salt in the
(b) The kangaroo, has the ability to concentrate
surrounding water (hypertonic environment),
its urine and can live from birth to death
without drinking water. which makes their survival difficult. [2]
(c) Zooplanktons undergo a state of suspended 12. Three features both for plants and animals
development called diapause during which enable them to survive in water scarce
unfavourable conditions. environment are:
(d) Bears also undergo hibernation in cold (a) Some plants have CAM cycle and animals
weather. [½x4=2] are nocturnal to save the water. [1]
(b) Few plants’ leaves are converted into spines oxpeckers get food and the beasts get pests
and animals have dry scaly skin to save the eliminated. In mutualism, both the organisms
water. [1] in relationship are benefitted from each other
(c) Plants have sunken conditions whereas where in commensalism, only one partner is
animals undergo aestivation to save the benefitted and other is neither benefitted nor
water during summers. [1] harmed. [3]
13. Plants undergo dormancy during unfavourable 15. (i) Ascaris worms living in the intestine of
conditions and germinate when favourable human show parasitism [1]
conditions appear. The seeds and some
(ii) Wasp pollinating fig inflorescence shows
vegetative structures are used to germinate
mutualism [1]
when favourable conditions appear. Similarly,
(iii) Clown fish living among the tentacles of sea
animals undergo hibernation and migrate to
some other places when stressful environmental anemones shows commensalism [1]
conditions occur. The zooplankton enter the (iv) Mycorrhizae living on the roots of higher
diapause when adverse conditions come. [3] plants shows mutualism [1]
14. Fig tree and wasp show the phenomenon of (v) Orchid growing on a branch of a mango tree
mutualism. For example, Fig tree and wasp. shows commensalism
Another example is between oxpeckers and (vi) Disappearance of smaller barnacles when
zebra. Oxpeckers land on zebras and eat ticks Balanus dominated in the coast of Scotland
and other parasites that live on their skin. The shows competition [1]
[Topic 2] Population
• Population  Natality- Number of births during a given period
 When a group dwells in a well defined geographic  Mortality- Number of deaths in a given period
area, share or compete for similar resources and  Immigration- Number of individuals of the same
interbreed, this represents a population. species that have come into the habitat from some
 A population has different attributes that an other place.
individual organism does not possess like birth  Emigration- Number of individuals of the same
rates, death rates and sex ratio. species that left the habitat and shifted to a new place.
 The growth status of the population can be
• Growth models
reflected by the shapes of the pyramids.
Post-reproductive dN
= rN
Reproductive dt
Population density (N)
a
Pre-reproductive K
Expanding Stable Declining dN K-N
= rN
Fig.: Representation of age b dt K
pyramids for human population
• Population density: Also known as population
size, is the measurement of population per unit
area or unit volume. Time (t)
• Population Growth: The size of a population
Fig.: Population growth curve
is not always constant, it varies with factors like
food availability, adverse weather, predation  Exponential growth: When the resources are
pressure these factors provide insight into unlimited population has exponential growth.
whether the population is declining or flourishing, If in a population of size N the birth rates are
these variations in size of population is called represented as b and death rates as d then the
population growth. The population fluctuations increase or decrease in Nin a unit time period t
take place due to four basic processes. will be
dN  Predation: When one species is benefited harming

= (b − d ) × N the second species as it preys on it. For example
dT
for plants herbivores are predators. Predators
dN maintain the species diversity in a community. If
Let (b – d) = r then, = rN
dT the predator makes the prey extinct then there are
possibilities of predator becoming extinct as well.
 Logistic Growth: When the resources are limited
exponential growth is not possible, leading to  Parasitism: It is similar to predation where one
competition between individuals for limited species is benefited and the second species gets
resources and only the fittest will survive and detrimented. The parasite obtains food and shelter
reproduce. from the host. For example lice on humans and
Verhulst-Pearl Logistic growth is given by ticks on dogs. Parasites have a complex life cycle
as parasitisation of primary host is facilitated by
dN K −N 
= rN   one or two intermediate hosts. Ectoparasites are
dt  K  those parasites which feed on the external surface
• Life History Variation: Population of host organism while endoparasites live inside
Interactions the host body. An example of parasitism in birds is
 The various species of a habitat depend on each Brood parasitism where parasitic bird lay its eggs
other for their survival. There is always a minimal in the nest of the host.
requirement for any species to have one or more  Commensalism: In this interaction one species
species on which it can feed. The populations is benefited while the other is neither harmed nor
interact with each other to survive in this ecology. benefited. For example an orchid growing on a
Various population interactions can be understood mango branch.
by this table,  Amensalism: In this interaction one species is
detrimented/inhibited or destroyed while the
Species A Species B Name of Interaction other species is unaffected. For example bread
Mutualism mold penicillium and black walnut trees.
Competition
Predation
Parasitism
PREVIOUS YEARS’
0 Commenalism EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
0 Amensalism
TOPIC 2
‘+’ for beneficial interaction
‘–’ for detrimental interaction 3 Marks Questions
1. (a) Write the importance of measuring the size
‘0’ for neutral interaction
of a population in a habitat or an ecosystem
• Types of Interactions
(b) Explain with the help of an example how
 Mutualism: This interaction benefits both the
the percentage cover is a more meaningful
interacting species such as the plant-animal
measure of population size than mere
relationship. Plants offer pollen and nectar for
numbers. [ALL INDIA 2013]
pollinators and juicy and nutritious fruits for seed
dispersers, for e.g. relationship between female
wasp and fig species. 5 Marks Questions
 Competition: It occurs when closely related 2. (a) List the different attributes that a population
species compete for same resource but sometimes has and not an individual organism.
totally unrelated species also compete for same (b) What is population density? Explain any
resource. For example flamingoes and resident three different ways the population density
fishes compete for common food, i.e. zooplanktons can be measured, with the help of an
in some shallow South American lakes. In this example each. [ALL INDIA 2015]
process, fitness of one species is lower in presence 3. (a) Represent diagrammatically three kinds of
of the other. Gause’s ‘Competitive Exclusion age-pyramids for human populations.
Principle’ states that two closely related species
(b) How does an age pyramid for human
competing for the same resource cannot coexist
population at given point of time helps the
indefinitely and the inferior one is eliminated.
policymakers in planning for future.
[DELHI 2016]
4. (a) Name the two growth models that represents (b) By using percent cover or biomass in huge
population growth and draw the respective populations. For example, dense laboratory
growth curves they represent. culture of bacteria in a Petri dish can be
(b) State the basis for the difference in the shape measured only by biomass. [1]
of these curves. (c) By using relative density. For example, the
(c) Which one of the curves represent the number of fish caught per trap is used to
human population growth at present? Do measure its total population density in a
you think such a curve is sustainable? Give lake. [1]
reason in support of your answer. 3. (a) A population at any given time is composed
[ALL INDIA 2016] of individuals of different ages. Graphical
5. (a) What is an age-pyramid? representation of age distribution in a
(b) Name three representative kinds of age- population is called an age pyramid. The
pyramids for human population and list the age pyramids in human population show
characteristics for each one of them. age distribution of males and females in
[DELHI 2017] a combined diagram. The shape of the
6. (a) Following are the responses of different pyramids reflects the growth status of the
animals to various a biotic factors. Describe population - whether it is growing or stable
each one with the help of an example. or declining. [3]
(i) Regulate (ii) Conform Post-reproductive
(iii) Migrate (iv) Suspend Reproductive
(b) If 8 individuals in a population of 80 Pre-reproductive
butterflies die in a week, calculate the death
rate of population of butterflies during that Expanding Stable Declining
period. [DELHI 2018] Fig.: Age Pyramids of human population
(b) An age pyramid for human population at
Solutions given point of time helps the policymakers
in planning for various social issues such as
1. (a) Measuring the size of a population in a
health services, education, infrastructure,
habitat helps us to have knowledge of the
finance management. [2]
relative abundance of that particular species
4. (a) There are two types of growth models
and the effect of the species on the available
which represents population growth are
resources of habitat. [1]
exponential growth and logistic growth.
(b) Percentage cover is more meaningful
Exponential growth curve:
measure of population size than mere
numbers because the relative abundance
of a species is not only determined by

number of individuals but by both i.e. the
relative abundance in number and relative
abundance in biomass. For example, In unit
area the number of a grass species individuals
or relative abundance in number is high but Time (t)
not in relative abundance of biomass. [2] Fig.: Exponential Growth [1]
2. (a) Population density, population growth, Logistic growth curve:
natality, mortality, sex ratio are the different
attributes of a population but these are not
the attributes of an individual organism.[1]

(b) Population density: it is the number of
individuals per unit area at a given time.[1]
There several ways to measure population
density. These are:
(a) By counting all the individuals in a region Time (t)
if individuals in a population is small. Fig.: Logistic Growth [1]
For example, counting Siberian cranes at (c) In exponential growth model the resources
Bharatpur wetlands. [1] and space are unlimited, the population
tends to grow in an exponential pattern. Post-reproductive

In logistic growth model the resources and Reproductive
space are limited which leads to competition
Pre-reproductive
between individuals. In this type of growth,
there is an initial lag phase followed by log Expanding Stable Declining
phase and then in steady state. [1] Fig.: Age Pyramids of human population [1]
(c) The present human population follows 6. (a) (i) Regulate: some animals able to
the logistic growth curve because the regulate constant body temperature,
human population growing rapidly than constant osmotic concentration,
the resources. Such a growth pattern is not etc. by thermoregulation and
sustainable because the resources would not osmoregulation. Examples are all birds
be able to meet the demand of increasing and mammals. [1]
population. For sustainable growth it is (ii) Conform: Most of the animals and
important to use our resources judiciously. almost all plants cannot maintain a
[1] constant internal environment. Their
5. (a) A population at any given time is composed body temperature changes with the
of individuals of different ages. Graphical change in external temperature.
representation of age distribution in a Examples are fish, frog, and lizards.
population is called an age-pyramid. [1] [1]
(b) The three kinds of age – pyramids are (iii) Migrate: The organism can move away
expanding, stable and declining. The temporarily. This movement of animals
characteristics of age pyramids are given from the stressful habitat to a more
below: [1] favourable habitat and returning back
(i) Expanding: pre-reproductive population to original place when stressful period
is greater than reproductive or post- is over is migration. Example, Siberian
reproductive population. Maximum cranes. [1]
number of individuals are added in (iv) Suspend: Some animals unable
pre-reproductive population and the to migrate to other place during
least number is in post reproductive stressful conditions of their habitats.
phase. To avoid the stress, they escape in time.
(ii) Stable: Pre-reproductive and repro- Examples, bears go into hibernation
ductive population are almost the during winter. [1]
same. Its pyramid maintains balanced (b) Number of deaths per 1000 individuals is
number of individuals in reproductive the death rate.
and pre-reproductive phase. Less Death rate of butter flies
number of individuals are present in Number of butterflies died
post reproductive phase. [1] =
Total number of butterflies in a population
(iii) Declining: Pre-reproductive population
is less than reproductive population. 8
= 0.1 butterflies per week [1]
Less number of individuals are 80
present in pre-reproductive phase than
reproduction phase. [1]
CHAPTER 14
Ecosystem

Patterns, components; 1Q
productivity and (2 marks)
decomposition
Energy flow, pyramids of 1Q 1Q
number, biomass, energy, (3 marks) (5 marks)
nutrient cycles (carbon
and phosphorous)
Ecological succession; 1Q 1Q
ecological services (5 marks) (5 marks)
- carbon fixation,
pollination, seed
dispersal, oxygen release
On the basis of above analysis, it can be said that from exam point of view both the concepts
Structure and Function of Ecosystem, Nutrient Cycling and Ecological Pyramids are most
important concepts of the chapter.
14.146 CHAPTER 14 : Ecosystem
[Topic 1] Ecosystem–Structure & Function,

Productivity & decomposition
Summary  Primary productivity can be divided into NPP (net
primary productivity) and GPP (gross primary
Introduction productivity).
 NPP of an ecosystems the remaining biomass
The most basic part of nature where the living interact
after respiration (R) and GPP is the rate at which
in between themselves and with the surrounding
the biomass is produced under the process of
environment photosynthesis.
Types of Ecosystems GPP –R = NPP
• Terrestrial: The available biomass for heterotrophs to consume
 Forest, grassland and desert are some examples is NPP.
of terrestrial ecosystems. • Secondary productivity:
• Aquatic:  The rate at which the new organic matter is
formed is coined as secondary productivity.
 Pond, lake, wetland, river and estuary are some
examples of aquatic ecosystems. Decomposition
• Man-made ecosystems:
The process in which complex organic compounds
 Crop fields and an aquarium may also be disintegrate to form inorganic simple compounds is
considered as man-made ecosystems.
termed as decomposition. The simple disintegrated
Structure and Function compounds can be water, carbon gases etc. Detritus
• An Ecosystem has two components: is formed from dead remains of animals and dead
 Biotic components: These are consumers, plants remains like bark, leaves, and flowers.
producers and decomposers • Steps are involved in decomposition
 Abiotic components: These are inorganic  Fragmentation: Detritivores break down detritus
materials- air, water and soil into smaller particles which increases the surface
• Every ecosystem has characteristic physical area of detritus particles for microbial action. This
structure derived from interaction of abiotic and process is called fragmentation.
biotic components.  Leaching: The process in which inorganic
• Stratification is vertical distribution of different nutrients goes into the ground and is stored in
species occupying different levels. These levels form of precipitation which cannot be accessed is
are called STRATA. called Leaching.
• The components of an ecosystem work as a unit by  Catabolism: The process in which detritus
disintegrates into simple inorganic compounds
considering the following aspects:
with the help of fungal or bacterial enzymes is
 Productivity
called Catabolism.
 Decomposition
 Humification: This process results in accumulated
 Energy flow humus. Humus is an amorphous substance which
 Nutrient cycling is black in colour. The decomposition of humus is
Productivity also very slow.
 Mineralization: Mineralization is a process in
For ecosystems to sustain and function a basic input which the humus produced decomposes to give
of solar energy is needed. The rate at which the inorganic simple compounds.
biomass is produced is termed as productivity. • Factors affecting Rate of Decomposition:
• Primary productivity  Chemical composition of detritus: Decomposition
 During the process of photosynthesis, the amount rate is slower if detritus is rich in lignin and chitin,
of biomass produced per unit area by different and it is quicker if detritus is rich in nitrogen and
plants is coined as primary productivity. sugar.
 The primary productivity can be illustrated in  Climatic conditions: Warm and moist environment
energy kcal m–2 or weight g–2. favours decomposition.
CHAPTER 14 : Ecosystem 14.147
second layer and lastly herbs and grasses
PREVIOUS YEARS’ forming bottom layer.

5. Productivity is the rate of biomass production
[1]
per unit area over a period of time by the plants

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS through photosynthesis. It is expressed as
TOPIC 1 (kcal m–2) yr–1 or g/m2/yr or g m–2 y–1. The inter-
relationship between productivity, gross primary
1 Mark Questions productivity and net productivity is depicted
1. Write the difference between net primary
productivity and gross productivity. below: [1]
Productivity
[ALL INDIA 2011] Estrogen
2. Write the equation that helps in deriving the
net primary productivity of an ecosystem.
[DELHI 2013] Gross primary Net primary
productivity (GPP) productivity (NPP)
3. State what ‘standing crop’ of a trophic level
represents. [ALL INDIA 2013] Gross primary producti- Net productivity is the
4. How is ‘stratification’ represented in a forest vity is the rate of gross primary producti-
ecosystem? [DELHI 2014] production of organic vity minus respiration
matter during photo- losses R)
synthesis is an ecosystem. NPP = GPP – R
2 Marks Questions Fig.: Productivity & its types [1]
5. How are productivity, gross productivity, net 6. Productivity is the rate of biomass production
primary productivity and secondary productivity per unit area over a period of time by the plants
interrelated? [DELHI 2015] through photosynthesis. It is expressed as
(kcal m–2) yr–1 or g/m2/yr or g m–2 y–1. The inter-
3 Marks Questions relationship between productivity, gross primary
6. Describe the inter-relationship between productivity and net productivity is depicted
productivity, gross primary productivity and net below: [1½]
productivity. [ALL INDIA 2017] Productivity
5 Marks Questions Gross primary Net primary

7. Describe the advantages of keeping the productivity (GPP) productivity (NPP)
ecosystems healthy. [DELHI 2015]
Gross primary producti- Net productivity is the
vity is the rate of gross primary producti-
Solutions production of organic vity minus respiration
matter during photo- losses R)
1. Gross productivity involve the rate of production synthesis is an ecosystem. NPP = GPP – R
of organic matter during the process of
photosynthesis. Net primary productivity is Fig.: Productivity & its types [1½]
the difference between gross productivity and 7. There are many advantages of keeping the
respiratory loss. ecosystems healthy. The various benefits that
Where NPP is Net primary productivity, GPP is humans can obtain from the ecosystem are
Gross primary productivity and R is respiratory collectively called ecosystem service. Ecosystem
loss. [1] services can be categorised into following
2. Where NPP is Net primary productivity, GPP is types: [1]
Gross primary productivity and R is respiratory (i) Provisioning services: Fruits, vegetables,
loss. trees, fish, live stock are directly available
GPP – R = NPP [1] to us by an ecosystem. The other benefits
3. ‘Standing crop’ of a trophic level represents mass in this category are timber, oils, medicines,
of living material present at a particular time. etc. [1]
Measured as mass of living organisms or the (ii) Regulating services: The components
number in unit area. [1] of ecosystem can regulate atmospheric
4. ‘Stratification’ represented in a forest ecosystem temperature, decomposition, flood control,
by trees occupying top layer followed by shrubs etc. [1]
(iii) Cultural services: It contributes towards the Besides these benefits the evolution in the gene
development and advancement of people, pool of species through number of generation has
e.g. recreational facilities, etc. [1]
produced substances that offer us significant
(iv) Supporting services: Allow the earth to
sustain basic life forms, e.g., photosynthesis, health & other benefits. Thus, by maintaining
water cycle, etc. [1] ecosystem, our future remains secured.
[Topic 2] Energy Flow & Ecological Succession

Summary  These saprotrophs secrete enzymes that
breakdown the dead and waste materials into
Energy Flow simpler materials.
 Some animal are omnivores as well. For example:
Energy flow is unidirectional. First, plants capture
cockroaches, crow etc.
solar energy and then, food is transferred from the
 These interconnections of food chains make a food
producers to consumers and then to decomposers.
web.
Organisms of different trophic levels in nature are
 The organisms have specific place in their
connected to each other for food or energy relationship
ecosystem which is known as their trophic level.
forming a food chain. To synthesize the molecules,
 With every successive trophic level, the amount
ecosystem need a constant supply of energy.
of energy decreases. Only 10% of energy is
• Producers: transferred to each trophic level from the previous
 The green plants in the ecosystem which produces one.
food are called producers. Tertiary Fourth Trophic level Man, lion
 All living animals are dependent on the producers Consumer (Top Carnivore)
for their food; directly or indirectly.
 The solar energy trapped by the plants is either
passed on to consumer or the organism dies.
 The detritus food chain starts when an organism
dies. Secondary Third trophic level Birds, fishes
• Consumers: Consumer (Carnivore) wolf
 The animals that depend on producers directly or
indirectly for their food.
 They include:
- Primary Consumers: These are herbivores that Zooplankton,
Primary Second trophic level
feed on producers. Example: birds, insects etc. grasshopper
Consumer (Herbivore)
- Secondary Consumers: They feed on herbivore. and cow
Example: fox, man etc.
- Tertiary Consumers: They feed on primary
carnivores.
• Grazing Food Chain (GFC): Primary First Trophic level Phytoplankton,
 An example of grazing food chain (GFC) can be: Producer (Plants) grass, trees
( Producer ) → ( Herbivore ) → ( Carnivore ) Fig.: Diagrammatic Representation of
Grass → Deer → Lion Trophic Levels in an Ecosystem
 Primary   Secondary 
( Producer ) →  → 
Ecological Pyramids
 Consumer   Consumer  Expressing the relationship between organisms
• Detritus Food Chain (DFC): graphically in terms of biomass, energy or number
 This chain begins as soon as an organism die. results in ecological pyramids, where the base
 This is made up of saprotrophs. For example: represents producers and the apex represents top
bacteria and fungi. level consumer.
• Pyramid of Number: • Limitations of Ecological Pyramids:

 It demonstrates the relationship between  It does not consider same species belonging to two
organisms on the basis of their number. or more trophic levels.
Trophic level Number of individuals
 It does not work for a food web.
 It does not accommodate saprophytes, though
TC (Tertiary consumer) 3
they play crucial role in ecosystem.
SC (Secondary consumer) 3,54,000 Ecological Succession

PC (Primary consumer) 7,08,000 The biotic community is dynamic and undergoes
PP (Primary producer) 5,842,000 changes with the passage of time. These changes
are sequentially ordered and constitute ecological
Fig.: Pyramid of Number
succession. Succession begins with invasion of a bare
• Pyramid of Biomass:
lifeless area by pioneers which later pave way for
 Sharp decrease in biomass at higher trophic levels
can be seen in pyramid of biomass in grassland successors and ultimately a stable climax community
ecosystem. is formed. The climax community remains stable as
Trophic level Dry weight (kg m )
–3
long as the environment remains unchanged.

• Types of Succession:
TC 1.5  Primary Succession: It occurs in areas where no
living form ever existed, like bare rock or newly
SC 11 cooled lava, etc.
PC 387  Secondary Succession: It occurs where living form
once existed but not any longer, like abandoned
PP 809
lands or burned forests, etc.
Fig.: Pyramid of Biomass (Grassland Ecosystem)
• Succession of Plants:
 Inverted pyramid of biomass is seen in aquatic
 Based on nature of habitat of plant, succession
ecosystem, where small standing crop of
phytoplankton supports large crop of zooplankton. of plant is of two types: hydrarch succession and
xerarch succession.
PC 21
 Hydrarch succession: It occurs in wetter areas
PP 4
and the series progresses from too wet condition
Fig.: Pyramid of Biomass (Aquatic Ecosystem) (hydric) to medium water (mesic) conditions.
• Pyramid of Energy:  Xerarch succession: It occurs in dry places and
 Only 1% of energy in sunlight is converted by series progresses from too dry (xeric) to medium
primary producers. water (mesic) conditions.
 When energy flows from one trophic level to next,  Pioneer species are the first species that invade a
some amount of energy is always lost. So, pyramid
bare area to begin an ecosystem.
of energy is always upright.
TC 10 J
PREVIOUS YEARS’
SC 100 J EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
PC 1000 J TOPIC 2
PP 10,000 J
1 Mark Questions
1,000,000 J of Sunlight 1. Write what do phytophagous insects feed on.
Fig.: Pyramid of Energy [ALL INDIA 2012]
2 Marks Questions 5 Marks Questions

2. Identify the type of the given ecological pyramid 11. Explain how does:
and give one example each of pyramid of number (a) a primary succession start on a bare rock
and pyramid of biomass in such cases. and reach a climax community?
PC (b) the algal bloom eventually choke the water
body in an industrial area?
PP [ALL INDIA 2012]
[ALL INDIA 2014] 12. It is often said that the pyramid of energy
3. Why the pyramid of energy is always upright? is always upright. On the other hand, the
Explain. [DELHI 2013] pyramid of biomass can be both upright and
4. Construct an age pyramid which reflects a stable inverted.” Explain with the help if examples and
growth status of human population. sketches. [ALL INDIA 2015]
[DELHI 2014] 13. Discuss the role of healthy ecosystem services
5. Apart from being part of the food chain, as a pre-requisite for a wide range of economic,
predators play other important roles’ Mention
environmental and aesthetic goods and
any two such roles supported by examples.
services. [DELHI 2017]
[DELHI 2014]
14. (a) What is an ecological pyramid? Compare the
6. Construct an age pyramid which reflects
an expanding growth status of human pyramids of energy, biomass and numbers.
population. [DELHI 2014] (b) Write any two limitations of ecological
pyramids. [ALL INDIA 2017]
15. (a) What is a trophic level in an ecosystem?
3 Marks Questions What is ‘standing crop’ with reference to it?
7. Differentiate between two different types
(b) Explain the role of the ‘first trophic level’ in
of pyramids of biomass with the help of one
example of each. [ALL INDIA 2013] an ecosystem.
8. Study the graph given and answer the questions (c) How is the detritus food chain connected
that follow: with the grazing food chain in a natural
ecosystem? [DELHI 2018]
Population Density (N)
a
Solutions
b 1. Phytophagous insect feed on plants, and plant
products like leave and sap [1]
2. This is an inverted ecological pyramid. Example
Time (t) of pyramid of number is forest ecosystem and
(i) Write the status of food and space in the example of pyramid of biomass in lakes. [2]
curves (a) and (b) 3. This is because When energy flows from one
trophic level to the next trophic level, some
(ii) In the absence of predators, which one of
the two curves would appropriately depict energy is always lost as heat. (10% law) [2]
the prey population? 4. [2]
(iii) Time has been shown on X axis and there Post-reproductive
is a parallel dotted line above it. Give the
significance of this dotted line. [DELHI 2014]
9. (i) What is primary productivity? Why it is vary Reproductive
Pre-reproductive
in different types of ecosystem?
(ii) State the relation between gross and net Stable
primary productivity. [DELHI 2014] 5. Predators are able to maintain the population
10. “In a food-chain, a trophic level represents a of the prey. Hence, in this way intra species
functional level, not a species.” Explain. regulation occur. Other role is they are the
[DELHI 2016] indicators of ecological disturbances. [2]
6. fishes and other life in water bodies.

Post-reproductive This bloom also gives a distinct colour
to the water bodies. This bloom severely
Reproductive
decreases the water quality and consume
Pre-reproductive all oxygen depleting it completely for fish,
Expanding [2] and other aquatic organisms. [3]
7. Pyramid of biomass are of both types upright 12. The pyramid of energy is always upright because
and inverted. Upright pyramid of biomass is base of the pyramid is occupied by producers
present in forest and grassland ecosystems which make food and contains maximum
while inverted pyramid of biomass is present energy. There is a gradual decrease in energy
in lake and ocean ecosystem as the biomass in at successive trophic levels as we move up. This
next trophic level is higher than previous trophic happens due to the 10% law of energy transfer.
level. [3] According to the law, only 10% of the total energy
8. (i) When the resources are unlimited, then is transferred from one trophic level to another.
the graph is exponential whereas when the The energy is the highest at the producer level,
resources are limited, then the graph is and it gradually decreases on moving from
sigmoid. [1] herbivores (primary consumer) to carnivores
(ii) Curve (a), depicts prey population in the (secondary or tertiary consumer). [1]
absence of predators. [1]
(iii) Parallel dotted line represent the carrying Birds Secondary
capacity of a population. [1] Carnivores
9. (i) Primary productivity is the rate at which
solar energy is converted by the plant closing Snakes,
Primary
photosynthesis or (Rate of production of lizards
Carnivores
biomass by plants). It varies in different etc.
types of ecosystem because it depends on
factors like quality of sunlight, availability Rabbits, rats
and Mice etc. Herbivores
of water and nutrients, temperature of given
place. [2] Grasses Producers

(ii) NPP = GPP – R [1] Fig.: Upright pyramid [1]
10. Position of a species in any trophic level is Pyramid of biomass can be upright or inverted.
determined by the function they perform based It depends on the type of ecosystem.
on their mode of nutrition in a particular food Examples: In a grassland or forest ecosystem,
chain. A given species may occupy more than one there is a gradual decrease in biomass of
trophic level in the same ecosystem at a given organisms as we move from producers to top
time. If the function of the mode of nutrition of carnivores. Hence, the pyramid of bio mass is
species changes, its position shall change in the upright. [1]
trophic levels. The same species can be at the
primary level of consumer in one food chain and
Birds Secondary
at the secondary consumer level in another food
Carnivores
chain in the same ecosystem at a given time.
11. (a) Lichens are the example of primary
succession on a bare rock. They secrete
Snakes, Primary
acids that result in the formation of soil by lizards etc. Carnivores
weathering of rocks. In this soil, bryophytes
are able to grow because they can grow on
less amount of soil. Further, new bigger Rabbits, Rats
plants start growing on that soil and in and Mice etc. Herbivores
the end, the climax community, i.e., forest
Grasses Producers
is present. [2]
(b) Algal bloom means “excessive growth of Fig.: Upright pyramid [1]
algae”. This bloom produces some harmful In a pond ecosystem, the pyramid is inverted
toxin when these algae die, they affect as there is a gradual increase in biomass of
organisms as we move from producers to top food chain that is known as their trophic
carnivores. The producers are the smallest level. There is food or energy relationship
organisms while the carnivores are larger in between organisms at different trophic
size. levels. The graphical representation of
Secondary the relationship between organisms at
Large Fishes
Carnivores different trophic levels is called ecological
Small Fishes Primary pyramid. [1]
Carnivores
The base of each pyramid represents the
producers or the first trophic level while
Zooplankton Herbivores
the apex represents tertiary or top level
consumer. There are three ecological
pyramids namely (i) pyramid of number;
Phyto-
plankton Producers (ii) pyramid of biomass and (iii) pyramid
of energy. [1]
Inverted (i) Pyramid of number: it is the number
Fig.: Inverted pyramid [1] of individuals that occupy a particular
13. The various benefits that humans can obtain trophic level in a given area at a
from the ecosystem are collectively called given time. Example, in grassland
ecosystem services. Ecosystem services are the ecosystem pyramid of number is
products of ecosystem processes. upright because number of organisms
Forests are the major source of ecosystem decrease at successive trophic levels.
services. It indirectly provides economic values
(ii) Pyramid of Biomass: Biomass or
in the following ways: [1]
organic matter of living beings present
1. Environmental Values:
per unit area in different trophic
(i) Trees purify air by fixing CO2 into organic
levels. It can be upright or inverted.
molecules through photosynthesis. All
the organisms at other trophic levels, (iii) Pyramid of energy: it is a representation
i.e. consumers depend upon food of transfer of energy between
produced by the plants or trees. organisms of different trophic levels.
(ii) Trees release oxygen as a by-product The pyramid of energy is always
in the process of photosynthesis, upright. [1]
improves the air quality and supports (b) Limitations of ecological pyramids:
life on earth. (i) It does not take into account the same
(iii) Plants protects the soil erosion from species which belongs to two or more
the agents like wind and water. The trophic levels.
soil remains spongy and fertile. There (ii) It does not accommodate a food web.
are no landslides and no floods. [2]
(iii) Saprophytes are not given any place
2. Economic Value: in ecological pyramids, though they
(i) Ecosystem services provide certain play a vital role in the ecosystem [2]
economical important products. These 15. (a) Based on the source of nutrition or food,
include timber, paper, rubber, wax, organisms occupy a specific place in the
medicines, cosmetics, resins, etc.
food chain that is known as their trophic
(ii) Ecosystem also provides other benefits level. There is food or energy relationship
such as aid in pollination. Bees and between organisms at different trophic
other insects of natural ecosystem levels. The first trophic level is occupied by
visit nearby farmlands to pollinate producer and successive trophic levels by
crops. It maintains biodiversity. different consumers. Each trophic level has
3. Aesthetic values: Natural ecosystems add a certain mass of living material at a given
spiritual, cultural and recreational values time in a specific location is called Standing
to the human life. [2] crop. It is measured as the mass of living
14. (a) Based on the source of nutrition or food, organisms (biomass) or the number in a
organisms occupy a specific place in the unit area. [2]
(b) The ‘first trophic level’ is always occupied in form of food which is transferred to
by producers in any ecosystem. They are the consumers when they eat them. The
autotrophs as they synthesise food using detritus food chain consists of decomposers
sunlight, carbon dioxide and water. All which are heterotrophic organisms, mainly
other organisms depend on producers for fungi and bacteria. They meet their energy
and nutrient requirements by degrading
food or energy directly or indirectly. [1]
dead organisms of grazing food chain or
(c) In the grazing food chain, energy is derived any other food chain. Therefore, detritus
from the Sun during photosynthesis by food chain is also connected to the grazing
producers. Energy is stored in the producers food chain for energy. [2]
[Topic 3] Nutrient Cycling & Ecosystem Services

Nutrient Cycling Ecosystem Services
Nutrients are mandatory for living organisms in Benefits that organisms generally humans get
any ecosystem to survive and grow. The continuous from the environment and ecosystem come under
movement of nutrients through the various
ecosystem services.
components of an ecosystem is called nutrient cycling
or bio-geochemical cycles. For example:
• Types of nutrient cycling: • Purification of air and water by forests.
 Gaseous – the reservoir for the gaseous type of • Generating fertile soil.
cycle is atmosphere or hydrosphere.
• Maintaining biodiversity, etc.
 Sedimentary- the reservoir for the sedimentary
type of cycle is earth’s crust.
• Carbon Cycle:
Consumers Producers
 49% of dry weight of an organism is constituted
by carbon. Reservoirs of carbon include- oceans,
fossil fuels, etc. A large amount of carbon returns
to atmosphere due to respiration, decomposition Litter fall
of waste material and dead organic matter also Detritus
contribute carbon dioxide in atmosphere.
Combustion Decomposition
Fuel
Uptake
Respiration & Metabolism Soil solution
Run off
Weathering
Rock
Photosynthesis minerals
CO2 in atmosphere and Green Plants
dissolved in water
Fig.: Phosphorus Cycle
Decay Death
Respiration & Metabolism

PREVIOUS YEARS’
Animals
Fig.: Basic Carbon Cycle Flow Diagram
• Phosphorus Cycle: TOPIC 3
 Rocks which contain phosphorus as phosphates
are the natural reservoirs of phosphorus. Animals
1 Mark Questions
obtain this element from plants as plant roots 1. Explain the carbon cycle with the help of a
absorb phosphates dissolved in soil solution. simplified model. [ALL INDIA 2014]
3 Mark Questions (c) This carbon-dioxide is returned back to the

2. State the function of a reservoir in a nutrient environment by the respiration of animal,
cycle. Explain the simplified model of carbon combustion, volcanic eruptions, decay of
cycle in nature. [ALL INDIA 2014] plants and animals.
(d) Decay of plants and animals is also acted by
decomposers which leads to the formation of
5 Mark Questions Carbon dioxide.
3. Explain the carbon cycle with the help of a
simplified model. [ALL INDIA 2012]
Solutions
1. 49% of dry weight of an organism is constituted
by carbon. Reservoirs of carbon include- oceans,
fossil fuels, etc. A large amount of carbon returns
to atmosphere due to respiration, decomposition
of waste material and dead organic matter also
contribute carbon dioxide in atmosphere.
Combustion
Fuel
3. Carbon cycle includes:
Respiration & Metabolism (a) 49 percent of Plants’ content is carbon
dioxide and 70% of it is dissolved in water.
(b) This carbon-dioxide is used by plants to
prepare the food by photosynthesis in the
Photosynthesis presence of light.
CO2 in atmosphere and Green Plants (c) This carbon-dioxide is returned back to the
dissolved in water environment by the respiration of animal,
combustion, volcanic eruptions, decay of
Decay Death plants and animals.
(d) Decay of plants and animals is also acted by
Respiration & Metabolism decomposers which leads to the formation of
Animals Carbon dioxide.
Fig.: Basic Carbon Cycle
2. The function of a reservoir in a nutrient cycle is
to fill the gap that occurs due to any imbalance
in rate of influx and efflux of the mineral or gas
in a nutrient cycle.
Carbon cycle includes:
(a) 49 percent of Plants content is carbon dioxide
and 70% of it is dissolved in water.
(b) This carbon-dioxide is used by plants to
prepare the food by photosynthesis in the
presence of light.
CHAPTER 15
Biodiversity and
Its Conservation
The analysis given here gives you an analytical picture of this chapter and will help you to
identify the concepts of the chapter that, arc to he focused more from exam point of view.

Concept of biodiversity;
patterns of biodiversity
Importance of 1Q 1Q 1Q
biodiversity; loss of (2 marks) (3 marks) (5 marks)
biodiversity; biodiversity
conservation;
Hotspots, endangered 1Q 1Q 1Q 1Q
organisms, extinction, (5 marks) (2 marks) (3 marks) (2 marks)
Red Data Book
Biosphere reserves,
national parks,
sanctuaries and Ramsar
sites
From last 3 years question papers, it can be inferred that Types of Biodiversity, Importance
of Biodiversity, Conservation of Biodiversity are most important concepts.
15.158 CHAPTER 15 : Biodiversity and Its Conservation
[Topic 1] Biodiversity
Summary Patterns of Biodiversity
Biologist Edward Wilson popularized the term • Latitudinal gradient: The diversity of plants
and animals isn’t uniform throughout the planet
Biodiversity to explain the combined diversity in
however shows a rather uneven distribution.
every aspect of biological organization. It refers to the
For several clusters of animals or plants, there
summation of diversity that exists in any respective are attention-grabbing patterns in diversity, the
level of biological organization. The most important foremost well- famed being the angular distance
among them are: gradient in diversity.
• Genetic diversity: One species would possibly • Species-Area relationships: The increase in
show high diversity at the genetic level over its explored area will increase with the richness of
spatial arrangement vary. The medicinal plant the species within vicinity.
Rauwolfia vomitoria shows a genetic variation. It
grows in numerous mountain range ranges may Importance of Species Diversity
well be in terms of the efficiency and concentration An excessive amount of variation shouldn’t be
of the active chemical (reserpine) that the plant showed by a stable community in productivity from
produces. There are over fifty thousand genetically year to year; it should be either resistant or resilient
different strains of rice, and 1,000 types of mango
to occasional disturbances (natural or man-made),
in India.
and it should even be immune to invasions by alien
• Species diversity: It is the variation at the
species. Plots with additional species show less
species level. For instance, the Western Ghats
and Eastern Ghats differ in amphibian species year-to-year variation in total biomass. Multiplied
diversity. diversity contributes to higher productivity.
• Ecological diversity: This refers to the diversity Loss of Biodiversity
at ecosystem level. India, as an example, with • Habitat loss and fragmentation: The
its deserts, rain forests, mangroves, coral accelerated rates of species extinctions that the
reefs, wetlands, estuaries, and alpine meadows planet is facing currently are mostly because
incorporates a bigger system diversity than a of human activities. Degradation of the many
Scandinavian country like Serbia. habitats by pollution threatens the survival of the
Number of species on Earth and in many species. When massive habitats are shrunk
into little fragments because of varied human
India activities, mammals and birds requiring massive
• Biodiversity and its conservation is currently territories and bound animals with migratory
the most important environmental problem with habits are badly affected, resulting in population
international concern as increasing number of declines.
folks round the world begin to grasp the vital • Over-exploitation: Many species extinctions
importance of diversity for our survival and well- within the last five hundred years (Steller’s
being on this planet. sea cow, passenger pigeon) were because of
• More than seventy per cent of all the species exploitation by humans. Presently several marine
recorded are animals, whereas plants (including fish populations throughout the world are over
alga, fungi, bryophytes, gymnosperms and harvested, endangering the continued existence
angiosperms) comprise no over twenty two per of some commercially necessary species.
cent of the entire. Among animals, insects are • Alien species invasion: When alien species are
the foremost species rich taxon, creating up over introduced accidentally or deliberately for any
seventy per cent of the entire. That means, out of purpose, a number of them become invasive, and
each ten animals on this planet, seven are insects. cause decline or extinction of native species.
• India constitutes 2.4 per cent of the world’s total • Co- extinctions: Whenever there is an extinction
land area and also shares 8.1 per cent of the of any species, the animal and plant species linked
global species diversity. That makes India as one to it become extinct. For example- mutualism
of the 12 mega diversity countries of the world. in coevolved plant-pollinator, where the latter
Nearly 45,000 species of plants and twice as many becomes extinct with the extinction of the first
of animals have been recorded from India. one or vice-versa.
CHAPTER 15 : Biodiversity and Its Conservation 15.159
13. Alien species are highly invasive and are a
PREVIOUS YEARS’ threat to indigenous species. Substantiate this

statement with any three examples.
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS [DELHI 2012]
14. The following graph shows the species - area
TOPIC 1 relationship. Answer the following questions as
1 Mark Questions directed.
1. Name the biodiversity represented by the '
following; a'
(a) 50,000 different strains of rice in India
'
b'
(b) Estuaries and alpine meadows in India.
Species richness
[DELHI 2013]
e
2. Name the type of biodiversity represented by al
sc
the following: g
g-lo
(i) 1000 varieties of mangoes in India. Lo
(ii) Variations in terms of potency and
concentration of reserpine in Rauwolfia
vomitoria growing in different regions of
Himalayas. [ALL INDIA 2013] Area
(a) Name the naturalist who studied the kind of
relationship shown in the graph. Write the
2 Marks Questions observations made by him.
3. Justify with the help of an example where a
deliberate attempt by humans has led to the (b) Write the situations as discovered by the
extinction of a particular species.[DELHI 2011] ecologists when the value of ‘Z’
4. State the use of Biodiversity in modern (Slope of the line) lies between.
agriculture. [ALL INDIA 2011] (i) 0.1 and 0.2
5. T h e a b o v e g r a p h s h o w s S p e c i e s – A r e a (ii) 0.6 and 1.2
relationship. Write the equation of the curve ‘a’ What does ‘Z’ stand for?
and explain. [ALL INDIA 2011] (c) When would the slope of the line ‘b’ become
6. Explain why very small animals are rarely found steeper? [ALL INDIA 2014]
in polar region. [DELHI 2013]
7. Where would you expect more species biodiversity
in tropics or in Polar Regions? Give reasons in 5 Marks Questions
support of your answer. [ALL INDIA 2013] 15. (a) “India has greater ecosystem diversity than
8. Mention the kind of biodiversity of more than Norway.” Do you agree with the statement?
a thousand varieties of mangoes in India Give reasons in support of your answer.
represent. How is it possible? [DELHI 2016] (b) Write the difference between genetic
9. Why sacred groves are highly protected? biodiversity and species biodiversity
[ALL INDIA 2016] that exists at all the levels of biological
10. Suggest two practices giving one example of each organisation [DELHI 2018]
that help protect rare or threatened species.
[ALL INDIA 2017]
Solutions
3 Marks Questions 1. (a) Genetic Diversity [½]
11. ‘Many plant and animal species are on the verge
(b) Ecological diversity [½]
of their extinction because of loss of forest land
2. (i) Genetic Diversity [½]
by indiscriminate use by the humans. As a
biology student what method would you suggest (ii) Genetic Diversity [½]
along with its advantages that can protect such 3. Humans are “selfish” means that they exploit
threatened species from getting extinct? other organisms for food and shelter. Many
[DELHI 2015] species extinctions in the last 500 years like
12. Name and describe any three causes of Steller’s sea cow, passenger pigeon were due to
biodiversity losses. [DELHI 2017] over-exploitation by humans. [2]
4. The use of Biodiversity in modern agriculture habitat. Biosphere reserves, national parks,
are: wildlife sanctuaries, sacred groves, etc, involves
(i) Biodiversity helps in reducing the use of this type of conservation. Ex situ conservation
harmful chemicals in agriculture. [1] involves placing of threatened animals and
(ii) Biodiversity helps in improving the varieties plants in special care units for their protection.
of plants, specially disease resistant Zoological parks, botanical gardens and wildlife
plants. [1] safari parks serve this purpose. [2]
5. 11. Methods to protect the species which are on the
a verge of extinction.
b (a) Ex situ conservation: The threatened
Species richness
species of plants and animals which are at

the verge of extinction should be safely taken
out of their habitats and are kept in special
settings such as zoological parks, botanical
gardens and wildlife parks. These special
settings protect the threatened species, help
Area maintain their number and prevent them
Fig.: Species area relationship [1] from becoming extinct. [1½]
Equation for the curve a is: (b) Cryopreservation of the gametes of
log S = log C + Zlog A endangered species allow in-vitro
Where S is showing species richness, Z is fertilization to produce offspring. The use
representing regression coefficient, A is area of tissue culture for propagation of the
and C is Y-intercept. organism and the use of seed banks in
This graph is representing: case of plants. These methods allow us to
(i) Richness of species is increasing within a preserve the genes of the endangered species
region but only upto a limit. and can be used to increase the number of
(ii) Straight line is representing species richness endangered species by keeping the gamete
in logarithmic values. [1] or seeds viable and fertile for a long period
6. Small animals due to their small size have of time and use it when required. [1½]
large surface area as compare to their volume.
We can stop indiscriminate cutting of trees thus
Hence, they tend to loose heat very fast in cold
save the habitat of the species and protect them
temperature. Hence, very small animals are
rarely found in polar regions. [2] from extinction.
7. High species or biodiversity lies in tropical areas 12. The main cause of the loss of biodiversity is due
because to human intervention. The three threats to
(i) Tropical areas favours speciation. biodiversity are discussed below:
(ii) Seasonal variation is less than polar areas. (a) Over exploitation: Over exploitation of
(iii) High availability of sunlight helps in growth natural resources leads to loss of biodiversity.
of more plant species. [2] For example marine fish populations
8. The type of diversity is the genetic diversity. around the world are over exploited and
Single species of mango show high diversity at endangering existence of commercially
genetic level over its distributional range. India important species. [1]
has more than 1,000 varieties of mango. [2] (b) Alien species invasions: When any
9. Sacred groves are highly protected forest foreign species is deliberately introduced
tracts by certain communities due to religious for a purpose, some of them turn invasive
and cultural traditions. Sacred groves help in and decline indigenous species. Example
the protection of many rare, threatened, and Parthenium and African cat fish pose threat
endemic species of plants and animals found in to indigenous cat fishes of our rivers. [1]
an area. [2] (c) Co-extinctions: When a species becomes
10. Practices that help to protect rare threatened extinct the plant or animal species associated
species are (a) In situ (on-site) and (b) Ex situ
with it also become extinct. For example
(off site) conservations. In situ conservation
when a host species becomes extinct parasite
involves protection of species in their natural
residing on it also becomes extinct. [1]
13. Yes, when Alien species are introduced, they are 15. (a) India has greater ecosystem diversity than
highly invasive and are a threat to indigenous Norway because India lies in the tropical
species. For example,
and sub-tropical zones, whereas Norway lies
(i) Extinction of 200 species approximately
by the introduction of Cichlid fish in Lake near the Arctic region. India receives greater
Victoria. [1] amounts of sunlight hence, more Indian
(ii) Environmental damage of the native species
climate is more predictable and stable.
by the introduction of carrot, Lantana, water
hyacinth. [1] Photosynthesis as compared to Norway.
(iii) Catfish extinction due to introduction of Besides India has greater geographical,
African catfish Clarias gariepinus. [1] topological and climatic diversity compared
14. (a) Alexander von Humboldt studied the kind
of relationship shown in the graph. He to Norway, leading to greater biodiversity.
observed that species richness increases with [3]
explored area but upto certain extent. [1] (b) Genetic biodiversity: Refers to number
(b) (i) 0.1 and 0.2 Z value is representing area
of genes and their alleles present in the
is small to normal
(ii) 0.6 and 1.2 Z value is representing area organisms. It is the trait of the individual
is very large. species.
Z is representing slope of the graph which
Species biodiversity: Number of types of
is regression coefficient. [1]
(c) When area is very large, then the slope of species occurring in an area. It is the trait of the
the line ‘b’ become steeper. [1] community. [2]
[Topic 2] Conservation of Biodiversity

• The barely utilitarian contentions for securing
decent variety are self-evident; people infer
Reasons to conserve Biodiversity
• In situ conservation: Conservation and
multitudinous direct monetary benefits from protection of whole ecosystem in order to protect
nature sustenance (oats, beats, organic products), the biodiversity at all levels. The species are
kindling, fiber, development material, mechanical protected in their natural environment so the
item (tannins, greases, colors, gums, scents ) and complete ecosystem is protected. For example- To
result of therapeutic significance. save the tiger, save the entire forest.
• The broadly utilitarian argument says that There are more species that can become extinct in
diversity plays a significant role in several near future than the conservation resources
ecosystem services that nature gives. For the available to conserve and protect them. Many
existence of humanity diversity is required conservationists have identified species rich zones
because it provides oxygen and fruits and seeds known as ‘biodiversity hotspots’. In India, Western
created by pollination. There are alternative Ghats and Eastern Himalayas come under this
intangible benefits –we have a tendency to derive category out of total 34 in the world.
from nature–the aesthetic pleasures of walking
through thick woods, looking at spring flowers Few traditional tribes of Jaintia and Khasi hills
fully bloom or rousing to a bulbul’s song within in Meghalaya have rituals in which they leave
aside tracts of forests, given total protection and
the morning.
are known as ‘sacred groves’.
• The ethical argument for protecting diversity
• Ex situ conservation: In this type of
relates to what we have a tendency to owe to
conservation, the species that are endangered
ample plant, animal and bug species with whom are shifted from their natural habitat to some
we share this planet. We’ve an ethical duty to artificial arrangements like botanical gardens,
worry for their well-being and gift our biological parks and wildlife sanctuaries. Strategies embody
heritage in sensible order to future generations.
protecting maintenance of vulnerable species in 3. Ex situ conservation of biodiversity is the

zoological parks and biological science gardens, in providing protection in man-made surroundings.
vitro fertilisation, tissue culture propagation and The four techniques where principle of ex situ
cryopreservation of gametes. conservation of biodiversity has been employed
are:[1]
(i) Tissue culture
PREVIOUS YEARS’ (ii) Cryopreservation
(iii) Botanical gardens
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS (iv) Zoological parks [1]
4. In situ conservation is the method of protecting a
TOPIC 2 species in their natural habitats. It helps in the
2 Marks Questions conservation of threatened, endangered species
through:
1. Write the importance of cryopreservation in
(a) Biodiversity hotspots are the regions having
conservation of biodiversity. [DELHI 2011]
high levels of species richness and these
2. Differentiate between in situ and ex situ
species confined to that region are not found
approaches of conservation of biodiversity.
anywhere. Three hotspots which cover
[ALL INDIA 2011]
India’s biodiversity regions are Western
3. List any four techniques where the principle
Ghats and Sri Lanka, Indo-Burma and
of ex-situ conservation of biodiversity has been
Himalaya. These hotspots can reduce the
employed. [ALL INDIA 2015]
on going mass extinctions by almost 30%.
[1]
3 Marks Questions (b) Protected areas are ecologically unique and
4. ‘in-situ’ conservation can help in protection biodiversity rich regions. These are legally
of endangered/threatened species. Justify the protected as biosphere reserves, national
statement. [DELHI 2017] parks and sanctuaries. In India there are
14 biosphere reserves, 90 national parks
and 448 wildlife sanctuaries. [1]
5 Marks Questions (c) Sacred groves are highly protected forest
5. (a) Taking one example each of habitat loss tracts maintained by certain communities
and fragmentation, explain how are the two due to religious and cultural traditions.
responsible for biodiversity loss. Sacred groves help in the protection of
(b) Explain two different ways of biodiversity many rare, threatened, and endemic species
conservation. [DELHI 2012] of plants and animals found in that area.
6. (a) Why should we conserve biodiversity? How Some of the sacred groves in India are:
can we do it? Western Ghat regions of Karnataka and
(b) Explain the importance of biodiversity hot- Maharashtra, Khasi and Jaintia Hills in
spots and sacred groves. [DELHI 2016] Meghalaya. Aravalli Hills of Rajasthan.
Sarguja, Chanda and Bastar areas of
Madhya Pradesh. [1]
Solutions 5. (a) Habitat loss and fragmentation are
1. Cryopreservation is a technique of preserving responsible for biodiversity loss because
viable and fertile gametes under freezing it lead to the destruction of the habitat
temperature for long period of time in order of the organism. One Example of habitat
to produce new offsprings from these gametes loss can be of animals that live on trees
in the future. This technique helps in the or plants at the time of deforestation, eg.,
preservation of many species of plants and road building in Amazon rainforest. Habitat
animals. [1] fragmentations are caused by natural
2. Ex situ means “off-site conservation” whereas processes such as flood and volcanic activity.
in situ means “onsite”. Ex-situ is the method For example geographical distribution of
of conservation of plant or animal species single species that divide into two species.
outside its natural habitat whereas “in-situ” is [2½]
the method of conservation of plant or animal (b) Tw o d i f f e r e n t w a y s o f b i o d i v e r s i t y
species in its natural habitat. [2] conservations are in-situ and ex-situ
conservation. Ex situ means “off-site Ethical benefits: Millions of species of

conservation” whereas in situ means “n plants, animals, microbes share this planet
site conservation of”. Ex-situ is the method and we should realise that every species
of conservation of plant or animal species has an intrinsic value. Therefore, we have
outside its natural habitat whereas “in-situ” a moral duty to care for their well-being
is the method of conservation of plant or and pass on our biological legacy to future
animal species in its natural habitat. [2½] generations. Conservation of biodiversity
6. (a) There are many benefits by conserving can be done through - In situ conservation
through biosphere reserves, national parks,
biodiversity.
sanctuaries and sacred groves or by Ex
Narrowly utilitarian: We get economic
situ conservation through zoological parks,
benefits from nature such as cereals, pulses,
botanical gardens, cryopreservation, seed
fruits. We get firewood, fibre, construction
banks and tissue culture. [1]
materials, and industrial products such as (b) Hot spots are the regions with high
tannins, lubricants, dyes, resins, perfumes level of species richness and high degree
and products of medicinal importance. [1] of endemism. Sacred groves are the
Broadly utilitarian: about 20% of total tracts of forest containing tree wild life.
oxygen from Amazon forests. Conservation of They are maintained by some religious
biodiversity provides aesthetic pleasures. communications, and give total protection
[½] to rare and threatened plants. [2½]
CHAPTER 16
Environmental Issues
The analysis given here gives you an analytical picture of this chapter and will help you to
identify the concepts of the chapter that, arc to he focused more from exam point of view.

Air pollution and its 1Q 1Q 1Q 1Q 1Q
control (2 marks) (1 mark) (4 marks) (1 mark) (4 marks)
Water pollution and its 1Q 1Q
control (1 mark) (2 marks)
Agrochemicals and their
effects
Solid waste
management, radioactive
waste management
Greenhouse effect 1Q
and climate change, (2 marks)
ozone layer depletion,
deforestation, special
case studies
On the basis of above analysis, it can be said that from exam point of view Electrostatics
Precipitators, Aquatic Food chain, CNG, CFC, Algal Bloom, Waste water treatment and
pollution are most important concepts of the chapter.
16.166 CHAPTER 16 : Environmental Issues
[Topic 1] Pollution, Solid and Radioactive wastes

Summary Electrostatic Precipitator
• It is the most commonly used electrical device to
Introduction remove particulate matter
• Because of an explosion in the human population, Clean air
the demand for food, water, home, electricity,
roads, automobiles has been increased which Discharge corona
leads to the pollution of air, water, and soil. Negatively charged wire
• Major issues relating to environmental pollution Water line
spray
and depletion of valuable natural resources are Dirty air
Clean air
different in local levels than that of regional or
Dirty Dust
global levels. air Particulate particle
• Any undesirable or harmful change in physical, matter
Collection plate grounded
chemical or biological characteristics of air, land, Scrubber Electrostatic precipitator
water or soil is known as pollution.
Fig.: Electro Static Precipitator (ESP)
• The substances responsible for the pollution • Electrode wires which are maintained at several
are called pollutants. The government of India thousand volts produce a corona which releases
has passed the Environmental (protection) Act, electrons.
1986 to protect and improve the quality of our
• The dust particles get negatively charged as the
environment (air, water, and soil).
electrons that are release get attached to them.
• According to the Central Pollution Control Board These dust particles get attracted by grounded
(CPCB), the particulate which causes the greatest charged plates.
harm to human health is of size 2.5 micrometers
• The scrubber can remove gases like SO2
or less in diameter (PM 2.5)
• Over 99 percent particulate matter present in
Air Pollution the exhaust from a thermal power point can be
• Causes of Air Pollution: removed by this.
 Utilization of leaded petrol. Noise Pollution:
 Pollutants released from automobiles • The undesired high level of sound is noise
 Particulate and gaseous air pollutants released pollution. In 1987, the Air (Prevention and
by thermal power plants and other industries. Control of Pollution) Act (1981) was amended to
• Harmful effects of air pollution: include noise as an air pollutant.
 It causes respiratory problems, irritation, • Causes:
inflammation and damage to lungs and premature  Loudspeaker, detonations, industries, led planes
deaths. and rockets, music instruments, crackers, etc. are
 Injuries to all living organisms are caused by air the causes of noise pollution.
pollutants. • Effects:
 The growth and yield of crops gets affected by  Physiological and psychological and disorders are
air pollution and results in premature death of caused by it.
plants.  Exposure to relatively higher or lower noise may
• Controls of air pollution: damage hearing ability of humans.
 Catalyst converters should be used (having • Ways of control:
Platinum-Palladium and Rhodium as the  Sound-absorbent material should be used in
catalysts) industries.
 Pollutants must be separated out before releasing  Delimit the timings and sound level of the crackers
harmful gases into the atmosphere. and loudspeakers.
 Vehicles having a catalytic converter should use  There should be horn-free zone around hospitals
unleaded petrol. and schools.
 CNG is a better fuel than petrol or diesel because • Laws in India to control vehicular pollution:
it burns more efficiently and very little of it is left  Auto fuel policy
unburnt.  Euro II norms
CHAPTER 16 : Environmental Issues 16.167
 The Bharat Stage II  Streams draining into the lake introduce nutrients
Water pollution like N2, P2 due to which the aquatic organisms
• Human activities have polluted the lakes, ponds, grow.
stream, rivers, and oceans which is known as  The phenomenon where the pollutants (effluents
water pollution. from the industries) and homes accelerate the
• Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, ageing process is called cultural or accelerated
1974 has been passed by the Government of India eutrophication.
to safeguard the water resources. • Bio-magnification:
• Domestic Sewage and Industrial Effluents:  It means the increase in concentration of the
 Prevention of disposal of all kinds of waste in toxicant at successive trophic levels.
the water. Domestic sewage is the most common
Water (DDT:0.03ppm ) 
→ Zooplankton (0.04ppm )
source of pollution of water bodies which reduces
dissolved oxygen but increases biochemical oxygen → Small fish (0.5 ppm ) 
 → Large fish (2ppm )
demand of receiving water. It is rich in nutrients, → Birds (5 ppm )

especially, nitrogen and phosphorus, which cause
This causes decline in bird population.
eutrophication and nuisance algal blooms. The
effect of sewage discharge on characteristics of a Solid Wastes
river are shown below. • Anything that goes in the trash is called solid
Fish kill and Reappearance waste.
disappearance of clean water
of clean water organisms • The wastes from homes, stores, offices, hospitals
(like plastics, metals, glass etc.) are collected and
disposed by the municipality are called Municipal
C solid wastes.
O Dissolved oxygen • In a sanitary landfill, the wastes are dumped in a
N
C trench after compaction.
E • Bio-degradable, recyclable and non-biodegradable
N
T are the three types of solid waste.
R
A • Radioactive wastes: Nuclear wastes emit
T radiation which causes mutation at a very high
I BOD
O rate and creates various disorders such as cancer.
N • Plastic waste: These are non-biodegradable
Direction of flow wastes. Kabadi-wallas and rag-pickers help to
separate material for recycling.
Sewage
discharge • E-wastes: The electronic good that cannot be
repaired are called electronic waste (e-waste).
Fig.: Effect of sewage discharge on
characteristics of a river Recycling is the only solution to get rid of these
 Industrial waste waters are often rich in toxic wastes.
chemicals, especially heavy metals and organic • Agrochemicals: The use of inorganic fertilizers
compounds. Industrial waste waters harm living and pesticides has increased manifold for
organisms. enhancing crop production.
Using dry composting toilets, human excreta can be Pesticides, herbicides, fungicides, etc., are being
handled and this is called a sustainable system. This increasingly used. These incidentally, are also toxic
composite method allows human excreta to be recycled to non-target organisms which form the important
into a resource, which works as natural fertilizer. components of the soil ecosystem.
• Algal Bloom: • Organic Farming: In this, the waste products
 Increase in amount of nutrients in water bodies from one process are cycled in as nutrients for
result in excessive growth of algae, due to which other processes.
quality of water degrades. Some of them are
harmful to animals and humans. Crop waste is used in creating compost, which can be
• Eutrophication: used as a natural fertilizer or can be used to generate
 It refers to the natural aging of a lake by nutrient natural gas for satisfying the energy needs of the
enrichment of the water. farm.
12. How did Ahmed Khan, plastic sacks manufacturer
PREVIOUS YEARS’ from Bangalore, solve the ever increasing

problem of accumulating plastic waste?
[DELHI 2012]
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 13. Name any two sources of e-wastes and write two
TOPIC 1 different ways for their disposal.[DELHI 2013]
1 Mark Questions
1. Write the unit used for measuring ozone 3 Marks Questions
thickness. [DELHI 2011] 14. Name the two different categories of microbes
2. How do algal blooms affect the life in water naturally occurring in sewage water. Explain
bodies? [ALL INDIA 2011] their role in cleaning sewage water into usable
3. Why is the use of unleaded petrol recommended water. [ALL INDIA 2011]
for motor vehicles equipped with catalytic 15. By the end of 2002 the public transport of Delhi
converters? [ALL INDIA 2013] switched over to a new fuel. Name the fuel. Why
4. State the cause of accelerated Eutrophication. is this fuel considered better? Explain.
[ALL INDIA 2011]
[DELHI 2014]
16. How does algal bloom destroy the quality of a
5. Write the name of the organism that is referred
fresh water body? Explain. [DELHI 2013]
to as the ‘Terror of Bengal’. [DELHI 2014]
17. “Determination of Biological Oxygen Demand
6. List two advantages of the use of unleaded petrol
(BOD) can help in suggesting the quality of a
in automobiles as fuel. [ALL INDIA 2015]
water body.” Explain. [DELHI 2015]
7. Excessive nutrients in a fresh water body cause
18. With the help of a flow chart, show the
fish mortality. Give two reasons.[DELHI 2016]
phenomenon of bio magnification of DDT in an
8. Mention two advantages for preferring CNG
aquatic food chain. [ALL INDIA 2015]
over diesel as an automobile fuel.
19. (a) Name any two places where it is essential
[ALL INDIA 2016]
to install electrostatic precipitators. Why it
9. An electrostatic precipitator in a thermal
is required to do so?
power plant is not able to generate high voltage
(b) Mention one limitation of the electrostatic
of several thousands. Write the ecological
precipitator. [DELHI 2016]
implication because of it. [ALL INDIA 2017]
4 Marks Questions
2 Marks Questions 20. Since October 02, 2014 “Swachh Bharat
10. How did a citizen group called Friends of Arcata Abhiyan” has been launched in our country
Marsh, Arcata, California, USA, help to improve (a) Write your views on this initiative giving
water quality of the marshland using integrated justification.
waste water Treatment? Explain in four steps. (b) As a biologist name two problems that
[DELHI 2018] you may face while implementing the
11. Study the graph given below. Explain how programme in your locality.
oxygen concentration is affected in the river (c) Suggest two remedial methods to overcome
when sewage is discharged into it. these problems. [DELHI 2015]
[DELHI 2011] 21. Public all over India is very much concerned
C
O about the deteriorating air quality in large parts
N Dissolved oxygen
C of North India. Alarmed by this situation the
E
N Resident’s Welfare Association of your locality
T organized an awareness programme entitled
R
A “Bury not burn”. They invited you, to participate.
T
I (a) How would you justify your arguments that
O
N promote burying and discourage burning?
(Give two reasons)
Direction of flow
(b) With the help of flow charts, one for each
Sewage practice depict the chain of events that
discharge follow. [DELHI 2017]
22. Looking at the deteriorating air quality because (b) It helps in preventing health issues like
of air pollution in many cities of the country, the anaemia, loss of appetite, damage to
citizens are very much worried and concerned erythrocytes and damage nervous system.
about their health. The doctors have declared [½]
health emergency in the cities where the air 7. The presence of large amounts of nutrients in
quality is very severely poor. the water bodies results into excessive algal
(a) Mention any two major causes of air growth called algal boom. Excess algal growth
pollution. deteriorate of the quality of water by producing
(b) Write the two harmful effects of air pollution toxins, reduces dissolved oxygen and it leads to
to plants and humans. fish mortality. [1]
(c) As a captain of your school Eco-club, 8. The two advantages of CNG over diesel are:
suggest any two programmes you would (a) CNG burns more efficiently leaving very
plan to organise in the school so as to bring little residue. [½]
awareness among the students on how to (b) I t i s c o s t e f f e c t i v e a n d c a n n o t b e
check air pollution in and round the school. adulterated. [½]
[DELHI 2018] 9. Non-generation of a high voltage in a thermal
power plant by the electrostatic precipitator is
5 Marks Questions
23. (a) What is E1 Nino effect? Explain how its unable to remove particulate matter present in
accounts for biodiversity loss. the exhaust of thermal power plants. This causes
(b) Explain any three measures that you air pollution as dust particles are released into
as an individual would take, to reduce the air. [1]
environmental pollution. [DELHI 2011] 10. Wastewater including sewage can be treated
in an integrated manner, by using a mix of
artificial and natural processes. (a) In the first
Solutions step, a conventional sedimentation, filtering and
1. “Dobson” is the unit used for measuring ozone chlorine treatments are given which removes
thickness. One Dobson unit is equivalent to 0.01 physical impurities. (b) In the second step,
mm thickness. [1] an innovative approach was taken and the
2. Algal bloom means “excessive growth of algae”. biologists developed a series of six connected
This overgrowth of algae depletes water bodies
marshes over 60 hectares of marshland.(c) In
of oxygen. It affect fishes and other life in water
the third step, appropriate plants, algae, fungi
bodies and they die. [1]
and bacteria were grown that area to neutralise,
3. Lead corrode the catalytic rods of Palladium,
absorb and assimilate the pollutants. (d) Finally
Rhodium, Platinum which decrease the efficiency
the water flows through the marshes, it gets
of catalytic converter, of motor vehicles. Hence,
purified naturally. [2]
the use of unleaded petrol recommended
11. The figure shows that there is decrease in the
for motor vehicles equipped with catalytic
oxygen concentration of water when sewage
converters [1]
4. Eutrophication means Nutrient enrichment in water is discharged into the fresh water. But, as
water body that result in the excessive growth the flow of water increases, amount of oxygen
of microbial life. Causes of the accelerated increases slowly. [2]
Eutrophication are: disposal of nutrient rich 12. Ahmed Khan in collaboration with Engineering
sewage in water body and Algal bloom in the college and the Bangalore city corporation
water bodies. [1] proved that the blend of Bitumen and plastic
5. Eicchornia crassipes/Water Hyacinth which waste, when used to lay roads enhanced the
is an exotic shrub is referred to as the ‘Terror bitumen’s water repellent properties and helped
of Bengal’ because it strongly competes with to increase road life by a factor of three. So
native species of Bengal and destroys the native using khan’s technique many roads were laid
species [1] in Bangalore. [2]
6. Two advantages of using unleaded petrol as fuel 13. Electronic goods and damaged computers are
in automobiles: two sources of e-wastes. Two different ways for
(a) Use of unleaded petrol does not release lead their disposal are: [1]
compounds from exhaust fumes into the (i) BURYING IN THE LAND [½]
atmosphere from vehicles. [½] (ii) INCINERATION [½]
14. Fungi and bacteria are the two different dissolved in water. It gets into the zooplankton
categories of microbes naturally occurring in and concentration of DDT goes on increasing at
sewage water. Role of these microbes in cleaning each trophic level in a food chain—from small
sewage water into usable water are: fish to large fish and birds. [2]
(i) The primary effluent is delivered into a large
aeration tanks which is agitated constantly.
(ii) This agitation facilitates the growth of fungi
and bacteria.
(iii) This growth of fungi and bacteria
decreases the biological oxygen
demand.
(iv) This effluent is delivered into settling
tanks where bacteria flocks are allowed to
sediment and known as activated sludge.
(v) Small part of activated sludge is disposed at
anaerobic sludge reactors that result in the
formation of methane, hydrogen sulphide
and carbon-dioxide.
(vi) This effluent is discharged into natural Fig.: Bio-magnification in a food [1]
water bodies. 19. (a) Two places where it is essential to install
Thus Fungi and bacteria helps in the electrostatic precipitators are
digestion of organic material present in the (i) In the thermal power plants
Sewage. [½x6=3] (ii) In the industries that release other
15. Compressed natural gas (CNG) is the new fuel particulate matter. Electrostatic
that has been added to the Delhi in the year precipitators are installed to remove
2002. It is considered better than any other fuel particulate matter. [2]
because it produces very less amount of unburnt (b) Electrostatic precipitators does not remove
particles and thus it is a clean fuel. CNG burnt very small particulate matter which
very efficiently leading to the production of few measures less than 2.5 micrometres.
unburnt particles. At the same time, it is cheap Electrostatic precipitators cannot work
too. [3] without electricity. These are some of the
16. Algal bloom means “excessive growth of algae”. limitations of electrostatic precipitators.
This bloom consumes the dissolved oxygen. This [1]
bloom also give a distinct color to the water 20. “Swachh Bharat Abhiyan” is an initiative started
bodies. This bloom severely decreases the water on 2nd October, 2014. It is very good cleanliness
quality and causes death of fish, and other drive. Unmanaged waste is the biggest evil
aquatic organisms. [3] that hinders the development and progress of a
17. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is the amount country. An unclean surrounding will lead to a
of the oxygen required to consume all the organic lot of problems, such as decreased quality of air
matter present in one Liter of water oxidising and water. Unclean surrounding causing health
bacteria. The BOD test measures the rate issues along with polluted air and water. [1]
of uptake of oxygen by micro-organisms in a (b) Two problems faced while implementing the
sample of water. Therefore, indirectly, BOD is programme in my locality are as follows:
a measure of the organic matter present in the (i) Poor drainage system and improper
water. If the BOD in a water body is more, it sanitation.
means the water body is more polluted. So, by (ii) H a n d l i n g o f n o n - b i o d e g r a d a b l e
measuring BOD of water body, its water quality wastes. [1]
can be determined. [3] (c) Remedies to overcome the problems:
18. Successive increase in concentration of toxic (i) To overcome sanitation problems, we
chemicals at each trophic level in a food chain should make people aware regarding
is called biomagnification. We can understand the benefits of proper sanitation and
with this example, when the crop field is encourage the local people to make
sprayed with dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane proper toilets. Covering of open drains
(DDT), it is carried into water bodies and gets by crowd funding. [1]
(ii) There should be separate bins for non- suspended particulate matter produced
biodegradable wastes so that they can by the construction activity. [1]
be disposed and recycled accordingly. (b) Harmful effects of air pollution.
[1] (i) In plants: It reduces vegetative growth
21. (a) Arguments in favour of burying and against which results into reduced crop yield.
burning: It also results into premature death of
(i) Burying the waste does not have plants.
any harmful effect. Buried waste are (ii) It affects respiratory system of humans
decomposed by bacteria and fungi into and of animals, affects vision. [1]
simple inorganic nutrients. [1] (c) Two suggested programmes:
(ii) Waste on burning, releases smoke (i) Organise a workshop for students,
and pollutants such as CO2, NO2, SO2, teachers and parents to create
etc., in the in the atmosphere. These awareness regarding the harmful
pollutants disturbs air quality of the effects of air pollution. Arrange
atmosphere causing health issues. [1] discussion on health issues related to
(b) The solid wastes are classified into two air pollution. [1]
categories: (ii) Organise a pollution-free week in the
Biodegradable and non-biodegradable waste. school where teachers and students
Biodegradable waste are those which can be will promote use of bicycle to reduce
degraded by the microbes, e.g., plants parts, pollution. [1]
kitchen waste etc. Non-biodegradable waste are 23. (a) E1 Nino effect is a odd climate changes
those which cannot degraded by the microbes that is observed in the Pacific Ocean that
and can remain as it is for very long periods, affect the weather severely. The cycle starts
e.g. plastics, aluminium cans pesticides. [1] when warm water in Pacific Ocean move
Flow charts depicting effects of burying and towards coast of South America. This effect
burning are: result in the melting of ice in Antarctica
(i) B u r y i n g o f b i o d e g r a d a b l e w a s t e s and global warming. Hence, the change in
(Agricultural waste, kitchen waste, plant environmental conditions leads to the effect
parts) → in pit or in landfill → decomposition the organism life living in those areas. [3]
by bacteria and fungi → compost → Crop (b) Three measures that I as an individual
field → Plants → Recycled. would take, to reduce environmental
(ii) Burning of waste → air pollution → global pollution are:
warming → respiratory diseases [1] (i) Planting more trees.
22. (a) Two major causes of air pollution are: (ii) Use of energy efficient electrical
(i) Burning of fossil fuels such as appliances.
petroleum products and coal. (iii) Saving the water bodies by not dumping
(ii) Generation of dust which remain as the waste into it. [2]
[Topic 2] Greenhouse Effect, Ozone Depletion and

Deforestation
Greenhouse effect and global
warming:
• This is a natural phenomenon responsible for the
heating of the Earth’s surface and atmosphere.
It allows the light to come in but restricts heat
to go out. Earth’s surface re-emit the heat as
infrared radiation but a part of these radiations is
absorbed by the atmospheric gases like CO2, CH4,
etc. These gases cause the greenhouse effect.
• Global warming is caused by the increasing level  It can be controlled by reforestation which is
of the greenhouse effect. Earth’s temperature has restoring the forest that once existed in the past.
been increased by 0.6°C during the last three It can speed up by planting more and more trees.
decades. Some of its effects are melting of polar • Participation by people for conserving the
ice caps, Himalayan snowcaps etc. forests
• Over many years, there will be a rise in sea level  Chipko Movement:
that will submerge many coastal areas.
- It was started in 1974 by the local women in
• It can be controlled by reducing deforestation and
Garhwal, Himalayas.
planting more trees and reducing usage of fossil
fuels. - In order to protect the trees from the axe of the
contractors, the women used to hug the trees.
Ozone depletion in the stratosphere  Bishnoi Movement:
• “Good” Ozone acts as shield absorbing UV-rays - The king of Jodhpur in Rajasthan instructed his
from the sun, which cause mutation and is found minister to arrange wood for constructing a new
in stratosphere.
palace in 1731. The minister and workers went to
• The “bad” ozone is formed in the troposphere. a forest near a village where the Bishnois lived, to
• The balance in production and degradation of cut down trees.
ozone in the stratosphere is disturbed due to
- A Bishnoi woman Amrita Devi showed immense
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which move upward
bravery by hugging a tree and daring king’s men
and reach the stratosphere. UV rays act on them
releasing CI atoms. In the presence of CI (catalyst), to cut her first before cutting the tree.
ozone degrades molecular oxygen causing ozone - Her three daughters and hundreds of other
depletion which has formed ozone hole over the Bishnois followed her, and lost their lives saving
Antarctic region. trees.
• The thickness of the ozone in a column of air - The Amrita Devi Bishnoi Wildlife Protection
from the ground to the top of the atmosphere is Award has been introduced by the Government of
measured in terms of Dobson units (DU). India for individuals or communities from rural
• UV-B damages DNA and causes damage to skin areas that show dedication in protecting the
cells, aging of skin and various types of skin wildlife.
cancers. Cornea of the eye absorbs UV-B radiation,
and a high dose of UV-B causes inflammation of
cornea, called snow-blindness cataract, etc.
• The Montreal Protocol was signed in 1987 to control
PREVIOUS YEARS’
the emission of ozone-depleting substances.
Degradation by improper resource utilization
and maintenance TOPIC 2
• Soil erosion and desertification: 2 Marks Questions
 Over-cultivation, deforestation, grazing and poor 1. Explain the relationship between CFC’s and
irrigation practices done by human are responsible Ozone in the stratosphere. [ALL INDIA 2016]
for soil erosion. When large barren patches extend
2. List four benefits to human life by eliminating
and meet over time, a desert is created
the use of CFCs. [ALL INDIA 2017]
• Waterlogging and Soil Salinity:
 Without proper drainage of water, the irrigation
process leads to waterlogging which damages the 3 Marks Questions
agriculture. Water logging also draws salt to the 3. H o w h a v e h u m a n a c t i v i t i e s c a u s e d
surface of the soil.
desertification? Explain. [DELHI 2013]
Deforestation:
 Conversion of forest area to a non-forested area
leads to deforestation and one of its hazardous 5 Marks Questions
effects is that concentration of CO2 is enhanced 4. (a) What depletes ozone in the stratosphere?
because the tree is lost with deforestation who can How does this affect human life?
hold a lot of carbon. (b) Explain bio magnification or DDT in an
 Deforestation cause soil erosion and disturbance aquatic food chain. How does it affect the
in hydrologic cycle. bird population? [DELHI 2012]
irrigation practices and over-cultivation causes

Solutions desertification. These activities result in
1. The chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are non- the formation of large barren patches which
biodegradable chemicals which are used as a eventually convert into desert. [3]
coolant in refrigerators and in air conditioners. 4. (a) Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) depletes
In the stratosphere ultraviolet (UV) rays act ozone in the stratosphere. CFC present
on CFC’s to release chlorine (Cl) atom from the in atmosphere reaches the stratosphere
CFC’s. Cl atoms react with ozone to release which is present above the atmosphere. Cl–
O2 and a chain reaction consuming the ozone chlorine free radically acts as a catalyst in
molecules and producing free radicals and the process of ozone deplition. This release
diatomic oxygen. This results in ozone layer of CFC affect the health of human life by
depletion. [2] causing respiratory distress because it
2. (a) Elimination of the use of CFCs can prevent depletes Ozone layer which blocks Harmful
damaging and ageing of skin [½] UV radiations in the local environment. [3]
(b) Prevention of ozone layer depletion and (b) Bio–magnification refers to the increase
prevention of global warming. [½] in the concentration of toxic waste at each
(c) Reduction in greenhouse effect. [½] successive trophic level. This causes the
(d) Reduction in odd climatic changes or El Nino timing of egg shells of birds, thus decline in
effect. [½] the bird population. [1]
3. Desertification is the removal of the top layer of Amount of water in DDT (0.003 ppm) → small
the soil which is very fertile. Human activities fish (0.5 ppm) → large fish (2 ppm) → fish eating
like deforestation, unrestricted grazing, poor birds (5 ppm) [1]
CBSE
Sample Question Paper 1
Biology
Class XII
Time : 3 hrs Maximum Marks : 70
General Instructions
(i) The question paper has 27 questions in all. All questions are compulsory.
(ii) Marks are indicated against each question.
(iii) Questions from serial number 1 to 5 are Very Short Answer type Questions. Each question
carries one mark.
(iv) Questions from serial number 6 to 12 are 2 marks questions. Answers of these questions
should not exceed 30 words each.
(v) Questions from serial number 13 to 24 are 3 marks questions. Answers of these questions
(vi) Questions from serial number 25 to 27 are 5 marks questions. Answers of these questions
(vii) There is no overall choice. However, internal choice has been provided in some questions.
You have to attempt only one of the alternatives in all such-questions.
2 Sample Paper 1
Section A (1 × 5 = 5)
1. What is perisperm in black pepper?
2. Write down two special features of climax community.
3. State the role of Sertoli cells in Spermiation.
4. After a successful in-vitro fertilisation, the fertilised egg begins to divide. What is this
technique named? At which stage are the cells, when they are transferred to the female
uterus?
5. State a difference between a gene and an allele.
Section B (2 × 7 = 14)
6. Write the difference between two types of autogamous flowers with examples.
7. Differentiate between male and female heterogamety in humans.
8. Mention a product of human welfare obtained with the help of each one of the following
microbes:
(a) Clostridium butylicum
(c) Propionibacterium sharmanii
(d) Streptococcus
9. Draw the structure of Antibody molecule and label its parts

Sample Paper 1 3
10. What is the function of restriction enzymes in recombinant DNA technology? State giving
an example.
11. Discuss the role the enzyme DNA ligase plays during DNA replication.
12. Name the causative organism of the disease malaria. List one symptom of the disease, one
vector, and the species which causes malignant malaria.
OR
Differentiate between two types of tumors.
Section C (3 × 12 = 36)
13. Describe the role of oxytocin in foetal ejection reflex.
14. Give an example of a sex linked recessive trait in humans and the affected offsprings.
Explain its pattern of inheritance with the help of a cross.
15. Which experiments disapprove the theory of spontaneous generation? Explain with
diagram.
16. Suggest and describe a technique to obtain multiple copies of a gene of interest in vitro
17. Name the causative organism for Typhoid, disease symptoms and the diagnostic test.
18. What are the ecosystem services provided free of cost and what shall be the estimated
costs?
19. List advantages of GMOs to a farmer.
20. How has RNAi technique helped to prevent the infestation of roots in tobacco plants by a
nematode Meloidegyne incognitia.
OR
Prior to a sports event blood and urine samples of sportspersons are collected for drug
tests.
(a) Why is this test conducted?
(b) Name the drugs the authorities usually look for?
(c) Write the generic names of two plants from which these drugs are obtained?
21. Name the three types of IUDs.

4 Sample Paper 1
22. Given below is a list of six micro-organisms. State their usefulness to humans. (3)
(a) Nucleopolyhedrovirus
(c) Monascus purpureus
(d) Trichoderma polysporum
(e) Penicillium notatum
(f) Propionibacterium sharmanii
23. What is passive immunity? How does mother's milk provide passive immunity? State
another example of passive immunity.
24. Write the function of each one of the following:
(a) Contact inhibition
(b) Interferons
(c) Placenta
OR
How are the following formed and involved in DNA packaging in a nucleus of a cell?
(i) Histone octamer
(ii) Nucleosome
(iii) Chromatin
Section D (5 × 3 = 15)
25. Draw a schematic sketch of pBR 322 plasmid and label the following in it:
(i) antibiotic resistant gene-Ampicillin
(ii) antibiotic resistant gene-Tetracyclin
(iii) Origin of replication
(iv) Any two restriction sites in Tetracyclin
(v) Any two restriction sites outside Tetracyclin gene

Sample Paper 1 5
OR
Explain the role of lactose as an inducer in a lac operon with a diagram.
26. (a) Why should we conserve biodiversity? How can we do it?
(b) Explain the importance of biodiversity hot-spots and sacred gloves.
OR
(a) There are three kinds of age-pyramids for human populations. Represent them
diagrammatically.
(b) Name the two sedimentary cycles working in nature.
27. Explain the post-pollination events leading to seed production in angiosperms.
OR
Diagrammatically represent the events of menstrual cycle showing pituitary hormone

levels, ovarian events, ovarian hormones, uterine events, menstruation phase and luteal
phase, developing graafian follicle, mature Graafian follicle, Developing corpus luteum
and mature corpus luteum.
CBSE
Sample Question Paper 2
Biology
Class XII
Time : 3 hrs Maximum Marks : 70
General Instructions
(i) The question paper has 27 questions in all. All questions are compulsory.
(ii) Marks are indicated against each question.
(iii) Questions from serial number 1 to 5 are Very Short Answer type Questions. Each question
carries one mark.
(iv) Questions from serial number 6 to 12 are 2 marks questions. Answers of these questions
(v) Questions from serial number 13 to 24 are 3 marks questions. Answers of these questions
(vi) Questions from serial number 25 to 27 are 5 marks questions. Answers of these questions
(vii) There is no overall choice. However, internal choice has been provided in some questions.
You have to attempt only one of the alternatives in all such-questions.
2 Sample Paper 2
Section A (1 × 5 = 5)
1. Apomixis is a method of asexual reproduction. Justify the statement.
2. What are the different components of semen?
3. Name the term used for molecular scissors giving one example.
4. State an example of evolution as a stochastic process in current times.
5. What is the importance of ART?
Section B (2 × 7 = 14)
6. Name the enzyme needed for isolation of bacterial DNA. Why is it not necessary to use it
in the isolation of plant DNA?
7. Progeny formed from sexual reproduction have better chances of survival. Why?
8. If a person is born with a hereditary disease how can it be cured? Give an example.
9. Mention a product of human welfare obtained with the help of each one of the following
microbes.
a. Trichoderma
b. Methanobacterium
c. Aspergillus niger
d. Oscillatoria
10. Many fresh water animals cannot survive in marine environment. Explain?
11. Double fertilization is reported in plants of both caster and ground nut. How are the mature
seeds of groundnut and castor? Explain the post fertilization events responsible for it?
12. Rupture of Graafian follicle and thereby the release of ovum (ovulation) is controlled by
hormones. Mention two hormonal changes which bring about ovulation.
OR
If a new habitat is just being colonised, how does immigration contribute to population
growth than birth rates. Justify giving the mathematical formula.
Section C (3 × 12 = 36)
13. Seeds are the basis of agriculture. Justify in the light of water dependency and dormancy.
Sample Paper 2 3
14. A teacher wants students to find out the genotype of pea plant with tall trait in the school
garden. Name and explain the cross that will make it possible.
15. During the reproductive cycle of a human female:
a. Name the tissue which forms placenta.
b. What is the function of placenta?
c. What are the hormones secreted by placenta?
16. How are Numbat and ant-eater connected? Use concepts of evolution and two examples
pairs to justify your answer.
17. Enlist the steps involved in inbreeding. How is it disadvantageous?
18. Explain with an example of symbiotic fungi on how their mutual association helps fungal
and plant partners.
19. (a) Point out the key difference between primary and secondary sewage treatment?
(b) Microbes can be used to decrease the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Explain
with examples how it can be accomplished.
20. (a) A DNA segment has 200 nucleotides. Out of this 30 of them are guanine. How many
pyrimidine bases does the segment possess?
(b) Make a diagrammatic sketch of DNA to support your answer.
21. Insulin is a hormone which is needed by diabetics for treatment. With the advent of
biotechnology, the recombinant insulin can be made. Write down the steps to make
recombinant insulin.
22. (a) Name the simplest and most common bioreactor in use.
(b) How has the advent of bioreactor influenced biotechnology?
23. Explain with evidences how the evolution of man and cheetah was from a common
predecessor.
Name the predecessor of current form of crocodile and dinosaur.
24. Giving an example of polygenic inheritance, how blood grouping can be used to study it?
Make a cross and justify your answer.
Why does human skin colour pattern show much variation as compared to monkeys'?
4 Sample Paper 2
Section D (5 × 3 = 15)
25. Out of the following figures shown below, which one of the following represents
a. Ovulation
b. Mature Graafian Follicle
c. degenerating corpus luteum
d. ovum stage which releases high estrogen
e. ovum stage which releases high progesterone
OR
Explain the process of spermatogenesis with diagrams and labelling.
26. You went to a hill station in summers and started wheezing. You had runny nose and
sneezing. But when you changed the place, you became normal.
a. Define what it the type of body response?
b. What are the substances called?
c. What type of antibodies are produced?
d. Point out what is the chemical released in your body which cause it?
e. Name one drug which can be used to treat it.

Sample Paper 2 5
27. Give an example of plasmid vector labelling it as
a. Antibiotic resistance
b. Replicative apparatus
c. Cloning site
How does presence of two antibacterial genes help in identifying transformants from non-
transformants and recombinants from non-recombinants?
OR
How is the phenomenon of accelerated eutrophication different from eutrophication? Take

thermal power plant as an example, how does it cause accelerated eutrophication.

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CHAPTER 1

List of Topics 2016 2017 2018

[Topic 1] Asexual Reproduction

Summary in offsprings that are not exactly identical to their

Vegetative propagation Sexuality in organism

12. Pea plant is monoecious, and produces bisexual

List of Topics 2016 2017 2018

[Topic 1] Flowers and its parts

Summary further development of microsprorangia takes place

3. Moss such as Sphagnum are bryophytes. For

PREVIOUS YEARS’ fertilization water is an essential requirement.

Summary • Xenogamy: When the pollen grains transfer from

PREVIOUS YEARS’ explanations to your answer.

[Topic 3] Post-fertilisation: Structure and Events

The Embryo 2 Marks Questions

Re-bagging of stigma is done

Fruits are allowed to form

Desired seeds are obtained

20. Cross-pollination in a hermaphrodite or bisexual Pollen grain germinates on stigma

List of Topics 2016 2017 2018

[Topic 1] Reproductive Systems

Summary • Accessory Glands

12. (a) 13. (a)

(iv) Write the difference between “c” and “h”. 3.

[Topic 3] Fertilization, Pregnancy and Embryonic

• Now the sperms are ample, so when a sperm

5 Marks Questions release of oxytocin from maternal pituitary.

8. (a) If fertilisation fails to occur menstrual phase Maintains the

List of Topics 2016 2017 2018

[Topic 1] Reproductive Health-Problems and Strategies

Summary  Withdrawal or coitus interrupts: Method in

List of Topics 2016 2017 2018

[Topic 1] Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance

to parental characteristics. Example: Flower color

lead to the separation of a pair of genes or factors 2 Marks Questions

blood cells whereas IA, IB code for sugar A and

(b) white (w) is recessive trait. In a test cross,

of inheritance is called as co-dominance. [1] w Pw ww

[Topic 2] Sex-Determination and Genetic Disorders

• There are total 23 pairs of chromosomes in Zygote

Sex Determination in honey-bee  Sickle-cell anaemia: It is a recessive trait that

2 Marks Questions 3. Female as have two X chromosomes, so it is

[ALL INDIA 2011] In humans, sex are determined by XX and XY

List of Topics 2016 2017 2018

[Topic 1] The DNA & RNA World

Summary structure of DNA given by James Watson and

 Types of nitrogenous bases are- Purines and py- hydrogen

 Purine comprises of Adenine (A) and Guanine (G). HO

DNA H1 histone biochemicals, such as proteins, DNA, RNA etc.

• Properties of Genetic Material: which resulted in 15N being incorporated into

Less prone to mutation. Prone to mutation.

Transcription  RNA polymerase follows the rule of

Core of histone [1½]

DNA Fingerprinting process can be carried out

the genetic material. The protein part has no Ser

Fig.: The process of transcription in bacteria

Repressor binds to the operator region(o)

Repressor mRNA lac mRNA

[Topic 2] Genetic Code, Human Genome Project &

Solutions Product Microbes