Nutritional Importance of Proteins Quadrant - I: Objectives

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Code and title of the paper: FO7MA- Macronutrients

Code and title of the module: FO7MA19- Nutritional importance of proteins


Name of the content writer: Dr.P.Nazini

NUTRITIONAL IMPORTANCE OF PROTEINS


Quadrant - I

 OBJECTIVES

 To know the functions, assessment and nutritional value of proteins.


 To learn the factors affecting the protein requirements and its deficiencies

 INTRODUCTION

 The name protein is derived from the Greek word proteios “of prime importance or the
first kind” this is because proteins are the basis of the cytoplasm of cells and are present in
all living organisms.
 Proteins are the most complex materials produced in nature.
 Proteins are the most abundant macromolecules in living cells and constitute 50% or more
of their dry weight.
 They are consisting of α-amino acids linked together by peptide linkages.

 STRUCTURE OF PROTEIN
 Proteins are complex organic nitrogenous compounds and composed of varying amounts
of carbon, hydrogen , oxygen and sulphur.
 Nitrogen is a characteristic component of proteins forming about 16% of their weight i.e.
100 g of protein contains 16 g of nitrogen.
 They are polymers of α-amino acids and synthesized from only 20 amino acids, known
as the common amino acids.
 Polypeptides are made by polymerization of amino acids through peptide bonds.
 Big polypeptide chains containing more than 50 amino acids are called proteins.


 PRIMARY STRUCTURE:
determined by the sequence of
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Code and title of the paper: FO7MA- Macronutrients
Code and title of the module: FO7MA19- Nutritional importance of proteins
Name of the content writer: Dr.P.Nazini

amino acids

 SECONDARY
STRUCTURE: occurs when
the amino acids are linked by
hydrogen bonds.

 TERTIARY STRUCTURE:
formed when alpha helices
and beta pleated sheets are
held together by week
interactions

 QUARTERNARY
STRUCTURE: consists of
more than one polypeptide
chains.

 CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS
o The knowledge about the grouping of proteins helps in better understanding of its
importance in making dietary choices. Proteins can be classified based on the
following factors

 Classification based on the sources

 Based on the origin, the proteins are conventionally divided into two groups- animal
proteins and plant proteins.
 The animal foods like eggs, milk, meat (white and red) and fish contribute to animal
protein sources.
 These are proteins with higher biological value as they are completely utilised and of
higher quality as they supply all the essential amino acids in adequate amounts.
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Code and title of the paper: FO7MA- Macronutrients
Code and title of the module: FO7MA19- Nutritional importance of proteins
Name of the content writer: Dr.P.Nazini

 Whereas, plant proteins obtained from plant foods like cereals, millets, legumes, nuts,
seeds green leafy vegetables are of lower-quality and lower biological value as they lack
or limit in one or more of the essential amino acids.
 Methionine, lysine, threonine and tryptophan are the most common limiting amino acids.

 Classification based on nutritive value


 On nutritional standpoints, proteins are classified in to three types as follows:
 Complete Proteins: The proteins that contain all the nine essential amino acids in
adequate proportion to promote growth are termed as complete proteins. Egg albumin,
milk casein and meat proteins are complete proteins.
 Partially Incomplete proteins: The proteins which partially lack one or more essential
amino acids and promote moderate growth are known as Partially Incomplete proteins.
Wheat and Rice proteins are limiting in amino acids Lysine and Threonine and hence are
classified as partially incomplete proteins.
 Incomplete Proteins: The Proteins that completely lack one or more essential amino
acids and do not promote growth are incomplete proteins. Gelatin lacks trypsin and maize
protein zein lacks trypsin and lysine are incomplete proteins.

 CLASSIFICATION OF AMINO ACIDS


o There are about 200 amino acids found in nature.There are about 20 amino acids in
a protein hydrolysate. The amino acids are classified based on the chemical
structure (chemical classification), based on nutritional value (Biological
classification) and based on their metabolic fate in the body (Metabolic
classification).

 Chemical classification.
 The amino acids are classified according to the chemical structure of the side chain (R)
into:
o Aliphatic
o Hydroxy
o Sulfur containing
o Aromatic
o Acidic
o Basic
o Imino acids

 Biological classification.

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Code and title of the paper: FO7MA- Macronutrients
Code and title of the module: FO7MA19- Nutritional importance of proteins
Name of the content writer: Dr.P.Nazini

 Based on nutritional values amino acids are classified into essential or non-essential
amino acids.
 Non essential amino acids: Amino acids that could be synthesized in the body, so they
are not needed in the diet. They are 10 amino acids.

 Essential amino acids: Amino acids that could not be synthesized in the body, so they
have to be taken in the diet, and their deficiency results in diseases.

 Biological classification of Amino acids


 
 Non-essential amino  Essential amino acids
acids
 Glycine  Valine
 Alanine  Leucine
 Serine  Isoleucine
 Tyrosine  Threonine
 Cysteine  Methionine
 Asparagine  Arginine
 Aspartic  Lysine
 Glutamic acid  Histidine
 Glutamine  Phenylalanine
 Proline  Tryptophan

 Metabolic classification

 This classification was done according to their metabolic fate in the body as
 Glucogenic amino acids: Amino acids that can give glucose.
 Ketogenic amino acids: Amino acids that can give ketone bodies.
 Glucogenic/Ketogenic (mixed) amino acids: Amino acids that can give both ketone bodies
and glucose.

 Metabolic and biological classification

  Glucogeni  Glucogenic  Ketog


and
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Code and title of the paper: FO7MA- Macronutrients
Code and title of the module: FO7MA19- Nutritional importance of proteins
Name of the content writer: Dr.P.Nazini

c Ketogenic enic

  Alanine  Tyrosine 
 Non  Arginine
essential  Asparagine
 Aspartate
 Cysteine
 Glutamate
 Glutamine
 Glycine
 Histidine
 Proline
 Serine
  Methionin  Isoleucine  Leucin
 Essential e  Phenylalanin e
 Threonine  Tryptophan  Lysine
 Valine

 ASSESSMENT OF NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF PROTEINS

 There are four methods of assessment of protein quality. They are

 Protein efficiency ratio (PER)


 Biological value (BV)
 Net protein utilization (NPU)
 Chemical score

 Protein efficiency ratio (PER)

 PER is represented by gain in the weight of rats per gram protein ingested.

 Gain in body weight (g)


o PER= ______________________
 Protein ingested (g)

 Biological Value (BV)

 BV is defined as the percentage of absorbed nitrogen retained by the body

 Nitrogen retained
o BV= ______________________ x100
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Code and title of the paper: FO7MA- Macronutrients
Code and title of the module: FO7MA19- Nutritional importance of proteins
Name of the content writer: Dr.P.Nazini

 Nitrogen absorbed

o For the measurement of BV, the experimental animals, namely weaning albino rats
are chosen. They are first fed with a protein-free diet for 10 days. Then they are
kept on a 10% protein diet to be tested for BV. Urine & feces are collected for both
the periods i.e. protein-free diet & protein diet. Nitrogen is estimated in the diet,
feces & urine samples.

 BV can be calculated by the following formula:

 (N absorbed – N lost in metabolism)


o BV=_____________________________________ x100
 N absorbed

 [In-(Fn - Fc)] – (Un-Uc)


 BV=_____________________ x100
 In – (Fn - Fc)

 In= Nitrogen ingested


 Fn= Nitrogen in feces (on protein diet)
 Fc= Nitrogen in feces (on protein-free diet)
 Un= Nitrogen in urine (on protein diet)
 Uc= Nitrogen in urine (on protein-free diet)
 iii.Net protein utilization (NPU)

 NPU is a better nutritional index than biological value. Net protein utilization can be
calculated as:

 Nitrogen retained
o NPU=_____________________ x100
 Nitrogen absorbed

 Chemical score

o This is based on the chemical analysis of protein for composition of essential


amino acids which is then compared with a reference protein (egg protein).
 The chemical score is defined as the ratio between the quantity of the most limiting
essential amino acid in the test protein to the quantity of the same amino acid in egg
protein.
o Mg of limiting amino acid/g test protein
o Chemical score = ____________________________________ x100
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Code and title of the paper: FO7MA- Macronutrients
Code and title of the module: FO7MA19- Nutritional importance of proteins
Name of the content writer: Dr.P.Nazini

o Mg of same amino acid/g egg protein

 NUTRITIONAL IMPORTANCE OF PROTEINS

 Protein plays a significant role in overall well-being of an individual.


 The importance of protein in all spheres of life from conception till death cannot be
underrated.

 i. Source of energy: When the diet is inadequate in carbohydrates and fats, proteins are
the anaerobic fuel for energy. Each gram of protein provides around 4kcal.

 Growth and tissue maintenance: The proteins play a pivotal role of in the cell division
process. The tissues are repaired and maintained in a good state only by the action of
proteins. Further, new tissue formation and building of muscles will happen only if the
good quality proteins are in constant supply to the body.

 Structural maintenance: The Collagen, main protein of very high tensile strength which
is found in connective tissue such as tendons, cartilage, structural matrix of bones and
teeth and cornea of the eye is the intercellular substance that binds the cells together.
Collagen helps in maintaining the organs in its inherent form and position. The cell wall
and primary fibrous constituents of the cell have structural proteins. Elastin, another
important structural protein seen in ligaments has the elastic property-quality of stretching
in either dimensions.

 Essential body compounds formation:

 Enzymes: Essentially, it is the enzymes that catalyze all the biochemical reactions within
the body.
o The enzymes are proteins mostly globular in structure and highly specific in its
functions. Enzymes like urease, catalase, dehydrogenases and the digestive
enzymes are some of the enzymic proteins.
 Hormones: Hormones are proteins which regulate many metabolic functions and essential
for reproduction as well as growth.As known pancreatic hormones like insulin and
glucagon regulate carbohydrate metabolism.

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Code and title of the paper: FO7MA- Macronutrients
Code and title of the module: FO7MA19- Nutritional importance of proteins
Name of the content writer: Dr.P.Nazini

o Growth hormone regulates bone growth. Adrenal hormone epinephrine is a


derivative of amino acid tyrosine.
 Neurotransmitters: The photoreceptors of the eye which transmit the nerve signals
responsible for vision are proteins.
o The amino acid tryptophan serves as a precursor for formation of an important
neurotransmitter Serotonin.
 Keratin: Healthy maintenance of skin, hair and nails need protein keratin.

 Nutrient transport: The transport of essential nutrients from the intestine across the
intestinal wall to the blood and the tissues is carried out by the proteins.
 These transport or carrier proteins are specific for each nutrient.
 The protein in Hemoglobin binds and carries oxygen to the peripheral tissues as blood
passes through the lungs, where it is released to participate in the process of oxidation.
 Lipids from liver is carried to other organs by lipoproteins in blood plasma.
 Copper in blood is transported by the metalloprotein Ceruloplasmin.
 Retinol is bound to and carried by retinol binding protein.

 Regulation of fluid balance: Protein molecules help in maintaining a balance between


the oncotic pressure and the hydrostatic pressure in the intercellular and intravascular
compartments. When the protein level in the blood is low, oedema occurs as a result of
accumulation of fluid because of the increased hydrostatic pressure which pushes fluid out
of the blood.

 Contractility or motility: Contractile proteins like actin and myosin provide skeletal
muscle the ability to contact. Tubulin is the protein from which microtubules are built.
 Defense mechanism: The lymphocytes produce the specialized proteins known as
antibodies or immunoglobulins which invade microbes or other foreign particles and
protect the body from infections. The blood-clotting proteins fibrinogen and thrombin
defend from blood loss when the vascular system is impaired.

 Detoxification: The toxins from food are detoxified in the liver by the enzymes which are
proteins.

 pH maintenance: Proteins serve as buffers by combining with both hydrogen and


hydroxide ions in the blood and thus maintaining an optimum ph. Both acidosis and
alkalosis prove fatal.

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Code and title of the paper: FO7MA- Macronutrients
Code and title of the module: FO7MA19- Nutritional importance of proteins
Name of the content writer: Dr.P.Nazini

 NITROGEN BALANCE

 Positive nitrogen balance: This is a state in which the nitrogen intake is higher than the
output. Some amount of nitrogen is retained in the body causing a net increase in body
protein.
 Positive nitrogen balance is observed in growing children, pregnant women or during
recovery after serious illness.

 Negative nitrogen balance: In this, the nitrogen output is higher than the input.
 Some amount of nitrogen is lost from the body depleting the body protein.
 Prolonged negative nitrogen balance may even lead to death. This was observed in
children suffering from kwashiorkor or marasmus.
 Negative nitrogen balance may occur due to inadequate dietary intake of protein
(deficiency of a single essential amino acid) or destruction of tissues or serious illness.
 Growth hormone & insulin promote positive nitrogen balance while corticosteroids result
in negative nitrogen balance. Cancer & uncontrolled diabetes cause negative nitrogen
balance.

 RECOMMENDED DIETARY ALLOWANCES (RDA)

o The Recommended Dietary/Daily Allowances (RDA) represents the quantities of


the nutrients to be provided in the diet daily for maintaining good health &
physical efficiency of the body.

 The ICMR 2010 Guidelines for RDA of Protein

 GROUP  PROTEIN g/day


 Man  60
 Woman  55
 Pregnancy  82.2
 Lactation(0-6 months)  77.9
 (6-12 months)  70.2
 Infancy(0-6 months)  1.16 g/kg
 (6-12 months)  1.69 g/kg
 Children(1-3 years)  16.7
 (4-6 years)  20.1
 (7-9 years)  29.5
 Boys(10-12 years)  39.9
 (13-15 years)  54.3
 (16-17 years)  78

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Code and title of the paper: FO7MA- Macronutrients
Code and title of the module: FO7MA19- Nutritional importance of proteins
Name of the content writer: Dr.P.Nazini

 Girls (10-12 years)  40.4


 (13-15 years)  51.9
 (16-17 years)  55.5
 Athletes  1.2-2 g/kg

o The Dietary Reference Intake guidelines suggest that 5% to 20% of the total
calorie intake each day by 1-3 years old children and 10-30% of total energy intake
by 4-18 year should be from protein.
 For adults, 15-20% of the calories should be from protein.
o Proteins beyond the recommended intake are not advisable as it tends to increase
the excretion of urinary calcium, thereby promoting osteoporosis.
 Moreover, excess protein intake increases the concentration of homocysteine in blood and
also conversion to thiolactone is increased subsequently resulting in endothelial damage
and atherosclerosis.

 FACTORS AFFECTING THE PROTEIN UTILIZATION

o In addition to the quantity of protein consumed other factors that interfere with the
utilization of protein and make their consumption of limited value are listed below:
 Sex: The RDA for men is about 20% higher than that of women. Iron is an exception as
the requirement is greater in menstruating women. Additional requirements (20-30%
above normal) are needed for pregnant & lactating women.

 Age: In general, the nutrient requirement is much higher in the growing age.For instance,
the protein requirement for a growing child is about 2 g/kg body wt/day compared to 1
g/kg body wt/day for adults.

 Amino acid ratio: The sequence or pattern of aminoacids in the particular food consumed
will have an impact on the growth promotion based on the individual’s age.
 Physical inactivity: The body’s ability to utilize protein decreases with immobility as
seen in elderly who are disabled and as in case of astronauts who lose protein due to
immobility and weightlessness in space.
 Stress: Physical stress such as injury and emotional stresses like fear, anger, and anxiety
increases nitrogen loss.
 Anti-nutritional factors: The protein digestibility and utility is adversely reduced by the
anti-nutritional or toxic factors such as trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors, phytates,
cyanogenic compounds, lathyrogens, saponins, anti-vitamins and allergens present in
pulses. Cooking and Processing of pulses before cooking improves utilization.
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Code and title of the paper: FO7MA- Macronutrients
Code and title of the module: FO7MA19- Nutritional importance of proteins
Name of the content writer: Dr.P.Nazini

 Excess heating: Excessive heating of protein rich foods in presence of reducing sugars
especially, leads to browning reducing the protein quality.

 NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF FOOD PROTEINS

 Chemica  Limiting
 Protein  PER  BV  NPU
l score AAs
 Egg  4.5  94  90  100  Nil
 Sulfur
 Milk  3.0  84  75  65
AAs
 Tryptopha
 Fish  3.0  85  70  60
n
 Meat  2.7  75  76  70  Sulfur Aas
 Lys,
 Rice  2.2  68  60  60
threonine
 Lys,
 Wheat  1.5  58  47  42
threonine
 Bengal  Sulfur
 1.7  58  47  45
gram AAs

 PROTEIN CONTENT OF COMMON FOODS


o Almost all foods excluding refined sugar, fats and oil contain protein to some
extent. Even though milk(3%) contains lesser percentage of protein as compared to
many food sources like soya bean (13%), the quality of protein in milk and the
quantity of milk that can be consumed ranks it at top as a good quality protein rich
food. Roots and tubers, Leafy vegetables and fruits are the least protein sources
containing less than 2%.
o Recently, unconventional protein source like single cell protein- yeast, novel
proteins like leaf protein have been developed but has not gained acceptance yet.

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Code and title of the paper: FO7MA- Macronutrients
Code and title of the module: FO7MA19- Nutritional importance of proteins
Name of the content writer: Dr.P.Nazini

12
Code and title of the paper: FO7MA- Macronutrients
Code and title of the module: FO7MA19- Nutritional importance of proteins
Name of the content writer: Dr.P.Nazini

 PROTEIN – ENERGY MALNUTRITION (PEM)

o Protein-Energy Malnutrition (PEM)-sometimes called Protein-Calorie malnutrition


(PCM)- is the most common nutritional disorder of the developing countries. It is
prevalent in infants & pre-school children. Kwashiorkor & Marasmus are the two
extreme forms of protein-energy malnutrition

 Kwashiorkor

 Kwashiorkor means sickness of the deposed child i.e. a disease the child gets when the
next baby is born.

 Occurrence and causes: Kwashiorkor is predominantly found in children between 1-5


years of age. This is primarily due to insufficient intake of proteins, as the diet of a
weaning child mainly consists of carbohydrates.

 Clinical symptoms: The clinical manifestations include stunted growth, edema


(particularly on legs & hands), diarrhea, discoloration of hair & skin, anemia, apathy &
moonface.

 Biochemical manifestations: Decreased plasma albumin concentration (<2 g/dl against


normal 3-4.5 g/dl), fatty liver, deficiency of K+ due to diarrhea. Edema occurs due to lack
of adequate plasma proteins to maintain water distribution between blood & tissues.
Disturbances in the metabolism of protein, carbohydrate & fat. Several vitamin
deficiencies occur. Plasma retinol binding protein is reduced. The immunological
response of the child to infection is very low.

 Treatment: Ingestion of protein-rich foods or the dietary combinations to provide about 3-


4 g of protein/kg body weight/day will control kwashiorkor. The treatment can be
monitored by measuring plasma albumin concentration, disappearance of edema & gain in
body weight.

 Marasmus

 Marasmus literally means 'to waste'. It mainly occurs in children under 1 year age.
Marasmus is predominantly due to the deficiency of calories. This is usually observed in
children given watery gruels (of cereals) to supplement the mother's breast milk.

 Symptoms of marasmus include growth retardation, muscle wasting (emaciation), anemia


& weakness. A marasmic child does not show edema or decreased concentration of
plasma albumin.
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Code and title of the paper: FO7MA- Macronutrients
Code and title of the module: FO7MA19- Nutritional importance of proteins
Name of the content writer: Dr.P.Nazini

 CONCLUSION

 In this module, the different structures of protein, in-depth classification on both proteins
and aminoacids , assessing the nutritive value of proteins in detail, nutritional importance,
RDA of protein and protein deficiencies diseases have been presented.

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